Delaware Journal of
Volume 5 | Issue 2
May 2019
Public Health A publication of the Delaware Academy of Medicine / Delaware Public Health Association
www.delamed.org | www.delawarepha.org
Delaware Academy of Medicine
Board of Directors:
OFFICERS Omar A. Khan, M.D., M.H.S. President S. John Swanson, M.D. Vice President Sandra P. Medinilla, M.D., M.P.H. Secretary David M. Bercaw, M.D. Treasurer
Delaware Journal of
Public Health
A publication of the Delaware Academy of Medicine / Delaware Public Health Association
www.delamed.org | www.delawarepha.org
Daniel J. Meara, M.D., D.M.D. Immediate Past President Timothy E. Gibbs, M.P.H. Executive Director, Ex-officio DIRECTORS Stephen C. Eppes, M.D. Eric T. Johnson, M.D. Joseph F. Kestner, Jr., M.D. Professor Rita Landgraf Brian W. Little, M.D., Ph.D. Arun V. Malhotra, M.D. Joseph A. Napoli, M.D., D.D.S. John P. Piper, M.D. Albert A. Rizzo, M.D. EMERITUS Robert B. Flinn, M.D. Barry S. Kayne, D.D.S. Leslie W. Whitney, M.D.
Delaware Public Health Association
Advisory Council:
Omar Khan, M.D., M.H.S. President Timothy E. Gibbs, M.P.H. Executive Director Louis E. Bartoshesky, M.D., M.P.H. Gerard Gallucci, M.D., M.H.S. Richard E. Killingsworth, M.P.H. Erin K. Knight, Ph.D., M.P.H. Melissa K. Melby, Ph.D. Mia A. Papas, Ph.D.
May 2019
Volume 5 | Issue 2
3 | In this Issue
Omar A. Khan, M.D., M.H.S., Timothy E. Gibbs, M.P.H.
4 | Comments on the Communicable Disease Issue
Neal D. Goldstein, Ph.D., M.B.I. and Deborah Kahal, M.D., M.P.H., F.A.C.P.
6 | Delaware Faces Immunization Challenges Head-on Jim Talbott, M.P.A. and Paul Hess
12 | Pertussis Outbreak in an Amish Community: Kent County, Delaware, 2018
Paula Eggers, R.N. Tabatha N. Offutt-Powell, Dr.P.H., M.P.H., Lisa Henry, M.S.H.A. Rick Hong, M.D.
18 | Vaccination is the Most Effective Strategy for HPV Prevention Margot Savoy, M.D., M.P.H., F.A.A.F.P., F.A.B.C., C.P.E., C.M.Q., F.A.A.P.L.
20 | Management of Hepatitis C in Delaware Prisons: Approaching Microenvironmental Eradication
42 | Hepatitis C in Pregnant Women and Their Children Stephen C. Eppes, M.D.
46 | Delaware and Hepatitis C: Is it Time for Universal Screening? Navin Vij, M.D., M.S.H.P.
50 | Statewide Antibiotic Stewardship: An eBrightHealth Choosing Wisely Initiative
Marci Drees, M.D., M.S. Kimberly Fischer, B.S.N., R.N. Loretta Consiglio-Ward, M.S.N., R.N. Janelle Caruano, PharmD, B.C.I.D.P. Shannon Chan, PharmD William Chasanov, D.O., M.B.A. Jami Jones, R.N., B.S.N. Alexander Kashmanian, PharmD, B.C.P.S., B.C.I.D.P. Jillian D. Laude, PharmD, B.C.P.S. Nicole Harrington, PharmD, B.C.P.S. AQ-ID Elizabeth A. Richardson, M.S.N., M.P.H., R.N. Arezoo Zomorrodi, M.D. Robert Dressler, M.D., M.B.A.
64 | Four Decades of Epidemiologic Science on HIV Infection and Disease, and Its Impact on Public Health Practice and Policy for Sexual and Gender Minority Persons Nguyen K Tran, M.P.H., and Seth L Welles, Ph.D., Sc.D.
74 | Access to HIV Medication in the Community Versus a Nursing Home for the Medicare Eligible HIV Population
Brianne L. Olivieri-Mui, M.P.H.
80 | Communicable Disease Lexicon of Terms 81 | Communicable Disease Resources 82 | Index of Advertisers
60 | Low Incidence and High Profile: Tuberculosis Control in Delaware Joanna S. Suder, J.D.
William P. Mazur, M.D.
30 | Global Health Matters Fogarty International Center
Karyl T. Rattay, M.D., M.S. Margot L. Savoy, M.D., M.P.H. William J. Swiatek, M.A., A.I.C.P.
Delaware Journal of Public Health Timothy E. Gibbs, M.P.H. Publisher Omar Khan, M.D., M.H.S. Editor-in-Chief Neal Goldstein, Ph.D. Deborah Kahal, M.D. Guest Editors Liz Healy, M.P.H. Managing Editor Kate Smith, M.D., M.P.H. Copy Editor Suzanne Fields Image Director ISSN 2639-6378
COVER “Communicable disease” means an illness caused by an infectious agent or its toxins that occurs through the direct or indirect transmission of the infectious agent or its products from an infected individual or via an animal, vector or the inanimate environment to a susceptible animal or human host. New York, N.Y., 24RCNY Health Code § 11.01 (2010).
The Delaware Journal of Public Health (DJPH), first published in 2015, is the official journal of the Delaware Academy of Medicine / Delaware Public Health Association (Academy/DPHA).
only the opinions of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the official policy of the Delaware Public Health Association or the institution with which the author(s) is (are) affiliated, unless so specified.
Submissions: Contributions of original unpublished research, social science analysis, scholarly essays, critical commentaries, departments, and letters to the editor are welcome. Questions? Write ehealy@delamed. org or call Liz Healy at 302-733-3989.
Any report, article, or paper prepared by employees of the U.S. government as part of their official duties is, under Copyright Act, a “work of United States Government” for which copyright protection under Title 17 of the U.S. Code is not available. However, the journal format is copyrighted and pages may not be photocopied, except in limited quantities, or posted online, without permission of the Academy/ DPHA. Copying done for other than personal or internal reference use-such as copying for general distribution, for advertising or promotional purposes, for creating new collective works, or for resale- without the expressed permission of the Academy/DPHA is prohibited. Requests for special permission should be sent to ehealy@delamed.org.
Advertising: Please write to ehealy@delamed.org or call 302-733-3989 for other advertising opportunities. Ask about special exhibit packages and sponsorships. Acceptance of advertising by the Journal does not imply endorsement of products. Copyright © 2019 by the Delaware Academy of Medicine / Delaware Public Health Association. Opinions expressed by authors of articles summarized, quoted, or published in full in this journal represent
I N T H I S I S SU E This is truly a milestone moment for the Delaware Academy of Medicine / Delaware Public Health Association. At our Annual Meeting this year (the 89th), our keynote address was delivered by David Heymann, M.D., D.T.M.&H., C.B.E., speaking about a lifetime combating global communicable diseases. Select images from the event are on pages 71–73. The entire collection is available online at https://delamed.org/images-from-the-89th-annual-meeting-of-the-academy-dpha/.
Omar A. Khan, M.D., M.H.S. President
Immediately before Dr. Heymann’s presentation, we recognized the extraordinary work of the William J. Holloway Community Program at Christiana Care Health System. Now expanded to include sites throughout the state, their efforts have been a part of the success story regarding HIV—seeing it go from being a fatal illness, to a manageable chronic disease. The award was accepted by Dr. Susan Szabo and Arlene Bincsik R.N., M.S., C.C.R.C., A.C.R.N. Arlene was thanked in particular, for her 40 years of advocacy, care, and education. For more on the story, see: https:// news.christianacare.org/2019/05/william-j-holloway-program-honored-bydelaware-academy-of-medicine/ The timing of this issue on Communicable Disease could therefore not be better. It follows the day-long Holloway Infectious Disease Symposium and the spectacular events and awards above. We are indebted to our expert guest editors, Neal Goldstein, Ph.D. and Deborah Kahal, M.D. for their editorship of this issue.
Timothy E. Gibbs, M.P.H. Executive Director
We also recognized the work of Sherman L. Townsend, Chair of the Delaware In-stitute for Medical Education and Research (DIMER), with the 2019 Lewis B. Flinn President’s Award. His leadership of DIMER, which along with the Delaware Branch Campus at Christiana Care acts as Delaware’s medical school, has been assuring spots for Delaware students at our Philadelphia medical school partners for nearly 50 years. We take this opportunity to thank the Sidney Kimmel Medical College of Thomas Jefferson University and the Philadelphia College of Osteopathic Medicine for their continued partnership in helping serve Delawareans’ health needs through a well-trained workforce. To those of you who have read the Delaware Journal of Public Health from the start in 2015, you’ll notice a change in the layout and readability of this issue. This is a result of reader feedback; as a result we have improved viewability and readability of graphics and text on mobile devices. We hope that you like the change, and as always, keep the comments coming!
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Comments on the Communicable Disease Issue by the Guest Editors
Neal D. Goldstein, Ph.D., M.B.I.1,2; Deborah Kahal, M.D., M.P.H., F.A.C.P.2 1 Drexel University Dornsife School of Public Health, Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Philadelphia, PA 2 William J. Holloway Community Program, Christiana Care Health System, Newark, DE
The focus on infectious diseases in public health ebbs and flows. Students of the field are taught that developed countries have undergone an epidemiological transition whereby morbidity and mortality from noninfectious diseases has eclipsed that of infectious causes.1 Nevertheless, infectious etiologies of disease remain a substantial threat to the public’s health. The last decade has seen a re-emergence of vaccine preventable diseases,2 including pertussis and measles; an increase in sexually transmitted infections (STIs) most notably syphilis among gay, bisexual, and other men who have sex with men3; a worsening Hepatitis C infection (HCV) crisis in the setting of the opioid epidemic4; and the ongoing struggle to control the HIV epidemic well into its fourth decade.5 To that end, we have solicited a wide range of experts in infectious disease epidemiology, public health practice, and clinical medicine to contribute insightful, and at times, provocative discussions of important infectious diseases within Delaware. Globally, nationally, and locally, healthcare systems face many challenges related to infectious diseases, from creating the infrastructure and microenvironments to support responsible antibiotic prescribing practices to immunization advocacy (and rapid response to complications stemming from a lack of adequate vaccination coverage) to ongoing efforts to test and treat for STIs. This issue of the Delaware Journal of Public Health tackles these broad issues. Certainly, we are all cognizant of the on-going debate surrounding vaccinations in our country. With the recent measles outbreak in Washington and elsewhere,6 public health is in the challenging position of advocating for vaccination while responding to disease outbreaks from those who choose to abstain from this remarkable preventive intervention. James Talbot and Paul Hess review the state of immunization in Delaware and how the Delaware Division of Public Health (DPH) has responded to recent vaccine preventable disease outbreaks. A pertussis outbreak in the Amish community in Delaware, as highlighted in the article by Paula Eggers et al., provides a local example of the repercussions of low vaccination rates. Margot Savoy enriches the immunization discussion with a closer examination of human papillomavirus vaccination and a call to action for us all to work collaboratively toward improved vaccination acceptance rates. A common theme throughout these articles is an emphasis on the importance of public health practitioners closely engaging with communities that have lower vaccination rates. HCV presents a multi-faceted story of incredible therapeutic success and implementation challenges. There is much work still to tackle as we strive to meet the four goals of the national Viral Hepatitis Action Plan in 2020: 1. Prevention of new hepatitis infections, 2. Reduction of death and improvement in health of those living with hepatitis, 3. Reduction of viral hepatitis health disparities, and 4. Effective implementation of viral hepatitis activities.7 Continuing with the engagement of the community by public health professionals, William Mazur describes caring for patients with HCV who are incarcerated in Delaware’s correctional facilities. With recent advances in HCV therapeutics, treating individuals in an institutionalized setting represents an opportune time to improve the patient’s health and provide treatment as prevention of forward HCV transmission subsequently reduces the community HCV burden. Stephen Eppes highlights the unique opportunities surrounding HCV amongst women of childbearing potential and their children, while Navin Vij shares his profoundly personal story with HCV. While Eppes and Vij offer different perspectives, both share compelling arguments in support of universal HCV screening for all pregnant women and adults, respectively. We have also included several articles that focus on the programmatic 4 Delaware Journal of Public Health – May 2019
management of infectious diseases in Delaware. Vital statewide efforts to improve antimicrobial stewardship are eloquently outlined by Marci Drees et al. The eBrightHealth Choosing Wisely Initiative emphasizes the importance of sustainable multidisciplinary collaboration in working toward appropriate antibiotic utilization in upper respiratory tract infections in inpatient and ambulatory settings. Joanna Suder tackles the sometimes difficult task of public health in the prevention, isolation, and quarantine of individuals who have tuberculosis, focusing on the medicolegal implications. This issue would be incomplete without including several articles focusing on HIV, both the successes and ongoing opportunities for improvement. Nguyen Tran and Seth Welles detail how understanding the epidemiology of HIV among sexual and gender minority communities, who have been particularly affected by HIV, is used to inform public health policy and action. As they discuss, the epidemiology of HIV has drastically changed since the disease was first recognized in the early 1980s. In large part due to the increase in HIV screening, reduction in stigma, and the development and roll-out of antiretroviral therapy (ART), HIV has transitioned from a death sentence to a chronic infection. Consequently, we are seeing an aging population with HIV, the focus of Brianne Olivieri-Mui’s article which considers a Medicareeligible HIV population and implications for ART access in a nursing home setting. In closing, we hope you enjoy this issue and give pause to consider both the remarkable achievements of public health in reducing infectious disease sequalae and serious challenges that lay ahead. Lastly, we wish to express our sincere gratitude to the invited contributors who have devoted considerable time and energy to making this issue of the DJPH a success.
REFERENCES 1. Omran, A. R. (2005). The epidemiologic transition: A theory of the epidemiology of population change. 1971. The Milbank Quarterly, 83(4), 731–757. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0009.2005.00398.x 2. Adams, D. A., Thomas, K. R., Jajosky, R. A., Foster, L., Baroi, G., Sharp, P., . . . Anderson, W. J., & the Nationally Notifiable Infectious Conditions Group. (2017, August 11). Summary of notifiable infectious diseases and conditions - United States, 2015. MMWR. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 64(53), 1–143. https://doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.mm6453a1 3. An, Q., Wejnert, C., Bernstein, K., & Paz-Bailey, G., & the NHBS Study Group. (2017, July 1). Syphilis screening and diagnosis among men who have sex with men, 2008-2014, 20 U.S. Cities. Journal of acquirediImmune deficiency syndromes, 75(Suppl 3), S363–S369. https://doi.org/10.1097/QAI.0000000000001412 4. Valdiserri, R., Khalsa, J., Dan, C., Holmberg, S., Zibbell, J., Holtzman, D., . . . Compton, W. (2014, May). Confronting the emerging epidemic of HCV infection among young injection drug users. American Journal of Public Health, 104(5), 816–821. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2013.301812 5. The Lancet. (2017, July 22). The global HIV/AIDS epidemic-progress and challenges. Lancet, 390(10092), 333. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(17)31920-7 6. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Measles Cases and Outbreaks. https://www.cdc.gov/measles/cases-outbreaks.html. Accessed March 15, 2019. 7. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Viral Hepatitis Action Plan 2017-2020. https://www.cdc.gov/hepatitis/hhs-actionplan.htm. Accessed March 12, 2019.
Join us for APHA’s 2019 Annual Meeting and Expo, Nov. 2-6, in Philadelphia. The Annual Meeting will take place at The Pennsylvania Convention Center. This year’s meeting theme is
“Creating the Healthiest Nation: For science. For action. For health.”
Each year, the Annual Meeting brings together more than 12,000 public health professionals from around the world to learn, network, engage with public health leaders and organizations, advocate for critical issues and to renew their passion for public health. This is your chance to be a part of our meeting and create a memorable experience.
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Delaware Faces Immunization Challenges Head-on Jim Talbott, M.P.A.a; Paul Hessa,b a
Division of Public Health, State of Delaware Department of Health and Social Services, Dover DE
b
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA
Abstract This article explores the recent history of under immunized vaccine preventable diseases, along with recent outbreaks and how the Delaware Division of Public Health has responded to each. Delaware’s vaccination efforts for children have achieved high coverage rates for all of the vaccine preventable diseases, leading to low incidences rates in the state. The main reason for these high rates is the law for mandated immunization for children entering kindergarten. As children age out of primary school, vaccination uptake declines. HPV vaccination rates are a prime example, as even though Delaware’s rates as compared to the National average are better, they fail to meet Healthy People 2020 standards of 80% vaccinated. To get to the heart of an under immunized population, a study to determine where the lower vaccinated rates are, along with the surveillance rates to cross match the results must be undertaken. It is understood that for communities where vaccination rates are lower, risk for disease is greater, with several recent outbreaks corroborating this. A pertussis outbreak in the Delaware Amish community was managed by the State with education and outreach in the community, with mixed results. Hepatitis A is an epidemic in a number of states, and Delaware has taken steps to try to protect our vulnerable population, using outreach, education and vaccination clinics to prevent the outbreak from occurring locally. While work continues, resources will need to be continually applied to ensure that vulnerable populations have the means to access the services needed. DPH continuously monitors State vaccine coverage level data and disease outbreaks within and outside Delaware’s borders and has implemented the above-mentioned public health initiatives to promote immunization awareness and address community health concerns.
INTRODUCTION Vaccination efforts save countless lives and billions of dollars each year in avoidable medical expenses. Since 1993, the Vaccines for Children Program has enabled the government to vaccinate uninsured and underinsured children. In its first 20 years, this program saved an estimated $295 billion in direct health care costs and over $1 trillion in societal costs, such as lives and work hours saved.1 Delaware’s vaccination efforts for children have achieved great results. The State of Delaware requires that children in licensed daycare centers and entering kindergarten through grade 12 at public, private, and home schools be immunized against certain communicable diseases before enrolling in school. Delaware Administrative Code 4202, “Control of Communicable and Other Disease Conditions,” requires immunizations against measles, mumps, and rubella (MMR); tetanus, diphtheria, and pertussis/whooping cough (Tdap); polio (IPV or OPV); hepatitis B; and chickenpox (varicella).2 These diseases can be fatal or have serious complications that can result in blindness, deafness, and developmental delays. Each year, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention’s (CDC) National Center for Immunization and Respiratory Diseases (NCIRD) sponsors the National Immunization Survey (NIS). The NIS is a group of telephone surveys used to monitor vaccination coverage among children 19-35 months and teens 13-17 years, along with flu vaccinations for children 6 months to 17 years. In 2017, Delaware’s rate for the series 4:3:1:3:3:1:4 (4+DTaP, 3+Polio, 1+MMR, 3+Hib, 3+HepB, 1+Varicella, and 4+ PCV) was 77.1%, higher than the national average of 70.4% and close to the Healthy People 2020 goal of 80%.3 6 Delaware Journal of Public Health – May 2019
Due to the successes of vaccination, fewer health care providers and parents have witnessed the serious and sometimes lifethreatening consequences of vaccine-preventable diseases. Yet small numbers of cases can lead to the re-emergence of vaccine-preventable diseases, especially if there are increasing numbers of unvaccinated people. Disease outbreaks sporadically surface nationally and in Delaware, and the State’s challenge is to respond quickly to outbreaks to prevent them from spreading rapidly. We describe challenges and opportunities in vaccination and vaccine-preventable disease in Delaware by focusing on three case studies: pertussis, human papillomavirus, and hepatitis A. We conclude with discussion of vaccination availability in Delaware through the Vaccines for Children (VFC) Program.
PERTUSSIS CHALLENGE Occasional outbreaks of whooping cough (pertussis), a highly contagious respiratory disease, occur in Delaware. Typically, pertussis outbreaks have occurred among Kent County’s Amish community, a population that is largely unvaccinated. The Amish community practices separation from the world through group solidarity and caring for their own. Though their religious doctrine does not prohibit vaccination, coverage levels for routine childhood vaccination remain low for various reasons, including misinformation about the safety and/or content of vaccines and a strong belief in naturally acquired immunity. While Delaware has seen an improvement in coverage rates in pertussis, identified cases are still being reported every few years. Pertussis in Delaware has ebbed and flowed, with reported
case spikes in 2014 and 2018. In 2014, 202 cases of pertussis — the state’s largest caseload since 2005 — were reported to the Division of Public Health (DPH); most were due to an outbreak among the Amish. In May 2018, DPH learned of a new pertussis outbreak among the Amish. As of December 31, 2018, the case count for that outbreak was 183 total cases, with 74 confirmed and 109 considered probable. Most reported cases were in individuals 10 years of age and younger. For comparison with other years, there were 20 pertussis cases in Delaware in 2015, 15 in 2016 and 9 in 2017 (Delaware Health and Social Services [DHSS], 2019). For all years, the actual number of cases was likely higher due to underreporting and misdiagnosis.
RESPONSE TO PERTUSSIS OUTBREAKS These re-occurring outbreaks demonstrate the challenges of addressing disease in the Amish population. DPH has served generations of the Amish and over the past 45 years has strived to gain their trust. Amish leaders and midwives serving the population have educated DPH staff about their homeopathic approach to treating disease. Some within this community do not consider immunization necessary to prevent diseases from occurring, or in response to outbreaks. Instead they view getting some diseases and getting over them naturally without the intervention of a vaccine, a ‘rite of passage’. Similarly, a 2017 study sought to determine the knowledge, beliefs and attitudes among Amish communities in Ohio. Through it, some respondents shared fears of having too many recommended immunizations and that immunizations would overwhelm a child’s own natural immune system4. In response to the 2018 pertussis outbreak, DPH initiated a multi-pronged effort to control the spread of the disease. One of the early activities was to set up a meeting between the DPH Director, key staff and the Amish leadership (Bishops). During this meeting, DPH staff learned that the primary drivers behind low vaccination rates were misinformation about the makeup and safety of the vaccine, perceived pain and distress to the children during vaccination, and a belief that if you let the disease run its course that children could not be re-infected. The Bishops were happy that DPH expressed concern about the community’s well-being and indicated they would be willing to distribute educational materials within the community. These educational materials included flyers highlighting the symptoms of pertussis, the benefits of seeking and completing antibiotic treatment, and the benefits and safety of vaccination. Distribution of materials occurred at Amish owned businesses, as well as businesses frequented by members of the community, physician’s offices, and schools. Generally, the distribution of the flyers was well received, however, DPH did encounter resistance to its distribution of information in the schools from some parents. Amish schools in Delaware are not part of the public school system and so distribution of materials from outsiders must be approved by the community’s leadership. For this reason, DPH was asked to stop using the school system to distribute information.
An important aspect of DPH’s outbreak response was epidemiological surveillance and direct contact with the community. DPH spent weeks conducting door-to-door case finding and a contact investigation campaign to maximize active surveillance and control measures. Teams of DPH epidemiologists and clinic nurses visited homes of community members where reports of pertussis had been confirmed, and asked questions to determine if there were other close contacts at risk. From a treatment perspective, updated standing orders allowed for the distribution of antibiotics for treatment and prophylaxis in households where DPH identified symptomatic persons and their contacts. The Delaware Immunization Program also made field visits to offer vaccine and antibiotics at the Public Health Clinics throughout the State. During visits, information gained through administering survey questions informed DPH’s response. Some of those who had received immunizations in the past, or had their children vaccinated for various reasons, but who subsequently stopped getting vaccinated said it was because DPH no longer conducted immunization clinics in their community. In the past, DPH conducted immunization clinics in the community but stopped due to lack of attendance. It is apparent that since this community is hesitant to seek and find vaccinations, DPH must offer immunizations where the Amish are most receptive to receiving them. Another way DPH addressed this issue was to work with a midwife who sees pregnant Amish women to provide pertussis vaccines in accordance with the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). The midwife is a trusted source of medical guidance for Amish women in the community. DPH is providing the midwife with Tdap vaccine so she can vaccinate her clients during their well visits, if the women agree. DPH also contacted, and provided information, to chiropractors, who are another source of medical advice for this population. DPH also reached out to Holmes County General Health District in Ohio for public health approaches that were successful with their Amish communities. Holmes County provides health clinics in the Amish community that offer immunizations, health screenings, and other services. They also help organize an annual Amish Health and Safety Day, which provides another opportunity to share information. In addition to Ohio, DPH reached out to the State of Pennsylvania, who has a large Amish populations to understand how they faced vaccine-preventable disease outbreaks. DPH’s educational outreach was not limited to the Amish community, because ultimately pertussis spread to the nonAmish population in Delaware. In the 2018 outbreak, 10 pertussis cases occurred among non-Amish individuals. DPH issued a press release to the public through media contacts, and on August 27, 2018 informed health providers by issuing a Health Alert (https://healthalertde.org/) through the Delaware Health Alert Network (DHAN). In addition, DPH created and distributed a flyer to all licensed medical providers in Kent County and asked them to share it with their patients. The flyer 7
announced the outbreak to help engage patients in conversations about receiving Pertussis vaccinations and other ways they could protect themselves and their families. Through these multi-faceted measures, DPH has re-established open lines of communication with the Amish community, and hopes that it will encourage more of these individuals to reach out to the Agency in the event of future outbreaks.
HUMAN PAPILLOMAVIRUS According to the CDC, every year 33,700 women and men are diagnosed with a cancer caused by human papillomavirus (HPV) infection. HPV vaccination could prevent more than 90% of these cancers (31,200 cases ever year) from ever developing.5 HPV vaccinations coverage levels remain low across the nation. In 2017, only 49 percent of adolescents were up to date on the HPV vaccine, and 66 percent of teens ages 13-17 years received the first dose to start the vaccine series.6 According to the 2017 National Immunization Survey (NIS), 58 percent of Delaware adolescents were up to date on the HPV vaccine, and 75 percent received the first dose to start the vaccine series.7 Although Delaware’s HPV coverage rates are above the national average, HPV vaccination rates are much lower than for other adolescent-recommended vaccines within Delaware, such as Tdap (89.6%) and Meningococcal (90.5%), both recommended at the same time as the HPV vaccine (Delaware HPV Vaccination Report, December 2018). The lower vaccination rates are not due to lack of vaccine or vaccine availability. In the fiscal year beginning July 1, 2017 to June 30, 2018, medical providers in Delaware ordered 31,745 doses of HPV. In the current fiscal year that began on July 1, 2018, medical providers in Delaware have ordered 13,103 doses as of January 8. The CDC estimates that Delaware will have ordered enough vaccine to vaccinate all of the 11-year-olds in Delaware this year. Yet while sufficient doses are ordered, some providers are not reporting administered doses to the State Immunization Information System (IIS) suggesting that the true vaccination rate is higher than what is reported. To address the issue of low HPV rates, the Delaware Immunization Program recently collaborated with the Delaware Cancer Prevention program and the Delaware Cancer Consortium to identify and implement activities designed to promote HPV awareness and increase immunization rates. The Cancer Prevention program provided funding to support three projects in order to increase lagging HPV rates within the state. These activities included initiating an HPV media campaign, continuing state Immunization Information System (IIS) reports training for Vaccines for Children (VFC) providers, and continuing HPV-education workshops for local providers. The HPV education for VFC provider’s project involved contracting with a vendor to conduct this training for approximately 100 VFC providers. DPH established a contract with a vendor to recruit and train these providers from November 1, 2018 thru June 30, 2019. The vendor developed a HPV training curriculum using the CDC’s “You Are the Key to HPV Cancer Prevention” guide.8 8 Delaware Journal of Public Health – May 2019
These training sessions range from small groups to one-onone encounters with providers. Topics include the benefits of vaccinating at an early age, role play activities to appropriately address parental safety concerns with the HPV vaccine, and utilizing reports within the IIS (i.e. coverage level, Not Up-ToDate, Patient Roster, and Reminder Recall reports), to improve vaccination rates. The DPH also entered into a contract with another vendor to offer VFC providers training on the Delaware’s IIS reports module to assist them through the Assessment, Feedback, Incentive and Exchange (AFIX) process and help providers increase their immunization coverage rates. The providers receive training on the following reports: 1. AFIX Snapshot – Report allows providers to run immunization coverage levels for specific age cohorts within their practice. 2. Patient Roster reports – Report allows the provider to identify all the patients within their practice who are currently active in the IIS. 3. Patient Inactivation reports — Report allows the provider to inactivate any patients in the patient roster report that are no longer active within their practice. 4. Up-To- Date reports – Report allows the provider to identify patients that require additional immunizations to be compliant with immunization recommendations. 5. Recall reports – Report allows the provider to generate a list of all their patients that require additional immunizations and print out post-card reminders to mail to these individuals. The primary objective is to attempt to mirror the immunization coverage data from a provider’s medical record with the Immunization Program’s IIS and the NIS to get a true picture of the HPV coverage rate in Delaware. Since implementation of the IIS report training, the IIS HPV coverage rate rose to 68.7% for the first dose, an increase of 1.5% from June 1, 2018. The upto-date coverage for the series completion reflects a 2% increase from December 13, 2017. The DPH Cancer Prevention and Control Program contracted with a vendor to develop and implement a statewide marketing campaign that encourages parents of children ages 11 or 12 to have their children receive the HPV vaccine in the same visit when they are vaccinated for other serious diseases, like meningitis and whooping cough. This campaign consists of print, radio, social media, and digital ads; direct mail; and social influencers targeting parents of 11-12 year olds. There is a social media plan for Facebook and Instagram that includes live chat events with physicians, school nurses, or parents speaking on the advantages of getting children vaccinated for HPV, and polls that engage parents using facts and statistics about HPV and the HPV vaccine. A private school outreach plan encompasses HPV presentations at parent events; HPV messaging in parent newsletters or emails; parent/child HPV vaccination videos; and posters and other printed resources to promote HPV awareness.
The Immunization Program continues to conduct AFIX provider site visits to all VFC providers within the state as part of the federal requirements for the VFC program. During the initial site visits, a DPH staff member reviews the current immunization coverage levels for the provider’s practice and discusses issues or barriers contributing to any lower rates. The staff also works with the provider to develop quality improvement activities that they can incorporate into their existing workflow to increase their immunization coverage rates. Special attention is given to their HPV coverage rates at this visit and the staff offer the provider educational materials on HPV and encourage them to offer this vaccine in the same way and on the same day that they offer other vaccines at the 11 and 12-year-old well visits. Providers are also encouraged to take the IIS Reports training class. DPH provides registration information during the site visit. DPH conducts a follow-up visit six months later to discuss changes in their coverage rate and the progress made on the quality improvement activities. The Immunization Program saw increased coverage levels in providers who had received these visits and completed the IIS Reports training.
HEPATITIS A Since March 2017, several state and local health departments have battled hepatitis A outbreaks that spread through personto-person contact. The outbreaks are occurring primarily among persons who use injection and non-injection drugs, and/or among persons who are homeless and their close direct contacts. Hepatitis A outbreaks have occurred in California, Utah, Arkansas, Missouri Michigan, Ohio, Kentucky, West Virginia, Tennessee, North Carolina and the city of Philadelphia. Those outbreaks compelled the ACIP on October 24, 2018 to recommend that “all persons at least 1 year old who are experiencing homelessness should be routinely immunized against hepatitis A”. 9
DELAWARE’S HEPATITIS A RESPONSE Since the beginning of October 2018, DPH has contacted homeless shelters, transitional housing organizations, and outpatient facilities to provide Hepatitis A vaccinations to persons experiencing homelessness. A questionnaire distributed to homeless and residential shelters asked for the number of residents, their ages, if they are required to leave each morning, and what would be a good time for DPH to hold a hepatitis A vaccination clinic there, if interested. If a facility expressed interest in hosting a vaccination clinic, the Delaware Immunization Program shared that information with DPH’s Northern and Southern Health Services teams, who would reach out to schedule one that would fit everyone’s needs. Since homeless individuals are transient, a continuous presence at these sites should occur with further vaccination clinics scheduled. For other agencies with homeless clients, but without the capability to provide the hepatitis A vaccine, DPH created an educational flyer to give to individuals at intake to start the
vaccination conversation. DPH also provides vaccination at State Service Centers located throughout Delaware. It is DPH’s hope that the shelters will include hepatitis A immunizations as part of their intake policy. This will protect not only the residents of these shelters, but the community at large as the residence interact in their communities. Brandywine Counseling and Community Services (BCCS), a leading outpatient care provider in Delaware, has sites throughout the state and caters to the population that DPH has focused on to prevent the spread of hepatitis A. DPH collaborated with BCCS to provide hepatitis A vaccine at their facilities. The agreement calls for BCCS to screen their clients when they arrive to determine their immunization status for hepatitis A. If clients are not up to date on their hepatitis A coverage, BCCS will vaccinate them and schedule a date and time for the final dose. If this initiative is successful, and with appropriate budgets and staff support, DPH can visualize an effort to immunize all homeless individuals with all vaccines recommended for adults.
SECTION 317 VACCINE Section 317 of the Public Health Service Act authorizes the federal purchase of vaccines to vaccinate children, adolescents, and adults. Over its 50-year history, Section 317-purchased vaccine was directed to priority populations. Most recently, this included underinsured children ineligible for VFC and uninsured adults. Section 317 discretionary funding also supports immunization program operations at the local, state, and national levels.10 In Delaware, while VFC vaccine covers most, if not all children, Section 317 vaccine is used in two areas: pandemic response exercises, and uninsured and underinsured adults and children. Each year, every state health department is required to perform a Point of Dispensing Exercise (POD). The POD allows DPH staff to practice immunizing a large population in a timely manner. Since 2015, DPH has operated its largest flu clinics as PODs, a maneuver with several benefits. Combining efforts allows the State to purchase more influenza vaccine to vaccinate those in the general population, and it enables DPH to practice their required POD duties. Also in 2015, DPH provided Section 317-purchased vaccines to ten local Federally Qualified Health Centers (FQHCs) and one non-profit provider clinic to assist with immunizing their under- and uninsured adult populations. These vaccines include: tetanus, diphtheria and pertussis/tetanus diphtheria (Tdap/ Td); hepatitis A and B; measles, mumps, and rubella (MMR); human papillomavirus (HPV), varicella, meningococcal B (Men B), meningococcal ACWY (MCV4), pneumococcal conjugate (PCV13), pneumococcal polysaccharide (PPSV23), and influenza. DPH continues to provide these above-mentioned clinics with all adult vaccines as recommended by the ACIP with the exception of the zoster vaccine. In Fiscal Year 2019, the State of Delaware received approximately $167,000 in Section 317-vaccine funding, an amount equal to Fiscal Year 2018. 9
In 2018, DPH was able to supply all needed vaccine to these clinics and utilized all funding by the end of the fiscal year. Just two months into Fiscal Year 2019, DPH processed 23 adult 317 vaccine orders and spent 18% of the budget. As of December 2018, 3,560 doses of influenza vaccine were distributed using 317 vaccine funds which was a 22% increase from the number of influenza doses distributed by December 2017. Theses doses were distributed as follows; 1,400 doses were used for POD activities and 2,160 doses were delivered to Section 317 providers. These partnerships allow more underserved at-risk adults to receive the immunizations they need. Vaccination data is reported to the State Immunization Information System (DelVAX).
CONCLUSION The DPH diligently monitors State vaccine coverage level data and disease outbreaks within and outside Delaware’s borders. As a result, DPH has collaborated with stakeholders throughout the State to: • implement HPV provider trainings and a state-wide media campaign designed to promote HPV awareness and increase coverage levels, • establish hepatitis A vaccination clinics in sites that provide services for at-risk populations (i.e. Homeless shelters, Drug Treatment Centers), and • rapidly responded to a pertussis outbreak by conducting field case investigations, educational outreach, and medical management (antibiotics and vaccinations) as appropriate within the Amish community. In addition; DPH issued a public Health Alert regarding the outbreak, distributed Pertussis flyers to medical providers in Kent County to share with their patients in order to increase awareness and promote vaccinations, and reached out to other states to identify public health approaches that were successful within their Amish communities.
RESOURCES FOR READERS For more information on immunizations for children, adults, and health care providers, visit DPH’s immunizations website, http://www.dhss.delaware.gov/dhss/dph/dpc/immunize.html, or call the Immunizations Hotline at 1-888-282-8672 weekdays between 8:00 a.m. and 4:30 p.m. Children without medical insurance may receive free vaccines through the VFC program. For details, call the hotline or visit http://www.dhss.delaware. gov/dhss/dph/dpc/immunize.html to learn more. The CDC’s website, http://www.cdc.gov/vaccines/, offers additional information such as the recommended immunization schedule. Health care providers can view the immunization schedule on tablets or smart phones by downloading the CDC Vaccines Schedules app at www.cdc.gov.
REFERENCES 1. Jennewein, M. (2018, Jan).Vaccination: More than just your health. SITN.hms.harvard.edu. http://sitn.hms.harvard.edu/ flash/2018/vaccination-just-health/
2. State of Delaware. (2019). 4202 Control of communicable and other disease conditions. delaware.gov. http://regulations. delaware.gov/AdminCode/title16/Department%20of%20 Health%20and%20Social%20Services/Division%20of%20 Public%20Health/Health%20Promotion%20and%20 Disease%20Prevention/4202.shtml 3. CDC. (2018, Jan). About the National Immunization Surveys (NIS). cdc.gov. https://www.cdc.gov/vaccines/imz-managers/ nis/about 4. Kettunen, C., Nemecek, J., & Wenger, O. (2017, June 1). Evaluation of low immunization coverage among the Amish population in rural Ohio. American Journal of Infection Control, 45(6), 630–634. PubMed https://doi.org/10.1016/j. ajic.2017.01.032 5. CDC. (2017, Mar). Why is HPV important? cdc.gov. https://www.cdc.gov/hpv/hcp/hpv-important.html 6. CDC. (2017). 2017 Adolescent Human Papillomavirus (HPV) Vaccination Coverage Dashboard. cdc.gov/teenvaxview. https://www.cdc.gov/vaccines/imz-managers/coverage/ teenvaxview/data-reports/hpv/dashboard/2017.html 7. CDC. (2018, Aug). HPV Vaccination Coverage Data. cdc.gov. https://www.cdc.gov/hpv/hcp/vacc-coverage/index.html 8. CDC. (2017, Nov). You Are the Key to HPV Cancer Prevention – Train the Trainer. cdc.gov. https://www.cdc.gov/ vaccines/ed/hpv/you-are-key.html 9. Walker, M. (2018, Oct). ACIP: Routinely vaccinate homeless against hepA. MedPageToday.com. https://www. medpagetoday.com/meetingscoverage/acip/75902 10. CDC. (2016, Feb). Questions Answered on Vaccines Purchased with 317 Funds. cdc.gov. https://www.cdc.gov/ vaccines/imz-managers/guides-pubs/qa-317-funds.html
CONTRIBUTORS Jim Talbott is the Director of the Delaware Division of Public Health’s Immunization and Vaccines for Children Program. Jim holds a master’s degree in Public Administration from Wilmington University. He has been the Director of the Immunization Program since 2012, and has been with the Division of Public Health since 2003, serving as a Management Analyst with the Bureau of Communicable Disease, Child Development Watch, and the Office of Primary Care and Rural Health. Jim is also a veteran, having served 23 years in the U.S. Air Force prior to joining the Division of Public Health in 2003. Paul Hess is the CDC Senior Public Health Advisor (PHA) assigned to the Delaware Division of Public Health’s Immunization Program. Mr. Hess has been the PHA of the Immunization Program since 2015, and a PHA with the Center of Disease Control since 1993. Mr. Hess has worked as a Public Health Advisor in the Sexually Transmitted Disease Prevention (STD), HIV/AIDS, and Immunization programs throughout the United States. He also served on numerous response teams to address public health outbreaks involving, Ebola, syphilis, and hepatitis C infections.
The DPH Bulletin
From the Delaware Division of Public Health
Special issue May 2019 Behavioral Health Consortium seeks to eliminate mental health and addiction stigmas with campaign May is Mental Health Awareness Month. In Delaware, more than 30,000 adults, over 9,000 adolescents, and greater than 82 percent of the state prison population, struggle with mental health or addiction issues, according to the Behavioral Health Consortium (BHC).
DPH launches My Healthy Community
Delawareans can now assess the overall health of their communities on one central platform. The My Healthy Community data portal, launched by the Division of Public Health (DPH), delivers neighborhood-focused population health, environmental, and social determinant of health data. Users can navigate the data at the smallest geographical area available, and explore factors that influence health. Air quality data, asthma incidence data, public and private drinking water results, and drug overdose and death data are currently available. Additional categories and data indicators will be added over the next several months. "The portal will allow communities, governments and stakeholders to better understand the issues that impact our health, determine priorities, and track progress,” said Delaware Department of Health and Social Services (DHSS) Secretary Dr. Kara Odom Walker. "Addiction, air quality, chronic disease and drinking water quality impact every one of us," said DPH Director Dr. Karyl Rattay. "When communities become aware of the level at which these issues are occurring in their neighborhoods, it can spur action that can improve the quality of life for current and future generations." My Healthy Community came to fruition through a partnership between DPH, the Department of Natural Resources and Environmental Control, the Division of Substance Use and Mental Health (DSAMH), and the Delaware Health Care Commission. Access the My Healthy Community data portal at MyHealthyCommunity.dhss.delaware.gov.
A new communications campaign by the BHC aims to help Delawareans struggling with mental health challenges or addiction connect with resources and support services. DHSS Secretary Dr. Kara Odom Walker, DSAMH Director Elizabeth Romero, New Castle County Police, and others joined BHC Chair Lieutenant Governor Bethany Hall-Long when the campaign was unveiled May 6 at Christiana Mall. “Approximately every 22 hours we are losing a Delawarean to a fatal overdose,” said Lt. Governor Hall-Long. “We all know someone who is affected by mental health challenges or addiction, and each day we feel the impact that they make on the wellbeing and future prosperity of Delaware. We have to take measurable action if we want to reverse these disheartening statistics, and start saving lives. The bottom line is no one has to struggle alone.” The campaign includes signage, posters, and floor and bathroom clings at supermarkets, liquor stores, bars and restaurants; bus shelter cards, and print, radio and social media ads. Materials carry the powerful message, “Mental health and addiction don’t discriminate. We have the resources to help.” Those struggling with mental health or addiction should: • Visit HelpIsHereDE.com • Call 800-652-2929 in New Castle County • Call 800-345-6785 in Kent and Sussex counties.
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Pertussis outbreak in an Amish Community: Kent County, Delaware, 2018 Paula Eggers, R.N.1; Tabatha N. Offutt-Powell, P.H., M.P.H.2; Lisa Henry, M.S.H.A.3; Rick Hong, M.D.1 Infectious Disease Prevention and Control Section, Division of Public Health, Delaware Department of Health and Social Services, Dover, DE. Epidemiology, Health Data, and Informatics Section, Division of Public Health, Delaware Department of Health and Social Services, Dover, DE. 3 Community Health, Division of Public Health, Delaware Department of Health and Social Services, Dover, DE.
1
2
Abstract The Amish lead a very simplistic lifestyle free of modern conveniences. They have unique perceptions and beliefs regarding health and illness and generally do not adhere to conventional preventive measures such as immunizations, which can result in un- or under-immunized populations. Populations with low vaccination coverage are at greater risk of outbreaks compared to vaccinated populations as a result of low herd immunity. Over the past two decades, the Delaware Division of Public Health (DPH) has recorded three distinct outbreaks of pertussis in Delaware’s Amish community. The third, and most recent, outbreak was detected in May 2018. DPH conducted an outbreak investigation in the Amish community to identify cases, estimate the burden of disease in the community, and implement control measures including vaccination, treatment, and post-exposure prophylaxis. Through the conduct of active surveillance activities, DPH interviewed 134 families and identified 181 confirmed and probable cases of pertussis. The majority of pertussis cases (77%) occurred among children ≤10 years of age, of which 87% were unvaccinated. DPH engaged the Amish community in meetings, distributed educational materials, and provided medication and vaccines in the community to encourage prevention and implement control measures. DPH officially closed the outbreak investigation on December 20, 2018 following three full incubation periods (63 days) without any new pertussis cases identified in the community.
INTRODUCTION
BACKGROUND
Kent County Delaware, just outside the city limits of Dover, is home to a picturesque and serene Amish community. Numerous buggy signs alert drivers to the presence of the Amish, cautioning vehicles to maintain slow speeds when passing buggies. Children play on traditional Amish scooters while plow teams of the gentle, giant Percheron horses work the fields.
Pertussis is a highly contagious respiratory disease that can cause severe illness in persons of any age; however, children under one year of age are at highest risk of complications or more severe disease.1,2 Primary prevention methods include vaccination of persons of all ages.2,3 Vaccinations protect individuals and populations from the spread of infectious diseases by activating the body’s immune response (i.e., active immunity).4 As the percentage of the vaccinated population increases, herd immunity provides indirect protection to more effectively limit the spread of the disease to susceptible persons.5 To meet the herd immunity threshold for pertussis, or the “minimum proportion to be immunized in a population for elimination of infection,”5 vaccination coverage levels of at least 92% are required. Vaccination coverage in the Amish population has been documented as sub-optimal to provide herd immunity (<10%).6
The Amish lead a very simplistic lifestyle free of modern conveniences. Their faith calls for a life of hard work, discipline, humility, and avoidance of any form of self-expression. The family is the foundation of the Amish way of life. Large families are considered a gift from God. When its members live together, work together, worship together, and socialize together, the family is stronger. The wisdom of the elders and grandparents is a treasured asset, and their advice is often sought and followed from one generation to the next. In Kent County the Amish are involved in a variety of trades including carpentry, masonry, furniture building, blacksmithing, farming, and sawmilling. They also successfully operate a number of community shops for items such as dry goods and quilts. Eleven one-room Amish schools within the community teach students in grades one through eight. After their education, Amish boys typically learn a trade, and girls acquire the skills necessary to raise children and maintain a home. The Amish have unique perceptions and beliefs regarding health and illness, and pass many customs to their children and grandchildren. They generally do not adhere to conventional preventive measures such as immunizations. The Amish avoid health practices customary to the general population because they view them as actions that put man before God. Many families prefer to take responsibility for their own health by using herbs and natural remedies to mend injuries and care for sick loved ones. 12 Delaware Journal of Public Health – May 2019
Delaware reports cases of pertussis to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) annually. Between 2005 and 2018, the median number of reported pertussis cases reported in the state was 17 (Figure 1). Over the past two decades, the Delaware Division of Public Health (DPH) has recorded three distinct outbreaks of pertussis in Delaware’s Amish community.7 The third and most recent outbreak was detected in May 2018. This report describes the public health investigation of the third outbreak of pertussis in the Amish community and opens the discussion to identify new approaches to increase vaccination and reduce the burden of disease in under- and unimmunized populations.
METHODS In May 2018, an Amish mother contacted a nurse at the DPH Kent County Health Unit (KCHU). She informed the staff that her child had been coughing for an extended period of time
and asked to have her child tested for whooping cough. During her visit, she shared that other families in the community had children who were coughing or had whooping cough. The child tested positive for pertussis. At that time, it became clear that the likelihood of a potential outbreak existed in this population.
OUTBREAK INVESTIGATION To confirm the presence of an outbreak and to quantify the magnitude and spread of the disease throughout the community, DPH initiated active surveillance of pertussis in the Amish community. Active surveillance activities consisted of doorto-door contact investigation. DPH formed two-person field teams that included an epidemiologist and a clinic nurse that investigated reported cases, initiated contact tracing, conducted active case finding among the community, and initiated control measures. The clinic nurse carried nasopharyngeal (NP) swabs during home visits to collect specimens from ill individuals. A state courier transported specimens to the Delaware Public Health Laboratory where they were tested for Bordetella pertussis using polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Additionally, Amish families also directly contacted KCHU regarding ill children. Each family that presented to the clinic with a coughing child and symptoms compatible with pertussis were tested, and an epidemiologic case investigation was initiated.
CASE DEFINITION AND CLASSIFICATION DPH epidemiologists developed a case definition and modified the pertussis investigation questionnaire used in the 2013-2014 Amish outbreak. For this outbreak DPH used the National Notifiable Diseases Surveillance System (NNDSS) 2014 case definition for case classification. The case definition included clinical, laboratory, and epidemiologic linkage criteria. A case was defined a person living in Kent County with cough illness lasting greater than or equal to two weeks with onset between January 2018 and October 2018, and without other apparent cause. A confirmed case was defined as a clinical case of pertussis that: 1) was laboratory confirmed by PCR for B. pertussis; or 2) had an epidemiologic link to a laboratory-confirmed case in the same household residence or Amish community (e.g., school, church) with at least one of the following signs or symptoms: paroxysms of coughing, inspiratory ‘whoop,’ post-tussive emesis, or apnea (with or without cyanosis)(for infants aged <1 year only).8 A probable case was defined as meeting clinical criteria without laboratory confirmation or epidemiologic linkage. A primary case was defined as the first case in a household. A co-primary case was defined as a case with onset of symptoms within six days of a primary case. Secondary household transmission was defined as cough onset seven to 42 days following contact with a primary or co-primary case.
CONTROL MEASURES In addition to active surveillance activities, DPH instituted control measures. On their visits to Amish homes, DPH field teams carried travel kits with vaccine to provide on-site vaccinations, as well as medications for treatment and/or prophylaxis to deliver to accepting families. Standing orders were written to enable dispensing of azithromycin during field visits for the duration of the outbreak.
COMMUNITY OUTREACH In addition to clinic staff, DPH’s Community Health section consists of health educators known as the Community Engagement Team (CET). The CET conducted intensive community outreach and education using epidemiologic data provided by the field team epidemiologists. They distributed educational pamphlets and information sheets to Amish families during home visits. CET members distributed flyers to many businesses within the geographic area of the Amish population in Kent County. The team focused its resources on Amish-owned businesses as well as public and Amish schools to increase knowledge in the community about the current outbreak, treatment, and ways to prevent the disease. To ensure that outreach was conducted in areas where known disease transmission was most prevalent, the team used maps to compare outreach locations with pertussis case locations. Lastly, the lead epidemiologist and a CET member visited each Amish school and delivered flyers for students to take home to their parents about the prevention of, and treatment for, pertussis.
RESULTS DPH teams interviewed 134 families representing 67 households with confirmed/probable cases (Table 1). Seventy-four cases were confirmed through laboratory testing (n=21) and epidemiologic linkage (n=53). An additional 107 probable cases were identified. Sixty-nine individuals received azithromycin for treatment or prevention of pertussis. Additionally, 28 individuals were vaccinated at the KCHU due to known exposure or to prevent illness. Primary and co-primary cases accounted for approximately 51% of all cases. Secondary household transmission and second primary household transmission accounted for approximately 40% and 9% of cases respectively (Figure 2). Of the five nonAmish cases associated with the outbreak, all had direct, household contact with the Amish. One infant was hospitalized in May 2018 for pneumonia. This child was not tested for pertussis during the hospitalization but had clinically consistent illness and met the case definition for pertussis. No deaths were reported during the outbreak. Of the 181 confirmed and probable cases, the majority of cases (77%) occurred among children ≤10 years with 40% of cases among children aged 1 to 5 years (Figure 3). A smaller percentage of cases (14%) were ≥15 years (Figure 4). During epidemiologic interviews, DPH asked family representatives about the vaccination status of all household members. Of the 181 cases, 10.5% reported being fully vaccinated against pertussis (5 doses), 4.4% reported being partially vaccinated (≤3 doses), and 85% reported having never received any pertussis vaccinations. Beginning October 23, 2018, DPH added two additional questions to the outbreak questionnaire to assess attitudes and beliefs regarding the use of antibiotics and vaccinations. Fear of side effects was the most common reason for choosing not to vaccinate or accept antibiotics. The CET distributed educational materials to over 50 businesses, local public schools, and Amish schools. The last documented cough onset was October 18, 2018. DPH officially closed the outbreak investigation on December 20, 2018 following three full incubation periods (63 days) without any new cough illnesses identified in the community. 13
Table 1. Characteristics of pertussis cases in an Amish community outbreak, Kent County, Delaware, January 2018 – October 2018
Characteristic
Cases n(%)
Primary/Co-Primary Cases n(%)
Secondary/Second Primary Cases n(%)
Sex Male
88 (49)
45 (25)
43 (24)
Female
93 (51)
47 (26)
46 (25)
<1
9 (5)
5 (3)
4 (2)
1-5
73 (40)
41 (23)
32 (18)
6-10
57 (31)
29 (16)
28 (16)
11-14
18 (10)
9 (5)
9 (5)
15-19
10 (5.5)
4 (2)
6 (3)
20-29
8 (4.4)
2 (1)
6 (3)
>30
6 (3.3)
2 (1)
4 (2)
Vaccinated
19 (10.5)
11 (6)
9 (5)
Partially vaccinated*
8 (4.4)
4 (2)
3 (1.6)
Unvaccinated
154 (85)
77 (43)
77 (43)
Age group (yrs)
Vaccination status
Source: Delaware Division of Public Health, Delaware Electronic Reporting and Surveillance System * Partially vaccinated is defined as receipt of ≤ 3 doses of vaccine against pertussis.
DISCUSSION In general, pertussis outbreaks in under- or unimmunized populations can be difficult to manage. The primary goal of pertussis outbreak control efforts is to decrease morbidity and mortality among infants; a secondary goal is to decrease morbidity among people of all ages. Fortunately, during this outbreak, only one hospitalization and no deaths were reported. In contrast to the current outbreak, the previous two outbreaks that occurred in 2004 to 2005 and 2014 were defined by increasing numbers of cases during the late fall and winter months. The 2018 outbreak was defined by increasing numbers of cases in the early to late spring months. DPH hypothesized that the outbreak may have peaked in late April to early June of 2018. Similar trends in age groups and vaccination coverage were recorded in the previous outbreaks. Although DPH conducted the outbreak investigation upon identification of the index case, case ascertainment was incomplete despite extensive active surveillance activities in the Amish community. Disease transmission and exposure to unvaccinated children perpetuated the outbreak given the close social interaction of ambulatory children and the general lack of social distancing among the community. There were only five non-Amish pertussis cases documented in this outbreak signifying that spread outside the Amish population was limited to individuals with direct close contact with Amish cases. During its response, DPH encountered potential barriers to 14 Delaware Journal of Public Health – May 2019
vaccination and treatment. The DPH CET and clinic staff attempted to overcome access barriers by having surveillance teams bring vaccines and antibiotics to the home visits. There was limited uptake of medication. It is unclear whether these same individuals would have visited the local clinic or other healthcare provider to obtain antibiotics. In addition, surveillance teams noted that the Amish community were less receptive to home visits as compared to more positive interactions during previous outbreaks. To gain further insight, DPH met with leaders within the community and contacted a local health department in Ohio that had experience with outbreaks within Amish communities. The discussion focused on providing accurate information to the Bishops on pertussis, vaccination, and antibiotic therapy. Additionally, the team discussed non-medical activities that the community could do to help decrease disease transmission; most importantly, the idea of social distancing. The Bishops welcomed the conversation and agreed to support DPH by providing education to their church members. In addition to focusing on the current outbreak, the conversation included ways for the DPH team to build and strengthen an ongoing partnership with the Amish community. Suggestions included meeting school officials after classes and contacting leaders directly to disseminate information. An interesting finding during the meeting was that many of their beliefs were not rooted in religion or faith. Residents researched non-evidence-based medical interventions through publications and periodicals, many of which promoted certain diets and avoidance of vaccination.
The local public health department in Ohio provided a similar perspective. It experienced similar challenges related to the community’s concerns and beliefs. It successfully gathered community preferences through surveys and maintained a presence by operating a clinic within the Amish community. Its community clinic strengthened relationships with the residents and improved access to medical care. DPH previously operated a clinic within the Amish community, which may in part weakened DPH’s relationship with the community, leading to some of the present challenges.
basis of their health beliefs. Many Amish avoid vaccinations because of their adherence to non-evidence-based medical interventions. These challenges hindered traditional prevention and control efforts. The low vaccination coverage and previous documented pertussis outbreaks in this community suggest that continued periodic circulation of B. pertussis is likely.
CONCLUSION
Future considerations for community outreach and education with this community include:
The pertussis outbreak investigation closely paralleled the previous pertussis outbreak in this community in 2004-2005. The same challenges and limitations of the previous outbreaks were present in the 2018 outbreak, including low vaccination rates, poor adherence to antibiotic treatment and/or prophylaxis, and poor compliance with social distancing. The current outbreak uncovered an interesting finding that religion is not the primary
DPH recommends ongoing educational outreach to this susceptible community including: those at highest risk for serious illness, vaccination safety, and protective benefits of vaccination during pregnancy and possible complications.
• Consistency of DPH’s presence by reinstituting DPH vaccination clinics in the community. • Hosting a health and safety fair to provide health and safety information that is of interest to Amish residents. • Educational outreach through the frequent provision of flyers and other educational information on a variety of health topics.
Figure 1. Reported number of pertussis cases, Delaware, 2005 – 2018*
Source: Delaware Division of Public Health, Delaware Electronic Reporting and Surveillance System; *2018 case counts are provisional and subject to change.
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Figure 2. Number of pertussis cases in an Amish community outbreak, Kent County, Delaware, January 2018 – October 2018
Source: Delaware Division of Public Health, Office of Infectious Disease Epidemiology; † Primary - First case in household; § Co-Primary - Cough onset within 6 days of Primary case; ¶ Secondary - Cough onset 7-42 days after Primary case; ++ Second Primary - Cough onset >42 days after Primary case
Figure 3. Number of pertussis cases in an Amish community outbreak by age group, Kent County, Delaware, January 2018 – October 2018
2
Source: Delaware Division of Public Health, Office of Infectious Disease Epidemiology 16 Delaware Journal of Public Health – May 2019
Figure 4. Vaccination status of pertussis cases in an Amish community outbreak by age group, Kent County, Delaware, January 2018 – October 2018
Source: Delaware Division of Public Health, Office of Infectious Disease Epidemiology * Received ≥4 doses of vaccine against pertussis; ¶ Received ≤ 3 doses of vaccine against pertussis; ‡ Infants per ACIP recommendations; † Received no vaccination against pertussis;
REFERENCES 1. Kimberlin, David W, Michael T. Brady, Mary A. Jackson, and Sarah S. Long. Red Book: 2018-2021 Report of the Committee on Infectious Diseases, 2018. 2. Liang, J. L., Tiwari, T., Moro, P., Messonnier, N. E., Reingold, A., Sawyer, M., & Clark, T. A. (2018, April 27). Prevention of pertussis, tetanus, and diphtheria with vaccines in the United States: Recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). MMWR. Recommendations and reports, 67(2), 1–44. https://doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.rr6702a1 3. C enters for Disease Control and Prevention. Pertussis (Whooping Cough). About Pertussis. Pertussis Frequently Asked Questions. https://www.cdc.gov/pertussis/about/faqs.html. Page last reviewed on August 7, 2017. Accessed February 14, 2019. 4. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Vaccines & Immunizations. https://www.cdc.gov/vaccines/vac-gen/immunity-types.htm. Page last reviewed on March 10, 2017. Accessed February 14, 2019. 5. Fine, P. E. (1993). Herd immunity: History, theory, practice. Epidemiologic Reviews, 15(2), 265–302. PubMed https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordjournals.epirev.a036121
6. Williamson, G., Ahmed, B., Kumar, P. S., Ostrov, B. E., & Ericson, J. E. (2017, September). Vaccine-preventable diseases requiring hospitalization. Pediatrics, 140(3), e20170298. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2017-0298 7. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). (2006, August 4). Pertussis outbreak in an Amish community—Kent County, Delaware, September 2004-February 2005. MMWR. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 55(30), 817–821. PubMed 8. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Natonial Notifiable Disease Surveillance System (NNDSS). Surveillance Case Definitions. Pertussis. Pertussis/Whooping Cough (Bordetella pertussis) 2014 Case Definition. https://wwwn.cdc. gov/nndss/conditions/pertussis/case-definition/2014/. Accessed March 5, 2019.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors acknowledge the contributions of the Delaware Division of Public Health’s pertussis outbreak team including Camille Moreno-Gorrin, Mamadou Diallo, Andrea Keen, Betty Jo Charles, Amber Scott, Christina Jackson, Odeama Chisholm, Lois Martinez, Yvonne Nelson, Cathy Strouse, Helen Madukwe, Niya Hall, Janet Bordley, Judy Seward, Michelle Broadway-Gardner, Wayne Smith, Shonetesha Quail, Martin Luta, Jim Talbott, and the Delaware Public Health Laboratory.
4
Vaccination is the Most Effective Strategy for HPV Prevention Margot Savoy, M.D., M.P.H., F.A.A.F.P., F.A.B.C., C.P.E., C.M.Q., F.A.A.P.L. Chair & Associate Professor Department of Family & Community Medicine Lewis Katz School of Medicine at Temple University Attending Physician, Christiana Care Health System
ABSTRACT Human Papillomavirus (HPV) remains the most commonly sexually transmitted-infection (STI) in the world. During 2013 to 2014, the prevalence of genital infection with any HPV type was 42.5% among adults aged 18 through 59 years in the United States.1 Although many will be asymptomatic, most sexually active people will be infected with one of the 40 types known to infect the genital area in their lifetime. HPV types are not equally dangerous. Types 16 and 18 are known to be highly oncogenic and cause a wide range of cancers including cervical, penile, vulvar, vaginal, anal, and oropharyngeal cancers and precancers, but a number of additional strains (types 31, 33, 45, 52, and 58) are known to be oncogenic as well.2,3 While HPV types 7 and 11 do not appear to cause cancer they account for nearly 90% of genital warts and cause other medical issues like respiratory papillomatosis.2,3
VACCINATION IS THE MOST EFFECTIVE HPV PREVENTION STRATEGY As skin-to-skin contact is all that is necessary to transmit HPV, abstaining from sexual intercourse and consistent use of latex condoms does not completely eliminate the risk of infection. Vaccination is a safe and effective method of preventing infection with the HPV types most likely to cause cancers and genital warts. Despite the vaccine’s effectiveness, four out of ten adolescent girls and six out of ten adolescent boys have not started the HPV vaccine series, and remain vulnerable to cancers caused by HPV infections.4 In Delaware, 40% of all adolescents completed their first HPV shot in 2016 (up from 26% in 2013); however, we continue to struggle with vaccine series completion.4 Approximately 17% of teens received the third dose of HPV vaccination in 2016, which represents an increase from 7.3% in 2013. Needless to say, we have a lot of work to do to reach the Healthy People 2020 goal of 80%.5
ACIP RECOMMENDATION FOR HPV VACCINATION The Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP) is the committee that reviews immunization data and makes recommendation to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) about immunization schedules. HPV vaccination appears on both the infant, child and adolescent and adult schedules. HPV is routinely recommended for adolescents at ages 11-12 years old.2 One major benefit to providing the vaccine on time is the use of a two-dose series (0, 6-12 months). If the first dose of HPV vaccination is provided before the 15th birthday, 18 Delaware Journal of Public Health – May 2019
only one additional dose is required to complete the series. The vaccine can be given as early as 9 years old, and catchup vaccination can occur up to age 21 years in men (26 years amongst men who have sex with men) and 26 years in women.2 Older adolescents and young adults starting the series after 15 years old should continue to receive the traditional three dose series (0, 1-2, 6 months). Recently the 9vHPV vaccine was approved by the US Food and Drug Administration for administration to adults up to age 45 years; however, no recommendation has been made from the ACIP yet.6
STRATEGIES TO IMPROVE HPV VACCINATION RATES MAKE A STRONG RECOMMENDATION There are some key strategies for communicating a strong recommendation. Firstly, use a presumptive approach: expect that the patient is open to hearing your recommendation rather than anticipating there will be a disagreement or resistance. Use clear language and consider employing a bundled approach to clearly delineate that you are recommending HPV vaccine the same way as other adolescent vaccinations. Aim to have a recommendation that stresses administration of vaccines on the same day. Common wording that has been shown to be effective includes “I strongly recommend 3 shots during today’s visit: Tdap, HPV and Meningitis,” or “You are due for 3 shots today - TdaP, HPV and Meningitis. I strongly recommend you receive all three.” The CDC has a series of videos called “How I Recommend” that you may find valuable as you develop your personal recommendation style.7
ADDRESS CONCERNS ABOUT SIDE EFFECTS AND SAFETY While there is a robust national conversation about vaccines, some of this information is inaccurate. Parents and teens may have concerns or fears about the safety of a vaccine and/or potential exposure to harm. You should be prepared to answer common questions about vaccine side effects and safety. CDC resources are available to assist in the education of teens and their guardian(s).8 Additionally, the CDC campaign website for “You are the Key to Cancer Prevention” includes resources for health care professionals and patients.9 Some clinicians may overreact to minor questions with defensiveness or the provision of massive amounts of safety data. This is not an ideal approach as it overwhelms the parent and teen and, at times, leads to delays or refusals for immunization.
LEVERAGE THE WISDOM OF YOUR PRACTICE TEAM Immunizations should not be limited to the clinician domain. Office staff can be incredibly supportive and instrumental in creating an atmosphere of vaccine acceptance. Consider selecting an Immunization Champion for your practice. This champion can serve as the point person who organizes your practice workflow around vaccinations, stays up-to-date on changes and recommendations, and ultimately helps your practice excel in immunization delivery. Encourage administrative staff to remind patients of upcoming immunizations through reminder-recall strategies (for example, sending post cards to remind patients of appointments or using patient portals to recall them back to the office when the time for the next dose has passed) or when scheduling routine appointments. Institute a standing order policy to reduce barriers to immunizing during rooming (and saving the patient the 15 minute wait at the end of the visit). Some practices even leverage daily huddles and care gap reviews to identify and encourage vaccination during visits. The National HPV Roundtable has a resource library and a dedicated provider education resource page that includes a variety of tools to help you improve your HPV vaccination rates, including a set of action guides with targeted approaches that have been shown to be effective.10
CONCLUSION HPV vaccination represents an opportunity to prevent not only a STI but to prevent cancer. Delaware has the opportunity to be a leader in the nation by continuing to increase our immunization rates among males and females. We can all play a major role by stocking, strongly recommending, and advocating for on time HPV vaccine at 11 and 12 years old. Use the wide variety of resources to educate yourself and your patients about HPV. If you find that you have questions about 9vHPV (or any other vaccine), the CDC welcomes you reaching out to them at NIPINFO@cdc.gov.
REFERENCES 1. M cQuillan, G., Kruszon-Moran, D., Markowitz, L.E., Unger, E.R., & Paulose-Ram, R. Prevalence of HPV in adults aged 18–69: United States, 2011–2014. NCHS data brief, no 280. Hyattsville, MD: National Center for Health Statistics. 2017. 2. P etrosky, E., Bocchini, J. A., Jr., Hariri, S., Chesson, H., Curtis, C. R., Saraiya, M., . . . Markowitz, L. E., & the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). (2015, March 27). Use of 9-valent human papillomavirus (HPV) vaccine: Updated HPV vaccination recommendations of the advisory committee on immunization practices. MMWR. Morbidity and mortality weekly report, 64(11), 300–304. PubMed 3. V an Dyne, E. A., Henley, S. J., Saraiya, M., Thomas, C. C., Markowitz, L. E., & Benard, V. B. (2018, August 24). Trends in human papillomavirus–associated cancers— United States, 1999–2015. MMWR. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 67(33), 918–924. https://doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.mm6733a2 PubMed 4. W alker, T. Y., Elam-Evans, L. D., Yankey, D., Markowitz, L.E., Williams, C.L., Mbaeyi, S.A., …, Stokley, S. National, Regional, State, and Selected Local Area Vaccination Coverage Among Adolescents Aged 13–17 Years — United States, 2017. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2018;67:909–917. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.mm6733a1 Centers for Disease Control. TeenVaxView. https://www.cdc.gov/vaccines/imz-managers/coverage/ teenvaxview/index.html (accessed 2-1-2019). 5. H ealthy People. 2020. HPV vaccine adolescents, 2008-2012. https://www.healthypeople.gov/2020/topicsobjectives/national-snapshot/hpv-vaccine-adolescents2008%E2%80%932012 (accessed 2-1-2019). 6. US Food & Drug Administration. FDA approves expanded use of Gardasil 9 to include individuals 27 through 45 years old. https://www.fda.gov/newsevents/ newsroom/pressannouncements/ucm622715.htm. (accessed 2-25-2019). 7. C enters for Disease Control and Prevention. How I Recommend Series. https://www.cdc.gov/hpv/hcp/how-Irecommend.html. (accessed 2-25-2019). 8. C enter for Disease Control and Prevention. HPV-Human Papillomavirus. https://www.cdc.gov/hpv/parents/index. html. (accessed 2-25-2019). 9. C enters for Disease Control and Prevention. You are the Key to Cancer Prevention. https://www.cdc.gov/vaccines/ed/ hpv/you-are-key.html. (accessed on 2-25-2019). 10. N ational, H. P. V. Roundtable. Provider Training. http:// hpvroundtable.org/task-group/provider-training/. (accessed on 2-2-2019)
Management of Hepatitis C in Delaware Prisons: Approaching Micro-environmental Eradication William P. Mazur, M.D. Infectious Disease Specialist, Delaware Department of Correction Christiana Care Healthcare System Infectious Disease Associates
Abstract The management of chronic hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection has been transformed due to the arrival of HCV-specific Direct-Acting Antivirals (DAAs), which are safer, more effective, and better tolerated than the interferon-based therapies that preceded them. Compared with community healthcare systems, many prison healthcare systems have been slower to adopt the routine use of HCV DAAs despite the fact that HCV infection disproportionately affects individuals in correctional institutions. In 2015, the Delaware Department of Correction (DDOC) launched a treatment program that prioritized treatment for patients who were at greatest risk of disease complications. To date, 327/345 (95%) of eligible current HCV patients have initiated DAA therapy. A total of 196/199 (98.4%) patients who have initiated treatment and who have post-treatment data available have achieved sustained virologic response, defined as undetectable HCV viral load 12 weeks after treatment. Applying a concept of micro-environmental eradication, it can reasonably be concluded that DDOC is approaching this benchmark with regard to chronic HCV infection and will soon enter a “maintenance phase,” during which it will be feasible to treat new cases of HCV in real time. Correctional systems with significant numbers of untreated hepatitis C patients may want to consider implementing HCV treatment programs that focus on cost-effectiveness and prioritize treatment for patients who are at greatest risk of disease complications.
INTRODUCTION Hepatitis C virus (HCV) is the most common blood-borne infection in the United States.1 Approximately one-quarter of patients infected with hepatitis C spontaneously clear the infection, but the rest develop chronic infection, which usually results in progressive liver fibrosis (i.e., scarring) and may lead to cirrhosis, liver cancer, and liver failure.2 It has been estimated that 20%-30% of people with untreated chronic HCV will develop cirrhosis within 25-30 years of becoming infected.3 Hepatitis C infection and its complications impose a substantial healthcare utilization and cost burden, which increases as HCV-associated liver disease advances.4 HCV is curable with antiviral therapy, and achieving sustained virologic response (SVR) with HCV antiviral therapy has been shown to reduce adverse liver-related health outcomes and all-cause mortality.5 The seroprevalence of HCV infection in the general population is estimated to be approximately 1.0% (see Figure 1).6 Injection drug use (IDU) is the most common mode of HCV transmission and is reported by 20% to 55% of inmates,7 so it is not surprising that HCV infection disproportionately affects individuals in correctional institutions. A review of pooled published studies during 2003-2010 reported the HCV seroprevalence among incarcerated persons in the United States to be between 17.4% and 23.3%.8 It has been estimated that nearly one-third of all Americans with hepatitis C spend at least part of the year in a correctional facility.9 The management of chronic hepatitis C has undergone a remarkable transformation in recent years due to the arrival of HCV-specific Direct-Acting Antivirals (DAAs), which are safer, more effective, and better tolerated than the interferon-based therapies that preceded them. Expert guidelines recommend that all patients living with hepatitis C should be treated.10 Compared with community healthcare systems, many prison healthcare systems have been slower to adopt the routine use of HCV DAAs. 20 Delaware Journal of Public Health – May 2019
According to a recent Washington Post article, up to 97 percent of inmates in the U.S. with hepatitis C have not been treated.11 Many states cited high drug prices as the reason for denying treatment. This article may have underestimated the percentage of incarcerated patients who have been treated, but it seems clear that much more needs to be done to increase treatment of hepatitis C in prison populations. In 2015, the Delaware Department of Correction (DDOC) launched a treatment program based on a prioritization approach and, since then, has treated nearly all of its identified cases of hepatitis C.
HEALTHCARE IN THE DELAWARE DEPARTMENT OF CORRECTION The Delaware Department of Correction (DDOC) is comprised of the Office of the Commissioner, Bureau of Administrative Services, Bureau of Correctional Healthcare Services, Bureau of Prisons, and Bureau of Community Corrections. Unlike most state correctional systems, the Delaware Department of Correction is a unified correctional system, which manages offenders from pre-trial detention through incarceration and community supervision. The Department supervises between 5,500 – 7,000 inmates within its correctional facilities and approximately 17,000 probationers within the community. Within the unified system, Delaware maintains a five-level system of supervision for offenders: • Level V - 24-hour incarceration (jail/prison) * • Level IV - Work Release Centers, Home Confinement (electronic monitoring), Residential Drug Treatment, Violation of Probation Centers • Level III - Intensive Probation Supervision • Level II - Standard Probation
â&#x20AC;˘ Level I - Administrative Supervision *Jail describes those offenders serving one year or less. The Bureau of Correctional Healthcare Services (BCHS) provides management and oversight of the daily medical care, substance abuse, and behavioral health operations of the contracted medical and mental health providers to ensure that the standards of the National Commission on Correctional Health Care are continuously met and maintained. Offenders under the DDOC custody in Level 5 and Level 4 facilities have access to medical primary care services through Intake Screening, Sick Call and Chronic Care Clinics staffed by Registered Nurses (RN), Advanced Practice Registered Nurses (APRN), Physician Assistants (PA), and Primary Care Physicians (PCP), as well as comprehensive behavioral health and general dentistry services.12
HEPATITIS C MANAGEMENT IN DDOC In the DDOC, hepatitis C is managed in accordance with current guidelines, in particular HCV Guidance: Recommendations for Testing, Managing, and Treating Hepatitis C by the American Association for the Study of Liver Diseases (AASLD) and the Infectious Diseases Society of America (IDSA).10 Since 2011, the management of DDOC patients with chronic hepatitis C has been supervised by an Infectious Disease (ID) specialist who is employed part-time by the medical contractor and who is the sole prescriber of hepatitis C medications. Most inmates are screened for hepatitis C during their medical intake (see below). Patients who have a positive screening test or who report a history of hepatitis C are referred by the primary care providers to the facility Infection Control Nurses (ICN); approximately 20-30 new cases are identified per week. The ICNs inform the ID specialist about the new cases of HCV. Patients with confirmed chronic hepatitis C receive appropriate counseling and education and undergo baseline evaluation, including medical history and physical examination. Baseline lab tests include: quantitative HCV RNA (HCV viral load), HCV genotype and subtype, staging of hepatic fibrosis, hepatitis A and B serologies (HAV Ab, HBsAb, HBsAg, HBcAb) complete blood count (CBC), international normalized ratio (INR), hepatic function panel (i.e., albumin, total and direct bilirubin, alanine aminotransferase [ALT], aspartate aminotransferase [AST], and alkaline phosphatase levels), and calculated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR). The ID specialist utilizes serum measurement of biochemical markers for noninvasive assessment of liver fibrosis status. FibroTest, known as FibroSure in the U.S., is a biomarker test that uses the results of six serum tests to generate a score that is correlated with the degree of liver damage in people with a variety of liver diseases. It has been validated for use in the setting of chronic hepatitis C infection and is considered to have the same prognostic value as a liver biopsy. FibroTest and ActiTest permit the non-invasive evaluation of individuals with hepatitis C for the presence of liver fibrosis and liver inflammation, respectively. FibroTest and ActiTest scores are calculated based on patient age, gender and concentrations of serum of y-glutamyl transferase (GGT), total bilirubin (TB), a-2 macroglobulin, haptoglobin, apolipoprotein A1 and alanine aminotransferase (ActiTest). FibroTest and ActiTest Scores, on a scale of 0.0 to 1.0, are assigned a Metavir scale indicating the level of fibrosis or inflammation present.13 (see Figure 2 and Figure 3)
Before 2015, the standard of care for treatment of hepatitis C was interferon-based therapy, which was available for DDOC patients. These treatment regimens had cure rates of only approximately 50% and had significant safety and tolerability drawbacks. The arrival of HCV DAAs, which were expected to be much safer, more effective, and more tolerable, was anticipated for years and it became common practice in community healthcare settings to recommend deferral of treatment for most patients in order to take advantage of the improved safety and efficacy of DAAs. Deferral of treatment was presented as an option to DDOC hepatitis C patients, most of whom agreed with this approach. Successive waves of increasingly effective DAAs have transformed HCV treatment. The first generation of DAAs was approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in 2011 and included two HCV protease inhibitors. Cure rates were slightly higher, but these medications required coadministration of interferon, and therefore did not result in significant safety benefits. In 2013, the FDA approved a third protease inhibitor and the first HCV polymerase inhibitor, which raised cure rates to higher than 80% and also shortened the duration of treatment to as little as 12 weeks. However, the drawbacks for all four of the first-generation DAAs was that they still required most patients to be treated with interferon. In addition, they were very expensive. For these reasons there was very little utilization of these early DAAs by DDOC. However, their arrival did increase anticipation for interferon-free treatment among community and DDOC patients living with hepatitis C and their advocates, and when this possibility finally arrived the department was poised for progress. In late 2014 and 2015, several new DAA were approved that did not require interferon, finally ushering in the current paradigm of interferon-free therapy for hepatitis C. Additional DAAs arrived in 2016 and 2017, providing prescribers with several treatment options for all types of HCV infection, all of which have excellent safety profiles and cure rates as high as 99%.
HCV TREATMENT IN DDOC DURING THE DAA TREATMENT ERA: A MULTI-LEVEL PRIORITIZATION APPROACH In addition to the constant influx of new patients, by 2015 there was a large volume of existing HCV cases awaiting treatment. To assure that patients who were at highest risk for disease complications got evaluated and treated as quickly as possible, baseline testing was prioritized according the patientâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s age; this was based on the presumption that older patients may have had HCV longer and may, therefore, have more advanced hepatic fibrosis. Baseline evaluation was also expedited for DDOC HCV patients with shorter sentences to assure that they get evaluated before they get released. In 2015, AASLD/IDSA Guidance recommended treating patients who have advanced illness before treating those with less advanced disease in settings where resources limit the ability to treat all patients immediately.14 Resource limitations exist in virtually every healthcare setting, including prisons and jails. Accordingly, the Federal Bureau of Prisons (FBOP) has established priority criteria for treatment based on several clinical measures, most notably the degree of hepatic fibrosis.15 In keeping with this guidance, a prioritization approach based on risk of disease complication was developed for DDOC. Under this scheme, patients with cirrhosis were the first to 21
receive treatment with HCV DAAs. These cirrhotic patients were further stratified by Child-Pugh classification, a widely used tool to assess prognosis in patients with chronic liver disease and cirrhosis. Once the initial cohort of cirrhotic patients was treated, which took about 18 months, patients with stage F3 hepatic fibrosis were offered treatment, then patients with F2 fibrosis, and so on. Patients with F3 through F0 fibrosis were further prioritized according to their necroinflammatory scores based on the understanding that higher necroinflammatory scores are associated with faster disease progression. Within each fibrosis category, patients with comorbidities which have been associated with faster disease progression, such as HIV or chronic Hepatitis B infection, were prioritized for treatment before those who did not have such comorbidities. While awaiting treatment, FibroTest assessment was repeated annually to monitor for disease progression. The prioritization scheme was flexible, and newly identified patients with fibrosis scores higher than the current treatment level were expedited.
DAA SELECTION AND COST-EFFECTIVENESS CONSIDERATIONS Several factors went into the selection of HCV DAAs for each patient who received treatment, most notably the safety and efficacy. AASLD/IDSA HCV Guidance recommends DAA regimens based on scientific evidence and expert opinion.10 Each recommendation includes a Roman numeral (I, II, or III) representing the level of the evidence that supports the recommendation and a letter (A, B, or C) representing the strength of the recommendation. Recommended regimens are those that are favored for most patients in a given group, based on optimal efficacy, favorable tolerability and toxicity profiles, and treatment duration. Alternative regimens are those that are effective but, relative to recommended regimens, have potential disadvantages, limitations for use in certain patient populations, or less supporting data than recommended regimens. In certain situations, an alternative regimen may be an optimal regimen for an individual patient. For most patients, there are several treatment regimen options that are recommended with the highest possible rating (I, A). The high cost of HCV DAAs has resulted in significant barriers to access in both community and correctional settings. DDOC is determined to provide HCV treatment despite the high prices of these medications. Several recent studies have demonstrated the economic value of HCV treatment and made it clear that HCV therapy is cost-effective,16,17 including in prisons.18,19 According to AASLD/IDSA Guidance, when given a choice between recommended HCV DAA regimens, the less costly regimen is preferred as a more efficient use of resources (even if it requires multiple tablet dosing).10 Because of the similar efficacy of most DAA regimens, cost becomes the critical factor driving costeffectiveness. DDOC endeavors to maximize cost-effectiveness while providing treatment in accordance with the community standards and current guidelines. The DDOC maintains a contractual arrangement with an institutional pharmacy service provider (PSP) to administer its pharmaceutical activities. The PSP engages in ongoing negotiations with pharmaceutical manufacturers to obtain the best possible prices for medications, including HCV DAAs, therefore prices are always subject to change. To stay abreast of current DAA prices, the ID specialist maintains ongoing communication with the PSP. 22 Delaware Journal of Public Health â&#x20AC;&#x201C; May 2019
After consideration of pertinent clinical information (e.g. HCV genotype, fibrosis level, treatment experience, potential drug interactions, etc.), there usually are several AASLD/IDSA Recommended regimens with Level I, A ratings from which to choose. From this list of options, the ID specialist typically selects the most cost-effective (least expensive) option for each patient. DAAs with lower AASLD/IDSA ratings are not selected over DAAs with higher ratings for any reason, including cost. By selecting DAAs based on cost-effectiveness it was possible to treat more patients each year for less total cost. This is evidenced by the decreasing cost per treatment each year since 2015 (see figure 3).
SENTENCE TIME CONSIDERATIONS Interferon-based HCV treatment regimens required six to twelve months of therapy, and when they were the standard of care the Federal Bureau of Prisons and most state correctional systems included sentence duration of up to 18 months as a criterion for treatment eligibility in order to avoid treatment interruptions.20 Most HCV DAA treatment courses are only 8 or 12 weeks, which makes it feasible to treat patients with much shorter sentences, and some correctional systems have shortened their minimal sentence requirements.21 Currently, while there is no official minimal sentence time requirement to receive treatment for hepatitis C while in DDOC, there does need to be a reasonable expectation that the patient will remain in the system long enough to complete both the treatment and post-treatment evaluation. Accordingly, treatment is routinely offered for patients with sentences of at least six months. Patients whose sentence time is long enough to complete treatment but not post-treatment monitoring may be offered treatment if there is a reasonable expectation that the patient will follow up for post-treatment evaluation in the community after release. Patients with very short sentences are not treated, but are encouraged to follow up with the ID specialist in the community after release. Many of these patients have, in fact, done so and have been successfully treated post-incarceration. Jails, which are usually run by local law enforcement and/or local government agencies, are designed to hold inmates awaiting trial or serving a short sentence. As mentioned above, the DDOC is a unified correctional system that includes detainees who are awaiting trial in addition to inmates who have been sentenced. DDOC HCV patients who are awaiting sentencing undergo baseline evaluation and receive contact information for community care. HCV treatment has been historically uncommon in jails, primarily because of the short duration of incarceration.22 A recent observational cohort study demonstrated the feasibility of initiating and completing DAA HCV treatment in a jail setting.23 In this study, 104 detainees in the New York City jail system received DAA treatment; most completed treatment successfully but some were released before post-treatment viral load testing could be completed. A small number of DDOC HCV patients who were not yet sentenced, but who were expected to remain in DDOC long enough to complete treatment, have been treated. Most of them successfully completed treatment, however, some of them were released sooner than expected - several before the treatment was completed - and have been lost to follow up. The ID Specialist regularly monitors for the possible return of these individuals; a few have recidivated and have completed post-treatment testing.
HEPATITIS C SCREENING, PREVENTION, AND LINKAGE TO CARE Many HCV-infected individuals, including those in correctional facilities, are unaware of their infection.24 The high prevalence of hepatitis C, coupled with the fact that up to 30% of all persons with HCV infection in the U.S. spend at least part of the year in a correctional institution,9,25 suggest that correctional facilities may provide an excellent opportunity to offer screening to a large population of at-risk individuals. Several HCV management guidelines recommend screening for all incarcerated individuals.10,16 However, recent surveys of state prison medical directors and department of corrections health authorities indicate that although some form of HCV testing is performed in the majority of prisons, only a minority of them screen for HCV universally or routinely (i.e., HCV screening is included in normal health assessments for all patients and not based on risk).18,26 DDOC offenders are offered screening for hepatitis C in accordance with recommendations from the Centers for Disease Control, including adults who were born between 1945 and 1965; report history of risk behaviors and/or exposures, and other circumstances (e.g. HIV infection, unexplained chronic liver disease and/or chronic hepatitis). HCV screening consists of HCV-antibody testing followed by confirmatory HCV-RNA testing if antibody-positive. Chronically infected individuals receive counseling and education about HCV infection. Individuals who may be released before they get evaluated and/or treated are provided linkage to follow-up community healthcare for further evaluation and treatment of HCV upon release. Currently, screening for HCV in DDOC is not universal, however, efforts are being made to increase screening by educating providers on current screening recommendations. In addition, the DDOC is in the process of converting to opt-out screening for HCV in its facilities. Universal opt-out HCV screening in prisons has been demonstrated to be highly cost-effective and would be expected to reduce HCV transmission and HCV-associated diseases primarily in the outside community (See Figure 4).27 In the United States, at least 95% of incarcerated individuals, including those with HCV infection, will be eventually released into the community.28 It has been estimated that individuals released from the criminal justice system may account for up to 29% to 43% of the 2.7 million to 3.9 million persons infected with hepatitis C in the United States.24 The criminal justice system may be an ideal setting to efficiently identify and cure the greatest number of HCV-infected people.29 In an effort to reduce risk factors and decrease the potential for spread of HCV, the DDOC has taken steps to address injection drug use predominantly related to opioid addiction. The DDOC has historically provided substance use rehabilitation and counseling programs on a volunteer basis or to fulfill sentencing requirements. More recently, a Medication Assisted Treatment program for opioid use disorder has been launched and continues to expand. This program lies parallel to a robust discharge planning and re-entry process to connect inmates with a history of substance abuse to community service providers after incarceration.
DE DOC HEPATITIS C TREATMENT DATA As of March 2019, there were 371 DDOC patients with confirmed chronic HCV infection and complete baseline evaluations; this number includes patients who were previously identified and were awaiting treatment when the DAA treatment program began
in 2015. Of these patients, 345 are/were eligible for treatment based on sentence duration. There are twenty-six current DDOC patients who have been evaluated but have sentences that are too short to complete treatment or have not yet been sentenced; all of these patients have received referrals for community follow up and have been encouraged to follow up there in the event they get released. Unsentenced patients who receive sentences that are long enough to complete treatment will be offered treatment. A total of 327 patients have initiated treatment; this represents approximately 95% of eligible current HCV patients. All of the remaining eighteen patients have stage F0 fibrosis and are scheduled for treatment initiation by May 2019. Twelve current DDOC HCV patients have refused lab evaluation; they have been scheduled to meet with the ID specialist to discuss management options. Of the 327 patients who have initiated treatment, 196 have achieved sustained virologic response (SVR), defined as an undetectable HCV viral load 12 weeks after treatment. Eighty-five patients are either still on treatment or have recently completed treatment so have not yet had a post-treatment viral load measurement. Data is missing for thirteen patients: eleven were released, one transferred to another state, and one patient died while on treatment (unrelated to HCV). There have been ten treatment failures (See Figure 5): seven have successfully achieved SVR following retreatment; two patients were recently retreated and are awaiting SVR labs; one patient was released soon after the post-treatment viral load was drawn and is currently lost to follow up. To date, there are 199 patients who have initiated treatment and who have SVR data available; 196 of these have achieved SVR (98.4%).
MICRO-ENVIRONMENTAL ERADICATION OF HEPATITIS C Prison-based screening and treatment may be a highly effective strategy for reducing the burden of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), tuberculosis, HCV, and some sexually transmissible infections among prisoners and the general community.30 The concept of a prison micro-environment that provides a promising location to intervene in the care of blood-borne transmitted diseases is compelling, since this population carries a high prevalence of disease, commonly engages in high-risk behaviors, and could be readily accessible by providers for testing and treatment. Prisons are a particularly attractive microenvironment for HCV treatment considering that DAA regimens require only 8–12 weeks to achieve cure.31 As outlined above, all of the identified, eligible (sentenced) cases of chronic hepatitis C in DDOC will have been treated by May 2019. Applying this concept of microenvironmental eradication to the DDOC experience, it can reasonably be concluded that the system is rapidly approaching this benchmark with regard to chronic HCV infection. Clearly, it will never be possible to completely eradicate all hepatitis C from the DDOC because there will always be an influx of new inmates, many of whom are already chronically infected. Also, the current achievement may prove to be just a preliminary state of microenvironmental eradication, as additional cases are likely to be discovered among the existing population. If this occurs the newly identified cases will be treated expeditiously. Perhaps more interesting is the notion that moving forward, the DDOC will enter a “maintenance phase”, during which it will be feasible to treat all new cases of HCV in real time, regardless of their severity of disease progression. 23
Figure 1. Hepatitis C is a disease of the marginalized. Adapted from Edlin BR. Perspective: Test and treat this silent killer. Nature Volume 474, pages s18â&#x20AC;&#x201C;s19 (09 June 2011).6
Figure 2. (left panel). FibroTest scores range from 0.00 to 1.00 and correlate with METAVIR fibrosis stages. (right panel). Sample FibroTest/ActiTest report. This sample demonstrates stage F3-F4, Activity stage A1-A2.
24 Delaware Journal of Public Health â&#x20AC;&#x201C; May 2019
Figure 3. Average HCV Cost per Patient 2015 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 2018.
Courtesy of Correct Rx Pharmacy Services, Linthicum, Maryland.
Figure 4. (left panel). Model schematic of HCV disease transmission and progression in prisons and in the general population. (right panel). Projected reduction of hepatitis C virus (HCV) transmission.
Figure 5. DDOC HCV Patient Disposition as of March 31, 2019.
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DISCUSSION Hepatitis C virus (HCV) is the most common blood-borne infection in the United States and disproportionately affects correctional populations, including the Delaware Department of Correction. Several years ago, the Department responded to this situation by deciding to treat patients with hepatitis C in accordance with community standards. A prioritization approach was developed to assure that the patients who were at highest risk of attributable morbidity and mortality would receive treatment as quickly as possible. As of the time of this writing, nearly all of the identified, treatment eligible (sentenced) hepatitis C patients have been treated and the remaining cases, all of whom have no hepatic fibrosis, are expected to initiate treatment by May 2019. Including successful re-treatment of initial treatment failures, 98.4% of patients with available post-treatment data have achieved SVR. There are several important factors that have contributed to the success of the DDOC experience, but three key elements warrant discussion: 1) the emphasis on maximizing cost-effectiveness; 2) the involvement of a small group of healthcare professionals; and 3) treatment prioritization. The high cost of HCV medications has been a significant barrier to treatment both in and out of prisons. The DDOC has been committed to meet the challenge of HCV treatment head on despite these barriers. Prices of DAAs have decreased considerably over time, but some are still very expensive. Fortunately, treatment of HCV has been demonstrated to be very cost-effective. By maintaining strict adherence to AASLD/IDSA Guidance, all DDOC patients are assured community standard treatment. And by routinely selecting the most cost-effective treatment options, the overall cost of treatment has remained reasonable and the average cost-per-treatment has steadily decreased. As previously noted, a single, part-time ID specialist treated all of the HCV patients with the help of a few dedicated staff employees at each facility. This small group of individuals spends a significant portion of their time working on HCV, and therefore is very focused. They continuously review the referral and evaluation processes, which are unique for each site, and make frequent refinements in order to provide excellent care as efficiently as possible. Since 2015, these processes have become much more streamlined, which has resulted in an acceleration in the rate of treatment. A less specialized, less focused management approach would be less likely to have evolved as much and as quickly. Several years ago, AASLD/IDSA Guidance removed language recommending prioritizing patients with advanced fibrosis for treatment, suggesting that all patients who have chronic hepatitis C should be treated immediately. Although most community healthcare systems operate with resource limitations, this may be feasible. However, in a semi-closed environment with significant resource limitations, such as a prison system, there are potential advantages to prioritizing treatment based on hepatic fibrosis. This is evidenced by current FBOP Clinical Guidance for HCV management, which recommends treatment for all sentenced inmates with chronic HCV infection but continues to endorse priority criteria based on severity of disease.16 Arguably, the most significant advantage of such an approach is that patients who are 26 Delaware Journal of Public Health – May 2019
at highest risk of experiencing morbidity or mortality receive the benefits of SVR as quickly as possible. The alternative would be to treat patients on a “first come first served” basis. If the DDOC had taken this approach, patients with advanced fibrosis could be among those who are still waiting for treatment, all the while remaining at risk of disease related adverse events. Instead, all DDOC patients with advanced fibrosis were treated by early 2017. Since then, newly identified patients who were found to have advanced fibrosis have received expedited treatment. Some readers may attribute the success of this treatment program to the small size of the DDOC relative to other state prison systems. The DDOC operates with similar resource limitations as other prison systems, including staffing, clinical space, time, and of course, financial. Despite these limitations, a small, focused team has successfully treated nearly all known cases of HCV within a few short years. All of this could be replicated on a larger scale and so is generalizable to larger systems. Correctional systems with significant numbers of untreated HCV patients at all levels of hepatic fibrosis may want to consider implementing HCV treatment programs that focus on cost-effectiveness and prioritizing treatment for patients who are at greatest risk of disease complications.
REFERENCES 1. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. National Viral Hepatitis Action Plan. 2017-2020. https://www.hhs.gov/ hepatitis/action-plan/u-s-viral-hepatitis-action-plan-overview/ index.html. February 2017. Accessed December 27, 2018. 2. Maasoumy, B., & Wedemeyer, H. (2012, August). Natural history of acute and chronic hepatitis C. Best Practice & Research. Clinical Gastroenterology, 26(4), 401–412. https://doi. org/10.1016/j.bpg.2012.09.009 3. Lingala, S., & Ghany, M. G. (2015, December). Natural history of hepatitis C. Gastroenterology Clinics of North America, 44(4), 717–734. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gtc.2015.07.003 4. Gordon, S. C., Pockros, P. J., Terrault, N. A., Hoop, R. S., Buikema, A., Nerenz, D., & Hamzeh, F. M. (2012, November). Impact of disease severity on healthcare costs in patients with chronic hepatitis C (CHC) virus infection. Hepatology (Baltimore, Md.), 56(5), 1651–1660. https://doi.org/10.1002/ hep.25842 5. Denniston, M. M., Jiles, R. B., Drobeniuc, J., Klevens, R. M., Ward, J. W., McQuillan, G. M., & Holmberg, S. D. (2014, March 4). Chronic hepatitis C virus infection in the United States, National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2003 to 2010. Annals of Internal Medicine, 160(5), 293–300. https://doi. org/10.7326/M13-1133 6. Edlin, B. R. (2011, May 25). Perspective: Test and treat this silent killer. Nature, 474(7350_supp), S18–S19. https://doi. org/10.1038/474S18a 7. Spaulding, A. C., Weinbaum, C. M., Lau, D. T., Sterling, R., Seeff, L. B., Margolis, H. S., & Hoofnagle, J. H. (2006, May 16). A framework for management of hepatitis C in prisons. [PMID: 16702592]. Annals of Internal Medicine, 144(10), 762–769. https://doi.org/10.7326/0003-4819-144-10-200605160-00010 8. Edlin, B. R., Eckhardt, B. J., Shu, M. A., Holmberg, S. D., & Swan, T. (2015, November). Toward a more accurate estimate of the prevalence of hepatitis C in the United States. Hepatology (Baltimore, Md.), 62(5), 1353–1363. https://doi.org/10.1002/hep.27978
9. Varan, A. K., Mercer, D. W., Stein, M. S., & Spaulding, A. C. (2014, March-April). Hepatitis C seroprevalence among prison inmates since 2001: Still high but declining. Public Health Rep, 129(2), 187–195. https://doi.org/10.1177/003335491412900213 10. AASLD/IDSA/IAS-USA. HCV guidance: recommendations for testing, managing, and treating hepatitis C. http:// hcvguidelines.org. Updated May 24, 2018. Accessed February 6, 2019. 11. Thanthong-Knight. Siraphob. “State Prisons Fail to Offer Cure To 144,000 Inmates with Deadly Hepatitis C.” Washington Post July 9, 2018. Available at: https://www. washingtonpost.com/national/health-science/state-prisonsfail-to-offer-cure-to-144000-inmates-with-deadly-hepatitisc/2018/07/09/99790838-8358-11e8-9e06-4db52ac42e05_story. html?noredirect=on&utm_term=.f6a763ece914. Accessed February 2, 2019. 12. http://www.doc.delaware.gov. Accessed January 5, 2019. 13. http://www.clinlabnavigator.com. Accessed January 12, 2019. 14. AASLD/IDSA HCV Guidance Panel. (2015, September). Hepatitis C guidance: AASLD-IDSA recommendations for testing, managing, and treating adults infected with hepatitis C virus. Hepatology (Baltimore, Md.), 62(3), 932–954. Retrieved from https://aasldpubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/ abs/10.1002/hep.27950 Accessed January 26, 2019 https://doi. org/10.1002/hep.27950 15. Federal Bureau of Prisons Clinical Guidance. Evaluation and Management of Chronic Hepatitis C Virus (HCV) Infection. August 2018. Available at: https://www.bop.gov/resources/ pdfs/hcv_infection_20180906.pdf. Accessed February 2, 2019. 16. Chahal, H. S., Marseille, E. A., Tice, J. A., Pearson, S. D., Ollendorf, D. A., Fox, R. K., & Kahn, J. G. (2016, January). Cost-effectiveness of early treatment of hepatitis C virus genotype 1 by stage of liver fibrosis in a US treatment-naive population. JAMA Internal Medicine, 176(1), 65–73. https:// doi.org/10.1001/jamainternmed.2015.6011 17. Chhatwal, J., Kanwal, F., Roberts, M. S., & Dunn, M. A. (2015, March 17). Cost-effectiveness and budget impact of hepatitis C virus treatment with sofosbuvir and ledipasvir in the United States. Annals of Internal Medicine, 162(6), 397–406. https:// doi.org/10.7326/M14-1336 18. Liu, S., Watcha, D., Holodniy, M., & Goldhaber-Fiebert, J. D. (2014, October 21). Sofosbuvir-based treatment regimens for chronic, genotype 1 hepatitis C virus infection in U.S. incarcerated populations: A cost-effectiveness analysis. Annals of Internal Medicine, 161(8), 546–553. https://doi.org/10.7326/ M14-0602 19. Martin, N. K., Vickerman, P., Brew, I. F., Williamson, J., Miners, A., Irving, W. L., . . . Hickman, M. (2016, June). Is increased hepatitis C virus case-finding combined with current or 8-week to 12-week direct-acting antiviral therapy cost-effective in UK prisons? A prevention benefit analysis. Hepatology (Baltimore, Md.), 63(6), 1796–1808. https://doi. org/10.1002/hep.28497 20. Federal Bureau of Prisons Clinical Practice Guidelines. Evaluation and Treatment of Hepatitis C and Cirrhosis, March 2012. Available at: https://www.hepcassoc.org/pdf/2012/marfederal-guidlines.pdf. Accessed: January 15, 2019.
21. Commonwealth of Pennsylvania Department of Corrections Access to Health Care Policy. Available at: https:// www.cor.pa.gov/About%20Us/Documents/DOC%20 Policies/13.02.01%20Access%20to%20Health%20Care.pdf. Accessed January 15, 2019. 22. Maurer, K., & Gondles, E.F. Coalition of Correctional Health Authorities and American Correctional Association. Hepatitis C in Correctional Settings: Challenges and Opportunities. Vol 2. No. 1. Available at: http://www.aca.org/ACA_PROD_IMIS/ Docs/OCHC/HCVinCorrectionalSetting_Final.pdf. April 2015. Accessed January 5, 2019. 23. MacDonald, R., Akiyama, M. J., Kopolow, A., Rosner, Z., McGahee, W., Joseph, R., . . . Venters, H. (2017, July 7). Feasibility of treating hepatitis C in a transient jail population. Open Forum Infectious Diseases, 4(3), ofx142. Retrieved from https://academic.oup.com/ofid/article/4/3/ofx142/3932987 Accessed January 29, 2019 https://doi.org/10.1093/ofid/ ofx142 24. Spaulding, A.C., & Thomas, D.L. Screening for HCV Infection in Jails. JAMA. 2012;307(12):1259. Available at: https://www. ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3701941/#R1 Accessed: January 12, 2019. 25. Hammett, T. M., Harmon, M. P., & Rhodes, W. (2002, November). The burden of infectious disease among inmates of and releasees from US correctional facilities, 1997. American Journal of Public Health, 92(11), 1789–1794. Retrieved from https://ajph.aphapublications.org/doi/ pdf/10.2105/AJPH.92.11.1789 Accessed January 26, 2019 https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.92.11.1789 26. Beckwith, C. G., Kurth, A. E., Bazerman, L., Solomon, L., Patry, E., Rich, J. D., & Kuo, I. (2015, January). Survey of US correctional institutions for routine HCV testing. American Journal of Public Health, 105(1), 68–71. Retrieved from https:// www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4265939/ Accessed February 2, 2019 https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2014.302071 27. He, T., Li, K., Roberts, M. S., Spaulding, A. C., Ayer, T., Grefenstette, J. J., & Chhatwal, J. (2016, January 19). Prevention of hepatitis C by screening and treatment in U.S. prisons. Annals of Internal Medicine, 164(2), 84–92. https:// doi.org/10.7326/M15-0617 28. Bureau of Justice Statistics. Reentry Trends in the U.S. Available at: https://www.bjs.gov/content/reentry/reentry.cfm. Accessed January 5, 2019. 29. Rich, J. D., Allen, S. A., & Williams, B. A. (2014, May 15). Responding to hepatitis C through the criminal justice system. The New England Journal of Medicine, 370(20), 1871–1874. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMp1311941 30. Ndeffo-Mbah, M. L., Vigliotti, V. S., Skrip, L. A., Dolan, K., & Galvani, A. P. (2018, June 1). Dynamic models of infectious disease transmission in prisons and the general population. Epidemiologic Reviews, 40(1), 40–57. Accessed January 12, 2019. https://doi.org/10.1093/epirev/mxx014 31. Redman, J. S., & Sterling, R. K. (2018, November). Treating HCV in a captive audience: Eradication efforts in the prison microenvironment. The American Journal of Gastroenterology, 113(11), 1585–1587. Accessed January 5, 2019. https://doi. org/10.1038/s41395-018-0201-x 27
Call to Action to Promote the All of Us Research Program to People with Disabilities WHY SHOULD YOU PARTICIPATE IN THE ALL OF US RESEARCH PROGRAM? “Nothing About Us Without Us”: This slogan is used to communicate the notion that no policy or practice, which affects the disability community, should be created without full and direct participation of members of the disability community. Historically, people with disabilities have been excluded and ignored from research studies. That ends NOW because of the All of Us Research Program! Congratulations! The All of Us Research Program is YOUR chance to make an impact and get involved in direct, cutting-edge research to find solutions that could help people with disabilities. For the first time, people with disabilities are being encouraged to participate and are being asked to enroll in a study that can directly impact how health care is received in the future. If we truly believe in the concept of “nothing about us without us,” then we must answer the call when asked to participate.
What is this Call to Action? The American Association on Health and Disability (AAHD) is calling on YOU to learn more about and consider involvement in the National Institutes of Health’s (NIH) All of Us Research Program. If you are interested in participating in the research program, enroll at https://www.JoinAllofUs.org/together. What is the All of Us Research Program? The NIH has created a nationwide research program focused on precision medicine, also known as personalized medicine, to help researchers understand more about why people get sick or stay healthy. The All of Us Research Program plans to recruit one million or more people to share their health and lifestyle data. The program recognizes the importance of recruiting traditionally underrepresented populations living in the United States (U.S.), providing the disability community a unique opportunity. When you join the program you will be contributing to an effort to improve the health of future generations while also advancing precision medicine and learning more about your own health, through better testing, better medicine and more information presented to you. The All of Us Research Program will provide researchers more information about people’s health and habits. By looking for patterns in biological, environmental and behavioral factors, researchers may learn more about what affects people’s health and, in turn, the best way to treat them. Currently, all eligible adults over the age of 18 who live in the U.S. can join the All of Us Research Program.
28 Delaware Journal of Public Health – May 2019
What is precision medicine? Health care has traditionally followed the same approach using a “one—size–fits—all” method, by prescribing treatment for diagnoses based on the average patient. Now, thanks to recent precision medicine initiatives, physicians are working toward tailoring treatment plans to the individual. For instance, many medical conditions, such as high blood pressure, are treated with a standard medication given to all patients and then trial and error is used to determine the best medication and/or dosage. Imagine a scenario where the individual’s treatment is already customized for the person based on factors known about them, including any disabilities. This research program will advance precision medicine and focus on the individual. Precision medicine ensures that lifestyle, environment and genetic factors are considered when physicians determine the course of treatment in order to provide the best possible care for each patient. What is the connection between All of Us, precision medicine and people with disabilities? The program is looking at a diverse group of people with a variety of health statuses, who will aid in moving the health care profession toward a more comprehensive, individualized approach. As a community engagement partner with All of Us, AAHD is focusing outreach efforts on educating people with disabilities about the importance of participating in the All of Us Research Program. Researchers are emphasizing the importance of recruiting traditionally underrepresented populations living in the U.S., providing the disability community a unique opportunity to improve the health of people with disabilities. No one understands “underrepresented and underserved” like the disability community. Participation is especially important when you consider that people with disabilities have been previously left out of biomedical research either because researchers did not actively recruit them, or they were not prepared to provide the accommodations people with disabilities need to participate. Why should people with disabilities participate in All of Us? People with disabilities know all too well that health status isn’t just dependent on a medical diagnosis. The “one—size—fits—all” method is not effective, as each person is unique and requires individualized care and treatment. There are many physical and environmental barriers that are unique to the disability community, and the presence of secondary conditions and health disparities is often overlooked by health care providers. A visit to a health care provider can become an all-day event if a bus’s wheelchair lift is broken. A medication can be taken incorrectly if the instructions aren’t written in a format that a person can read, such as braille or large print. A serious medical condition can be misdiagnosed if a physician isn’t trained to understand all aspects of the primary and/or secondary condition. These issues can be detrimental to the health of people with disabilities. This is YOUR chance to change how medicine works. YOUR chance to solidify the slogan, “nothing about us without us.” For more information about how you can get involved in the All of Us Research Program, please visit the American Association on Health and Disability website https://www.aahd.us/initiatives/allof-us-research-program/ or visit the program’s website https://www.JoinAllofUs.org/together.
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It’s notpolicymakers helpful if trainees return home ready implementers, and those involved in care and said Fogarty’s Dr. Rachel Sturke, exchange of ideas among researchers, implementers implementers,don’t policymakers and those involved in care of ideas among researchers, implementers their understand what they’re talking to putstakeholders implementation theories into practice but and exchange delivery. It’s not helpfulscience if trainees return home ready who managesmakers, the program. and decision said Fogarty’s Dr. Rachel Sturke, delivery. It’s not helpful if trainees return home ready and decision makers, said Fogarty’s Dr. Rachel Sturke, about, Ramaswamydon’t noted. An initiative tothe prevent mother-to-child-transmission of their understand what talking to putstakeholders implementation science theories into practice manages program. to put implementation science theories intothey’re practice butbut who who manages the program. HIV—another CGHS project—resulted in formation of of the about, Ramaswamy noted. their stakeholders don’t understand what they’re talking An initiative to prevent mother-to-child-transmission their stakeholders don’t understand what they’re talking Two case studies of HIV-related implementation Nigeria Implementation Science Alliance (NISA), a national about, Ramaswamy noted. An initiative to prevent mother-to-child-transmission of about, Ramaswamy noted. HIV—another project—resulted in formation of of the An initiative toCGHS prevent mother-to-child-transmission HIV—another CGHS project—resulted inand formation of (NISA), the science projects were shepherded by Fogarty’s effort toImplementation coordinate capacity building efforts Two case studiesthat of HIV-related implementation Nigeria Science Alliance a national HIV—another CGHSresearch project—resulted in formation of the Two case studies of With HIV-related implementation Nigeria Implementation ScienceEstablished Alliance (NISA), national CGHS were presented. adolescents among in a2015 with aafocus on science projects that were shepherded byidentified Fogarty’sas Two case studies of HIV-related implementation effort tostakeholders. coordinate research andAlliance capacity building efforts Nigeria Implementation Science (NISA), national science projects that were shepherded by Fogarty’s effort to coordinate research and capacity building efforts a key population for disease transmission in Africa, a research productivity and development of independent CGHS presented. With adolescents identified sciencewere projects were shepherded byidentified Fogarty’s among Established ina 2015 with a focus on effort tostakeholders. coordinate research and capacity building efforts CGHS were that presented. With adolescents as as among stakeholders. Established in 2015 with focus on collaboration has for been established to enhance effective investigators, NISA has already generated two funded a key population disease transmission inAfrica, Africa, a CGHS were presented. adolescents identified research productivity and development of independent among stakeholders. Established in 2015 with a focusNIH on a key population forWith disease transmission in aas research productivity and development of independent
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CUGH CUGHexamines examinesimplementing implementingsolutions solutionsfor forimpact impact CUGH examines implementing solutions for impact . . .. .continued . continued from from p.1 p.1
.. ... .continued from previous continued from p.1 page grant grant proposals proposals and and more more than than seven seven grant proposals and more than seven published published research research papers. papers. Projects Projects published research papers. Projects are are always always multi-site, multi-site, multi-partner multi-partner are always multi-site, multi-partner and and involve involve issues issues that that have have potential potential and involve issues that have potential forfor national national scope scope and and impact, impact, said said for national scope and impact, said Dr.Dr. Nadia Nadia Sam-Agudu, Sam-Agudu, of of Nigeria’s Nigeria’s Dr. Nadia Sam-Agudu, of Nigeria’s Institute Institute of of Human Human Virology. Virology. Institute of Human Virology.
Photo courtesy of CUGH Photo Photo courtesy courtesy of of CUGH CUGH
like like and and recommended recommended a shift a shift in in like and recommended a shift in focus focus and and ownership ownership of of health health to to focus and ownership of health to the the communities, communities, said said Dr.Dr. Marcel Marcel the communities, said Dr. Marcel Yotebieng, Yotebieng, anan author author of of the the report report Yotebieng, an author of the report and and faculty faculty member member of of Kinshasa Kinshasa and faculty member of Kinshasa University University and and Ohio Ohio State. State. NIH NIH funds funds University and Ohio State. NIH funds a broad a broad range range of of studies studies onon how how to to a broad range of studies on how to improve improve quality quality of of care care through through 1818 improve quality of care through 18 ToTo strengthen strengthen NIH’s NIH’s global global mental mental grants grants in in 1414 LMICs, LMICs, said said Fogarty’s Fogarty’s To strengthen NIH’s global mental grants in 14 LMICs, said Fogarty’s health health initiatives initiatives concerning concerning children, children, Dr.Dr. Linda Linda Kupfer, Kupfer, who who helped helped health initiatives concerning children, Dr. Linda Kupfer, who helped the the National National Institute Institute of of Mental Mental coordinate coordinate NIH’s NIH’s participation participation in in the the the National Institute of Mental coordinate NIH’s participation in the Health Health (NIMH) (NIMH) co-hosted co-hosted a workshop a workshop NASEM NASEM report. report. Health (NIMH) co-hosted a workshop NASEM report. during during the the conference conference to to gain gain during the conference to gain insights insights that that will will inform inform itsits future future insights that will inform its future programs. programs. Eighty-five Eighty-five percent percent of of the the programs. Eighty-five percent of the world’s world’s youth youth live live in in lowlowand and middlemiddleworld’s youth live in low- and middleincome income countries countries (LMICs), (LMICs), where where income countries (LMICs), where access access to to diagnosis diagnosis and and treatment treatment access to diagnosis and treatment is is lacking. lacking. “Youth “Youth mental mental illness illness is is is lacking. “Youth mental illness is one one of of the the most most urgent urgent mental mental health health one of the most urgent mental health problems problems worldwide,” worldwide,” according according to to problems worldwide,” according to NIMH NIMH Director Director Dr.Dr. Joshua Joshua Gordon. Gordon. NIMH Director Dr. Joshua Gordon. “Early “Early interventions interventions can can improve improve “Early interventions can improve outcomes,” outcomes,” hehe said, said, yetyet there there has has Fogarty’s Fogarty’s Dr.Dr. KenKen Bridbord Bridbord was was awarded awarded CUGH’s CUGH’s outcomes,” he said, yet there has Fogarty’s Dr. Ken Bridbord was awarded CUGH’s been been little little research research onon how how to to apply apply highest highest honor honor by by its its director, director, Dr.Dr. Keith Keith Martin. Martin. been little research on how to apply highest honor by its director, Dr. Keith Martin. (see page page 11)11) existing existing knowledge knowledge and and practices practices forfor (see (see page 11) existing knowledge and practices for use use in in low-resource low-resource settings. settings. Proven Proven AtAt another another session, session, Fogarty Fogarty Fellows Fellows use in low-resource settings. Proven At another session, Fogarty Fellows diagnostic diagnostic techniques—such techniques—such asas using using and and Scholars Scholars shared shared their their stories stories diagnostic techniques—such as using and Scholars shared their stories mobile mobile devices devices to to track track eye eye contact contact of of their their early-career early-career experiences experiences mobile devices to track eye contact of their early-career experiences in in young young children—could children—could bebe adapted adapted at at NIH NIH research research sites sites and and the the in young children—could be adapted at NIH research sites and the forfor use use in in LMICS LMICS soso that that diagnosis diagnosis positive positive outcomes outcomes that that resulted. resulted. for use in LMICS so that diagnosis positive outcomes that resulted. and and treatment treatment of of autism autism could could begin begin The The program’s program’s first first landscape landscape and treatment of autism could begin The program’s first landscape earlier, earlier, hehe said. said. Using Using cellphones cellphones architect, architect, Dr. Dr. Leann Leann Andrews Andrews of of earlier, he said. Using cellphones architect, Dr. Leann Andrews of oror other other portable portable devices devices to to the the University University of of Washington, Washington, or other portable devices to the University of Washington, administer administer such such tests tests “is“is imminently imminently presented presented her her successful successful efforts efforts administer such tests “is imminently presented her successful efforts implementable implementable worldwide.” worldwide.” to to improve improve a Peruvian a Peruvian slum slum implementable worldwide.” to improve a Peruvian slum community’s community’s health health byby working working community’s health by working But But implementation implementation without without with with residents residents to to construct construct gardens gardens But implementation without with residents to construct gardens maintaining maintaining quality quality of of care care is is also also full full of of herbs, herbs, medicinal medicinal plants, plants, maintaining quality of care is also full of herbs, medicinal plants, anan enormous enormous problem problem in in LMICs. LMICs. fruits fruits and and vegetables. vegetables. ByBy making making an enormous problem in LMICs. fruits and vegetables. By making InIn a session a session organized organized byby Fogarty, Fogarty, their their surroundings surroundings safer safer and and more more In a session organized by Fogarty, their surroundings safer and more panelists panelists presented presented the the results results of of a a attractive, attractive, boosting boosting food food security security and and panelists presented the results of a attractive, boosting food security and recent recent U.S. U.S. National National Academies Academies of of access access to to medicines, medicines, and and improving improving recent U.S. National Academies of access to medicines, and improving Sciences, Sciences, Engineering Engineering and and Medicine Medicine water water quality, quality, she she found found residents residents Sciences, Engineering and Medicine water quality, she found residents (NASEM) (NASEM) report report that that shows shows upup to to reported reported a decrease a decrease in in depression depression (NASEM) report that shows up to reported a decrease in depression 8 million 8 million deaths deaths occur occur each each year year and and gastrointestinal gastrointestinal illness, illness, asas well well 8 million deaths occur each year and gastrointestinal illness, as well from from lack lack of of access access and and poor poor quality quality asas fewer fewer falls falls and and injuries. injuries. from lack of access and poor quality as fewer falls and injuries. of of care care in in developing developing countries— countries— of care in developing countries— more more than than HIV, HIV, TBTB and and malaria malaria Other Other Fogarty Fogarty Fellows Fellows presented presented their their more than HIV, TB and malaria Other Fogarty Fellows presented their combined. combined. The The study study examined examined what what studies studies of of cervical cervical cancer cancer in in Malawi, Malawi, combined. The study examined what studies of cervical cancer in Malawi, anan ideal ideal health health system system would would look look mental mental illness illness in inKenya, Kenya, HIV/AIDS HIV/AIDS an ideal health system would look mental illness in Kenya, HIV/AIDS
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in in Peru Peru and and TBTB in in Tanzania. Tanzania. Fogarty Fogarty in Peru and TB in Tanzania. Fogarty Director Director Dr.Dr. Roger Roger I. Glass I. Glass said said hehe Director Dr. Roger I. Glass said he was was encouraged encouraged byby the the caliber caliber of of these these was encouraged by the caliber of these emerging emerging global global health health leaders. leaders. “I’m “I’m emerging global health leaders. “I’m soso proud proud of of you you allall and and to to see see that that byby so proud of you all and to see that by investing investing in in youth, youth, through through the the impact impact investing in youth, through the impact of of this this program, program, wewe are are launching launching of this program, we are launching careers careers that that will will endure endure forfor 3030 years.” years.” careers that will endure for 30 years.” Mentoring—essential Mentoring—essential forfor earlyearlyMentoring—essential for earlycareer career scientists—is scientists—is not not often often part part career scientists—is not often part of of the the culture culture at at LMIC LMIC research research of the culture at LMIC research institutions. institutions. That That was was the the topic topic of of institutions. That was the topic of a session a session to to launch launch a supplement a supplement a session to launch a supplement published published byby the the journal journal of of the the published by the journal of the American American Society Society of of Tropical Tropical Medicine Medicine American Society of Tropical Medicine and and Hygiene Hygiene (ASTMH) (ASTMH) that that provides provides and Hygiene (ASTMH) that provides recommendations recommendations and and case case studies studies recommendations and case studies to to spur spur mentorship mentorship programs programs in in lowlowto spur mentorship programs in lowresource resource settings. settings. resource settings. “This “This is is a call a call to to action, action, not not just just anan “This is a call to action, not just an academic academic discussion,” discussion,” said said ASTMH ASTMH academic discussion,” said ASTMH CEO CEO Karen Karen Goraleski, Goraleski, who who introduced introduced CEO Karen Goraleski, who introduced the the session. session. “We “We have have to to change change the session. “We have to change the the way way business business is is being being done.” done.” the way business is being done.” LMIC LMIC scientists scientists need need a mentoring a mentoring LMIC scientists need a mentoring approach approach tailored tailored to to their their unique unique approach tailored to their unique circumstances, circumstances, which which often often include include circumstances, which often include very very divided divided gender gender roles, roles, respect respect forfor very divided gender roles, respect for hierarchy hierarchy and and seniority, seniority, and and a colonial a colonial hierarchy and seniority, and a colonial history history that that has has left left a legacy a legacy of of history that has left a legacy of authoritarian authoritarian attitudes, attitudes, said said Dr.Dr. Willy Willy authoritarian attitudes, said Dr. Willy Lescano, Lescano, a co-author a co-author and and professor professor at at Lescano, a co-author and professor at Peru’s Peru’s Cayetano Cayetano Heredia Heredia University. University. Peru’s Cayetano Heredia University. The The publication publication was was inspired inspired byby a a The publication was inspired by a series series of of “Mentoring “Mentoring the the Mentor” Mentor” series of “Mentoring the Mentor” workshops workshops hosted hosted in in LMICs LMICs byby faculty faculty workshops hosted in LMICs by faculty of of Fogarty’s Fogarty’s Global Global Health Health Program Program of Fogarty’s Global Health Program forfor Fellows Fellows and and Scholars. Scholars. “We “We spend spend for Fellows and Scholars. “We spend a tremendous a tremendous amount amount of of our our time, time, a tremendous amount of our time, resources resources and and thought thought in in training training resources and thought in training the the next next generation generation of of global global health health the next generation of global health leaders,” leaders,” said said Glass, Glass, “so“so wewe really really leaders,” said Glass, “so we really dodo have have anan investment investment in in doing doing this this do have an investment in doing this better, better, in in developing developing a mentoring a mentoring better, in developing a mentoring roadmap roadmap forfor the the future, future, to to ensure ensure roadmap for the future, to ensure the the satisfaction satisfaction and and success success of of our our the satisfaction and success of our trainees, trainees, and and to to keep keep them them onon the the trainees, and to keep them on the research research track.” track.” research track.” RESOURCES RESOURCES RESOURCES http://bit.ly/cugh2019 http://bit.ly/cugh2019 http://bit.ly/cugh2019
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Scientists urge crossScientists Scientists urge urge crosscrossScientists Scientists urge urge crosscrosscutting stigma research cutting cutting stigma stigma research research cutting cutting stigma stigma research research By Karin Zeitvogel By Karin Zeitvogel By Karin Zeitvogel By Karin Zeitvogel By Karin Zeitvogel
© 2016 Sean G. Smith / Critical-Care Professionals © 2016 © 2016 Sean Sean G. Smith G. Smith / Critical-Care / Critical-Care Professionals Professionals International, Courtesy of Photoshare Photoshare International, International, Courtesy Courtesy of of Photoshare
Stigma is aisbarrier toisto better health forfor vulnerable Stigma aStigma barrier abetter barrier health to better vulnerable health for vulnerable populations worldwide, despite many new Stigma is a Stigma barrier is to a better barrier health to better for vulnerable health fornew vulnerable populations populations worldwide, worldwide, despite many despite new many interventions and scientific discoveries making populations populations worldwide, worldwide, despite many despite new many new interventions interventions and scientific anddiscoveries scientific discoveries making making interventions interventions and scientific and discoveries scientific discoveries making ranging making strides against stigmatized conditions ranging strides against strides stigmatized against stigmatized conditions conditions ranging strides against strides stigmatized against stigmatized conditions conditions ranging ranging from HIV/AIDS to to depression. a series ofIn from HIV/AIDS from HIV/AIDS depression. toIn depression. In a series of a series of from HIV/AIDS from to HIV/AIDS depression. to depression. InBioMed a (BMC), series In of a series of articles published in BioMed Central articles published articles in published BioMed Central in (BMC), Central (BMC), articles published articles in published BioMed Central in BioMed (BMC), Central (BMC), scientists areare calling forare stigma research totobe scientists scientists calling for stigma calling research for stigma research be to be scientists scientists are for stigma calling for stigma to research be be broken outout ofare silos that focus onon aresearch single condition broken broken of calling silos out that offocus silos that a focus single on condition a single to condition broken out broken of silos out that of focus silos on that a focus single on condition a single condition or population and instead develop approaches or population or population and instead and develop instead approaches develop approaches orcut population or illnesses, population and instead and develop instead approaches develop approaches that across demographics and that cut across that cut illnesses, across demographics illnesses, demographics andscientific scientific and scientific brainstormed how stigma brainstormed brainstormed how to to reduce reduce howhealth-related health-related to reduce health-related stigma stigma that cut across that cut illnesses, across demographics illnesses, demographics and scientific and scientific disciplines. Effective solutions will require the of disciplines. disciplines. Effective solutions Effective will solutions require will theexpertise require expertise the ofexpertise of brainstormed brainstormed how to populations reduce how health-related to reduce health-related stigma stigma across disease areas, and settings, settings, and acrossof disease across areas, disease populations areas, populations andand settings, and disciplines. disciplines. Effective solutions Effective will solutions require will the require expertise the of expertise researchers, practitioners, policymakers and researchers, researchers, practitioners, practitioners, policymakers policymakers andcommunity community and community across disease across areas, disease populations areas, populations and settings, and and settings, and refinedthe theagenda refined agendathe for global agenda global stigma stigma for global research. stigma“The research. “The refined for research. “The researchers, researchers, practitioners, practitioners, policymakers policymakers and community and community members, and members, transdisciplinary and transdisciplinary teams scientists teams of scientistsrefined therefined members, and transdisciplinary teams ofof scientists agenda the for agenda global stigma for global research. stigma “The research. “The collectionreflects reflects collection thereflects challenges, the challenges, priorities and collection the challenges, priorities and and members, and members, transdisciplinary and transdisciplinary teams ofsociology, scientists teams of scientists from public from health, public medicine, health, psychology, medicine, psychology, sociology, sociology, from public health, medicine, psychology, collection reflects collection thereflects challenges, thethe challenges, priorities and priorities and opportunities opportunities identified during identified the during workshop—including the workshop—including opportunities identified during workshop—including from public from health, public medicine, health, psychology, medicine, psychology, sociology, sociology, anthropology anthropology and other fields, and working other working fields, together, working according together, according anthropology and other fields, together, according opportunities opportunities identified during identified the during workshop—including the workshop—including dealingwith with dealing theethical ethical with challenges the challenges ethical challenges we face when dealing the we face when when anthropology anthropology and other fields, and other working fields, together, working according together, according to the authors toofthe of authors the “Collection of the “Collection on Stigma Research on Stigma and Research and with to the authors the “Collection on Stigma Research and dealing dealing the ethical with the challenges ethical challenges we face when we face when conducting conducting stigma research, stigma developing research, developing strategies strategies conducting stigma research, developing strategies to the authors to the of authors the “Collection of the “Collection on Stigma Research on Stigma and Research and Global Health.” Global Health.” Global Health.” conducting conducting stigma research, stigma developing research, developing strategies strategies engagestakeholders stakeholders to engage stakeholders and community community and community members, Global Health.” Global Health.” totoengage and members, members, to engage stakeholders to engage stakeholders andstigma community andstigma community members, determining determining how to study study how to study across conditions, acrossmembers, conditions, and and determining how to stigma across conditions, and Making such Making changes such changes stigma research to stigma would research helpto would to help to Making such changes to to stigma research would help determining determining how to study how stigma to study across stigma conditions, across conditions, and and deciding which deciding interventions which interventions are the most are effective the most at effective at Making such Making changes such to changes stigma research to stigma would research help would to help to interventions are the most effective at advance understanding advance understanding the drivers, of manifestations the manifestations drivers, manifestations and deciding and which advance understanding of of the drivers, and deciding which deciding interventions which interventions are the most are effective the most at effective at reducing stigma,” reducing said stigma,” Birbeck. said “Ultimately, Birbeck. “Ultimately, the advance understanding advance understanding oflead the to drivers, oflead the manifestations drivers, manifestations and reducing said Birbeck. “Ultimately, the aim aim of of the aim of outcomes of outcomes stigma, and of lead stigma, a unified to response a unified to and it, stigma,” outcomes of stigma, and to aand unified response totoresponse it,it, reducing stigma,” reducing said stigma,” Birbeck. said “Ultimately, Birbeck. “Ultimately, the aim ofisthe aim of the workshop the and workshop the collection and the of collection articles is of to articles improve outcomes of outcomes stigma, and of stigma, lead to and a unified lead to response a unified to response it, to it, the workshop and the collection of articles is to improveto improve collection the says. collection The impact says.ofThe of such impact shift of such stigma a shift in stigma thethe collection says. The impact such aa shift ininstigma the workshop the and workshop the collection and the of collection articles is of to articles improve is to improve livesaround around lives thearound world by by the catalyzing world by new new catalyzing research new research the collection the says. collection The impact says. The ofbesuch impact athe shift ofresearchers such in stigma athe shift in stigma lives the world catalyzing research research focus research would focus be would worldwide, feltthe worldwide, researchers research focus would be feltfelt worldwide, researchers lives around lives thearound world and by thecatalyzing world byhelp new catalyzing research new to research approaches approaches and collaborations collaborations that to that move help research focus research would focus be felt would worldwide, be felt worldwide, the researchers the researchers approaches and collaborations that help to move the the move the note, because, note, although because, although burden of stigma burden ofheaviest stigma is heaviest approaches approaches and collaborations and collaborations that help to that move help the to move the note, because, although thethe burden ofthe stigma isisheaviest criticalfield fieldcritical ofstigma stigma fieldresearch research of stigma forward.” research forward.” note, because, although because, the although burdenthe of(LMICs), stigma burdenis heaviest stigma is heaviest critical of forward.” in lowandnote, inmiddle-income lowand middle-income countries countries itof(LMICs), also it also critical fieldcritical of stigma fieldresearch of stigmaforward.” research forward.” in lowand middle-income countries (LMICs), it also in low- in and in middle-income low- in and middle-income countries (LMICs), countries it (LMICs), alsothe U.S. it also occurs developed occurs countries, developed including countries, the including U.S. occurs in developed including the U.S. The workshop The also workshop informed alsoainformed stigma research a stigmaprogram research program occurs in developed occurs countries, in countries, developed including countries, the including U.S. the U.S. The workshop also informed stigma research program program The workshop The also workshop informed alsoaaaimed informed stigma aaimed stigmaprogram launched by launched Fogarty by in Fogarty 2018, in 2018, atresearch improving atresearch HIV/ improving HIV/ “Breaking down “Breaking disease down silos disease and working silos and across working across launched by Fogarty in aimed at improving HIV/ launched by launched Fogarty by in 2018, Fogarty 2018, aimed in 2018, at improving aimed improving HIV/ “Breaking down disease silos and working across AIDS prevention, AIDS prevention, treatment and treatment care inand LMICs. care at This inHIV/ LMICs. This “Breaking down “Breaking disease down silos disease and working silos and across working across disciplines disciplines and scientist-community and scientist-community member boundaries member boundaries AIDS prevention, treatment and care in LMICs. This AIDS prevention, AIDS prevention, treatment and treatment care in and LMICs. care This in LMICs. This disciplines and scientist-community member boundaries effort builds effort on the builds Center’s on the previous Center’sstigma previous program, stigma program, disciplines and scientist-community and scientist-community member boundaries member boundaries would allowdisciplines would us to allow effectively us to address effectively health-related address health-related stigma stigma effort builds on Center’s previous stigma program, effort builds effort onthe the builds on that the previous Center’s stigma previous program, stigma program, would allow us to to effectively address health-related stigma begun in 2002, begun that in Center’s 2002, awarded $17 awarded million $17 through million 18through 18 would allow would us allow effectively us to address effectively health-related address health-related stigma stigma and enhance and health enhance equity health globally,” equitysaid globally,” Fogarty said advisory Fogartybegun advisory in 2002, that awarded $17 million through 18through 18 begun in 2002, begun that in 2002, awarded that $17 awarded million $17 through million 18 andand enhance health equity globally,” said Fogarty advisory awards. awards. enhance and health enhance equity health globally,” equity said globally,” Fogarty said advisory Fogarty advisory board member board and member grantee, and Dr. grantee, Gretchen Dr.Birbeck, Gretchen who Birbeck,awards. who awards. awards. board member and grantee, Dr.Dr. Gretchen Birbeck, who board board and member grantee, and grantee, Gretchen Dr. Birbeck, Gretchen who Birbeck, who edited member the collection. edited the collection. “While medical “While advances medical put advances better put better stigma For science stigma to continue science totocontinue advance,toscientists advance, scientists edited thethe collection. “While medical advances put better edited collection. edited the “While medical advances medical put advances better put For better health within health reach within ofcollection. many, reach stigma of“While many, deters stigma care-seeking, deters care-seeking, For stigma to advance, scientists For stigma For science to continue continue science toto tocontinue toscientists advance, must focusscience must on stigma developing, focus on developing, securing funding securing for, fundingscientists for, health within reach of many, stigma deters care-seeking, health within health reach within of many, reach stigma of many, deters stigma care-seeking, deters care-seeking, which generates which or generates perpetuates or perpetuates health inequities,” health inequities,” added added must focus on developing, securing funding for, must focus must on developing, focus on developing, securing securing for, funding said for, implementing implementing and scalingand up scaling interventions, up interventions, said which generates or perpetuates health inequities,” added which generates which or generates perpetuates or perpetuates health inequities,” health inequities,” added added Birbeck, a Birbeck, University a University of Rochester of professor Rochesterwho professor spendswho spends implementing and scaling up interventions, said implementing implementing and scaling and up scaling interventions, up interventions, said said Birbeck. These Birbeck. interventions These interventions must take into mustaccount take into account Birbeck, a her University of Rochester professor spends Birbeck, a Birbeck, University a University of Rochester of professor Rochester who professor spends who spends most of most timeof providing her time clinical providing care clinical andwho conducting care and conducting Birbeck. These must take into account Birbeck. These Birbeck. interventions interventions must must account take account new challenges. newinterventions challenges. ForThese example, For asexample, treatments as treatments for HIVinto for HIV most of her time providing clinical care and conducting most of her most time of providing her time clinical providing care clinical and conducting care and conducting research inresearch Zambia. in Zambia. new challenges. new challenges. For example, For as example, as treatments for HIV for HIV new challenges. For example, as treatments for HIV improve, people improve, withpeople the virus withare theliving viruslonger are living and longer and research inresearch Zambia. in Zambia. research in Zambia. improve, people improve, with people the virus with are the virus longer are living and longer and improve, people with the virus are living longer and are at greater are risk at greater of becoming risk of disabled becoming ordisabled developing or developing Often ingrained Oftenin ingrained cultural in norms cultural andnorms institutional and institutionalare at greater are risk ator greater of becoming risk of disabled becoming ordisabled developing or developing are at greater risk of becoming disabled developing cancer, epilepsy cancer, epilepsy another or noncommunicable another noncommunicable disease disease Often ingrained Often in ingrained cultural in norms cultural and norms institutional and institutional Often ingrained in is cultural norms and to institutional policies, stigma policies, astigma powerful is abarrier powerful better barrierhealth to better health cancer, epilepsy cancer, or epilepsy another or noncommunicable another noncommunicable disease disease cancer, epilepsy or another noncommunicable disease that also carries that also a burden carries of a stigma. burden “The of stigma. next stage “The next stage policies, stigma policies, is a stigma powerful is a barrier powerful to better barrier health to better health policies, a Community, powerful to better health for all.stigma Community, for is all. culturalbarrier and cultural institutional and institutional attitudes attitudes that also carries that also a burden carries of a stigma. burden “The of stigma. next stage “The next stage that also carries a burden of the stigma. next stage for stigma science for stigma has science to be has development to be the development and and for all. Community, for all. Community, cultural and cultural institutional and institutional attitudes attitudes for to all. Community, cultural and institutional attitudes people with to people stigmatized with stigmatized conditions, conditions, along with along with for stigma science for stigma has science to be the has development to be the development and and for stigma science to beof the development implementation implementation ofhas scalable interventions scalable interventions that and address that address to people with to people stigmatized with stigmatized conditions, conditions, along with to people with stigmatized conditions, along with internalized internalized stigma that stigma an individual that an might individual feel, along might and with feel, and implementation implementation of scalable scalable of interventions scalable interventions that address that “Not address implementation of interventions that address the intersectionality the intersectionality of stigma,” of said stigma,” Birbeck. said “Not Birbeck. internalized internalized stigma that stigma an individual that an might individual feel, might and feel, and internalized stigma that an discrimination individual might and the prejudice, the discrimination prejudice, and stereotyping andfeel, stereotyping they theythe intersectionality the intersectionality of stigma,” of said stigma,” Birbeck. said “Not Birbeck. “Not the intersectionality of this stigma,” Birbeck. “Not only wouldonly this would complement complement thesaid understanding the understanding that that prejudice, discrimination prejudice, discrimination and stereotyping and stereotyping they they thethe prejudice, discrimination and stereotyping they face, must the face, be addressed must be addressed by research, byaccording research, to according the to only the wouldonly thiscomplement would complement this complement the understanding the understanding that that scientists scientists have already of the have causes, of the manifestations causes, manifestations only would already this the understanding that face, must face, be addressed must be addressed by research, by according research, to according the to the BMC collection, collection, which by wasresearch, which inspired was byinspired a 2017 to workshop bythe a 2017 workshop face, must beBMC addressed according scientists already scientists have already of the have causes, of the manifestations causes, manifestations and outcomes and of outcomes stigma, of it couldbut improve it could the improve health the health scientists already have of but thestigma, causes, manifestations BMC collection, BMC collection, which was which inspired was a 2017 workshop by a Health 2017 workshop convened by convened Fogarty’s byCenter Fogarty’s for Global Center Health for Global Studies. Studies. BMC collection, which was inspired byby ainspired 2017 workshop and outcomes and of outcomes stigma, but of stigma, it could couldbut improve it could the improve health of millions of worldwide.” millions worldwide.” and outcomes of stigma, but it improve the health the health convened by convened Fogarty’s by Center Fogarty’s for Global Center Health for Global Studies. Health Studies. convened by Fogarty’s Center for Global Health Studies. of millions of worldwide.” millions worldwide.” of millions worldwide.” During three During days three of meetings, days of U.S. meetings, and LMIC U.S. experts and LMIC experts During three During days three of meetings, days of U.S. meetings, and LMIC U.S. experts and LMIC experts RESOURCERESOURCE During three days of meetings, U.S. and LMIC experts 3 RESOURCERESOURCE 32 Delaware Journal of Public Health – May 2019 3 http://bit.ly/stigmaBIOMED RES OURCE http://bit.ly/stigmaBIOMED 3 http://bit.ly/stigmaBIOMED http://bit.ly/stigmaBIOMED
PPPRRROOO FFF III LLL EEE Fogarty Fellow fights Fogarty FogartyFellow Fellow fights fights cholera in Bangladesh cholera cholerain in Bangladesh Bangladesh By Karin Zeitvogel ByByKarin KarinZeitvogel Zeitvogel
Dr. Eric Nelson still vividly remembers the distraught Dr. Eric Nelson still vividly remembers the distraught Dr. Eric vividly remembers distraught father heNelson met instill Dhaka when he was a the Fogarty Fellow father hehemet ininDhaka when he was aa Fogarty Fellow father met Dhaka when he was Fogarty in 2005-06. “Holding his daughter in his arms, Fellow he inin2005-06. “Holding his in arms, he 2005-06. “Holding hisdaughter daughter in his his arms,three he gripped my arm and implored, ‘Doctor, I have gripped my arm and implored, ‘Doctor, I have three gripped my arm and implored, ‘Doctor, I have three children. Two died yesterday from cholera. Please save children. Two died children. Two diedyesterday yesterday fromcholera. cholera. Please Please save save this child,’” Nelson recalled. from this thischild,’” child,’”Nelson Nelsonrecalled. recalled.
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Nelson was paired with Dr. Ashraf Khan from Nelson waspaired paired with Dr.Ashraf Ashraf Khan from Nelson was with Dr. Khan from Bangladesh for the year-long Fogarty fellowship. After Bangladesh for the year-long Fogarty fellowship. After Bangladesh for theatyear-long fellowship. After training together NIH, the Fogarty two researched different training together at NIH, the two researched different training together at NIH, theNelson two researched different topics in Bangladesh, with focusing on cholera topics Bangladesh, withNelson Nelsonfocusing focusing on on cholera cholera topics ininBangladesh, transmission in mice.with transmission in mice. transmission in mice. Nelson’s days started before dawn, when he would Nelson’s daysfrom started beforepond dawn, when he would would pump water a Dhaka into a barrel on the Nelson’s days started before dawn, when he pump water from a Dhaka pond into a barrel on the the back water of a flatbed and then pump from arickshaw Dhaka pond into accompany a barrel on the back of a flatbed rickshaw and then accompany the rickshaw to the rickshaw hospital. Throughout the day, hethe would back of a flatbed and then accompany rickshaw to the hospital. Throughout the day,and he would run between the “mouse-house,” the hospital lab, rickshaw to the hospital. Throughout the day, he would run between thetime “mouse-house,” the hospital and lab, always making to study and analyze what was run between the “mouse-house,” the hospital and lab, always making time to study and analyze what was going making on around him. “As a Fellow, I learned how to be always time to study and analyze what was going on aroundand him.how “Asto a Fellow, I learned how to be a good observer act on those observations, going on around him. “As a Fellow, I learned how to be a goodasobserver and how to improve act on those observations, building tools that care observations, in challenging a such good observer and how to act on those such as building tools that improve care in challenging environments,” Nelson said. such as building tools that improve care in challenging environments,” Nelson said. environments,” Nelson said. As often happens in science, one project or idea led to As often happens in as science, one project or idea led to another. For weeks, he watched the Bangladeshi lab Asanother. often happens in science, one project or idea led to For weeks, as he watched the Bangladeshi lab technician who was studying samples under a darkfield another. For who weeks, as he watched the under Bangladeshi lab technician was studying samples a darkfield microscope to see which ones contained cholera and technician who waswhich studying under a darkfield microscope toNelson see onessamples contained and which didn’t, mentally calculated cholera that around microscope to see which ones contained cholera and which didn’t, Nelson mentally calculated that around half were autoclaved, meaning they were cholera-free. which didn’t, Nelson mentally calculated around half autoclaved, meaning were that cholera-free. Thatwere discovery eventually led tothey published papers in half were autoclaved, meaning they were cholera-free. That discovery eventually led to published papers which Nelson identified key factors that contributeinto That discovery ledfactors to published papers into which Nelson eventually identified key that contribute the understanding of cholera transmission. “One was which Nelson identified key factors that contribute to the understanding of cholera transmission. “One was starvation of Vibrio cholerae in nutrient-limited pond the understanding of cholera transmission. “One was starvation of Vibrio cholerae in nutrient-limited pond water, and the second was predation by little viruses starvation ofthe Vibrio cholerae inkill nutrient-limited pond water, and second was predation bycholerae,” little viruses called phages that infect and the V. water, and the second was predation by little viruses called phages that infect and kill the V. cholerae,” Nelson explained. “About half the samples that were called phages that infect and kill V. cholerae,” Nelson explained. “About half thethe samples that were autoclaved had these viral particles.” autoclaved had these viral particles.” Nelson explained. “About half the samples that were autoclaved had these viral particles.” As he continued his research, Nelson found antibiotics As he continued research, Nelson antibiotics in the majority ofhis cholera patients whofound insisted they in the majority of cholera patients who insisted they As he continued his research, Nelson found antibiotics 4 in the majority of cholera patients who insisted they
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2005-2006 2005-2006 2005-2006 Int’l Center for Diarrheal Disease Research, Bangladesh Int’lCenter Centerfor forDiarrheal DiarrhealDisease DiseaseResearch, Research, Bangladesh Int’l Bangladesh Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, MassachusettsGeneral General Hospital,Harvard Harvard Medical School, Massachusetts Medical School, Tufts University School ofHospital, Medicine TuftsUniversity UniversitySchool SchoolofofMedicine Medicine Tufts Research areas: Cholera transmission Research areas: areas: Cholera Choleratransmission transmission Research
hadn’t taken the drugs. What this said to Nelson was hadn’t taken drugs. What said was hadn’t taken the the drugs.cholera Whatthis this saidtotoNelson Nelson was that scientists studying transmission have to that scientists studying cholera transmission have toto that scientists studying transmission think not only about howcholera phage particles affect have cholera think not only about how phage particles affect cholera think not onlybut about phage particles affect cholera transmission also how about how antibiotics do. That transmission but also about do. transmission but also about how antibiotics do.That That finding, in turn, led Nelson tohow helpantibiotics create a tool, which finding, turn, led totohelp a atool, which finding, in turn,antibiotic ledNelson Nelson helpcreate create tool, which seeks to in change prescription habits among seeks change prescription habits among seeks to to Thirteen change antibiotic antibiotic prescription habits among doctors. years after the fellowship, Nelson and doctors. Thirteen years the fellowship, Nelson doctors. Thirteen yearsafter after the fellowship, Nelsonand and Khan officially conducted their first project together in Khan their Khan officially officially their firstproject projecttogether together 2018, running conducted aconducted clinical trial tofirst test whether this toolinin 2018, running aaclinical trial tototest whether this tool was more effective in paper form or as a mobile phone 2018, running clinical trial test whether this tool was more effective in paper form or as a mobile phone app changing thein behavior of doctors was at more effective paper form or as amanaging mobile phone app behavior diarrheal diseasethe in challenging environments. The trial, app at at changing changing the behaviorofofdoctors doctorsmanaging managing diarrheal disease in challenging environments. which looked at doctors’ decision-making processes diarrheal disease in challenging environments.The Thetrial, trial, which looked at doctors’ decision-making processes when fluid replacement and prescribing whichordering looked at doctors’ decision-making processes when ordering and prescribing antibiotics, notfluid only replacement achieved some significant outcomes when ordering fluid replacement and prescribing antibiotics, not only achieved some significant outcomes but also exemplified the “international collaboration that antibiotics, not only achieved some significant outcomes but also exemplified the “international collaboration that the NIH and Fogarty make possible, and the huge return but also exemplified the “international collaboration that the NIH and Fogarty make possible, and the huge return on that Fogarty whenand it supports earlytheinvestment NIH and Fogarty make gets possible, the huge return on investment that Fogarty gets when it supports earlycareer researchers,” Nelson said. on investment that Fogarty gets when it supports earlycareer researchers,” Nelson said. career researchers,” Nelson said. Nelson was recruited during his Fogarty fellowship by Nelson was recruited during his Fogarty by on then-director of icddr,b, Dr. David Sack, fellowship to collaborate Nelson was recruited during his Fogarty fellowship by then-director of icddr,b, Dr. David Sack, to collaborate a method to rapidly train personnel to manage cholera on then-director of icddr,b, Dr. David Sack, to collaborate a method to rapidly train personnel to manage cholera on and shigellosis outbreaks in resource-poor settings. a method to rapidly train in personnel to manage cholera and shigellosis outbreaks resource-poor settings. Called Cholera Outbreak Training and Shigellosis and shigellosis outbreaksTraining in resource-poor settings. Called Cholera Outbreak and Shigellosis (COTS), the method he helped to devise has since been Called Cholera Outbreak Training and Shigellosis (COTS), the method he helped to devise since been used globally. An updated version is parthas of an immersive (COTS), the method he helped to devise has since been used globally. An updated version is part of an immersive one-week outbreak response course Nelson leads in used globally. An updated version isNelson part ofleads an immersive one-week outbreak response course in Haiti. one-week outbreak response course Nelson leads in Haiti. Haiti. Nelson attributes the innovative projects he’s been Nelson thesupport innovative projects he’s been involvedattributes with to the he got from Fogarty and NIH Nelson attributes the innovative projects he’s involved with to the support he got from Fogarty and NIH as an early-career scientist. “Every aspect of mybeen research involved with to the support he got from Fogarty andare NIH as an early-career scientist. “Every aspect of my research has been positively impacted by Fogarty, in ways that as an early-career scientist. “Every aspect of my research has been positively impacted by Fogarty, in ways that are still declaring themselves,” he summarized. “Had Fogarty still declaring summarized. has put been impacted by Fogarty, in“Had waysFogarty that are not mepositively at themselves,” the bench forhe a year in Bangladesh, my not put me at the bench for a year in Bangladesh, still declaring he summarized. “Had my Fogarty portfolio wouldthemselves,” either be empty or filled by traditional portfolio would either be empty or filled by traditional not putscience.” me at the bench for a year in Bangladesh, my bench bench science.” portfolio would either be empty or filled by traditional bench science.” 33
Photo courtesy of Dr. Eric Nelson
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Fogarty Fellow: Fogarty Fellow: Fellow: Fogarty Fellowship at: Fellowship at: at: Fellowship U.S. partners: U.S. partners: partners: U.S.
Photo Photo courtesy courtesy of Dr. of Dr. EricEric Nelson Nelson
© 2016 © 2016 Sean Sean G. Smith G. Smith / Critical-Care / Critical-Care Professionals Professionals International, International, Courtesy Courtesy of Photoshare of Photoshare
“In 2005, no one should have been dying of cholera,” “In 2005, no have been dying “In 2005, noone oneshould should have been dying of of cholera,” cholera,” Nelson said. “To me, this simple meeting expressed Nelson said. “To me, this simple meeting expressed Nelson said. “To me, this simple meeting expressed failings at so many levels and crystallized my purpose failings many levels andcrystallized crystallized my my purpose purpose failings atatsosomany levels and as a researcher and clinician.” as a researcher and clinician.” as a researcher and clinician.”
Eric J. Nelson, M.D., Ph.D. Eric J. J. Nelson, Nelson, M.D., M.D.,Ph.D. Ph.D. Eric
Q&A
JON ATHAN S AMET, M.D., M.S.
Dr. Jonathan Samet has spent decades researching the health risks of inhaled pollutants, including secondhand smoke and particles in outdoor air such as those in vehicle exhaust. A longtime Fogarty and NIH grantee, he has conducted research around the world, including in China, Latin America and Africa. A pulmonary physician and epidemiologist, Samet was named dean of the Colorado School of Public Health in 2017. Previously, he was the director of the University of Southern California (USC) Institute for Global Health, and a professor and chair of the department of epidemiology at Johns Hopkins University’s Bloomberg School of Public Health.
What impact has your tobacco research had?
What has this research achieved so far?
The Fogarty-supported tobacco projects I’ve been involved with have seeded many important things. When I first went to China in 1995, for instance, there was one person doing tobacco control with a tiny budget. There were smoke-free zones in the airport and everyone would be smoking in them. That has changed, and work funded by Fogarty, the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation and, more recently, the Bloomberg Initiative, has played a big role in bringing about those changes. Today, social norms around secondhand smoke have shifted, and an increasing number of Chinese cities, including Beijing and Shanghai, have restrictions on smoking in public places.
In Kampala and Addis Ababa, we’ve completed a complicated assessment of child respiratory health in relation to air pollution. After identifying schools with a range of air pollution levels, we put an air quality monitor in each of 10 schools in both cities. We’ve collected data about respiratory health and measured lung function in about 1,000 children—100 from each school. We’ve also installed centrally located monitors in each city.
Fogarty support also helped to start the tobacco control program at the National Institute for Public Health of Mexico, which has become a regional leader in tobacco research and training. But there’s still work to do because there’s always a new issue in tobacco control. Who was talking about vaping three years ago? That crept up on us, and today, it’s hugely popular among young people.
What is your current Fogarty project? As part of the GEOHealth Hubs program, supported by Fogarty, the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS), CDC and Canada’s International Development Research Centre, we're putting in place monitors for airborne particles in the capital cities of Ethiopia, Kenya, Rwanda and Uganda, to try to understand what air pollution levels are. Our focus is on capacity building and helping to develop scientists in East Africa who do environmental health work and want to advance policy through research. Fogarty’s aim is to develop researchers who can generate the evidence needed to affect policy, and be willing to step in and talk with policymakers about what their evidence shows. We’re giving them the tools to do that. 34 Delaware Journal of Public Health – May 2019
What challenges have you faced? When we started this work five or six years ago, there were very limited monitoring data available in Africa, there were some people involved in air pollution research and control, but no real enforcement capacity. The sources of air pollution in major cities are themselves complicated—things like trash burning, factories spewing out smoke, diesel vehicles. A lot of the world’s older diesel vehicles—the ones that blast out black smoke when they go down the street—have ended up in Africa. There are the problems that arise from using fuels that pollute indoors and outdoors, whether it’s burning wood or biomass, charcoal or animal dung. While the problem is well recognized, what to do about it is a challenge. Communication of risk is another challenge. With air pollution, people know it’s bad when the levels are extraordinary. Your eyes burn, you can’t see, there’s no question that it’s harming you. But as levels go down, people learn to live with pollution.
What can the US learn from this research? Although the U.S. has made great progress in bringing down air pollution, it remains a global issue. The pollution generated in China, for example, circulates around the world. So when there’s control as a result of research in China or Africa, there are benefits to Americans. Steps that are taken to reduce air pollution locally also are expected to have benefits in terms of greenhouse gas emissions.
5
FFOOCCUUSS FOCUS
Fogarty Fogartyprograms programsbuild buildcapacity capacityand andspur spurNCD NCDresearch research Fogarty programs build capacity and spur NCD research
By Shana Shana Potash Potash ByBy Shana Potash By Shana Potash
AAA
Photo by China Photos/Getty Images Photo Photo Photo by byChina China by China Photos/Getty Photos/Getty Photos/Getty Images Images Images
tt the t the start start of the the century, century, as the the threat threat of noncomnoncomthe start of of the century, asas the threat of of noncommunicable municable diseases diseases (NCDs) (NCDs) inthe in the the developing developing world world t the start of the century, asin threat of noncommunicable diseases (NCDs) the developing world was was emerging, emerging, Fogarty Fogarty launched launched adeveloping series a series of of programs programs municable diseases (NCDs) in thea world was emerging, Fogarty launched series of programs to prepare prepare local local scientists scientists tolaunched to address address the looming looming crisis, crisis, was emerging, Fogartyto a the series of programs to to prepare local scientists address the looming crisis, which claims claims 3232 million million lives lives each each year. year. Between Between 2001 2001 and and to which prepare local scientists to address theBetween looming crisis, which claims 32 million lives each year. 2001 and 2017, 2017, Fogarty Fogarty and and itsits NIH NIH partners partners invested invested nearly nearly $80 $80 which claims 32 million lives each year. Between 2001 and 2017, Fogarty and its NIH partners invested nearly $80 million million to to establish establish NCD NCD research research partnerships partnerships between between 2017, Fogarty and its NIHresearch partners invested nearly $80 million to establish NCD partnerships between U.S. U.S. and and lowlowand and middle-income middle-income countries countries (LMICs) (LMICs) million tolowestablish NCD research countries partnerships between U.S. and and middle-income (LMICs) institutions, institutions, and and build build related related research research training training programs. programs. U.S. and low-and and middle-income countries (LMICs) institutions, build related research training programs. institutions, and build related research training programs. Under Under the the Fogarty Fogarty programs, programs, more more than than 600 600 investigators investigators Under the Fogarty programs, more than 600 investigators have have received received long-term long-term NCD NCD research research training training and, and, along along Under the Fogarty programs, more thantraining 600 investigators have received long-term NCD research and, along with with their their mentors, mentors, have have addressed addressed a variety variety atraining variety of of topics topics from from have received long-term NCD research and, along with their mentors, have addressed a of topics from with their mentors, have addressed a variety of topics from
Noncommunicable Noncommunicable diseases diseases (NCDs) (NCDs) claim claim 32 million million lives lives in in developing countries countries Noncommunicable diseases (NCDs) claim 3232 million lives in developing developing countries each each year. year. To To help help address address thethe epidemic, epidemic, Fogarty Fogarty hashas supported supported NCD NCD research research each year. To help address epidemic, has supported NCD research Noncommunicable diseasesthe (NCDs) claimFogarty 32 million lives in developing countries and training training programs programs since since 2001. 2001. andand training since 2001. each year. Toprograms help address the epidemic, Fogarty has supported NCD research and training programs since 2001.
cardiovascular cardiovascular disease disease to aging aging disorders, disorders, and and mental mental cardiovascular disease to to aging disorders, and mental health health to to environmental environmental health, health, publishing publishing nearly nearly 1,000 1,000 cardiovascular disease tohealth, aging disorders, and mental health to environmental publishing nearly 1,000 articles. articles. Researchers Researchers have have examined examined NCDs NCDs across across the the health toResearchers environmental health, publishing nearly 1,000 articles. have examined NCDs across the lifespan; lifespan; sought sought to to understand understand how how diseases diseases interact interact articles. Researchers have examined NCDs across the lifespan; sought to understand how diseases interact with with each each other; other; and and explored explored risk risk factors factors and and other other lifespan; sought to understand how diseases interact with each other; and explored risk factors and other cross-cutting cross-cutting issues. issues. InIn addition addition to factors to research research and and training, training, with each other; and explored risk and other cross-cutting issues. In addition to research and training, the the nearly nearly 8080 funded funded projects projects spurred spurred the the creation creation of of cross-cutting issues. In addition to research and training, the nearly 80 funded projects spurred the creation of curricula curricula and and degree degree programs, programs, and and new new health health practices practices the nearlyand 80 funded projects spurred the creation of curricula degree programs, and new health practices and and policies policies indegree in countries countries throughout throughout the the developing developing curricula andin programs, and new health practices and policies countries throughout the developing world. world. and policies in countries throughout the developing world. world.
Noncommunicablediseases diseasesare a complexproblem, problem, Noncommunicable diseases areareaa complex complex problem, “ “Noncommunicable diseases are a complex problem, “ Noncommunicable and andresearch researchand andtraining trainingneeds needscontinue continueto evolve. ” and research and training needs continue to toevolve. evolve. and research and training needs continue to evolve. ” ”
— — DR. ROGER ROGER I.I. GL I. ASS, GL ASS, FOGART FOGART YY DIRECTOR Y DIRECTOR — DR. DR. ROGER GL ASS, FOGART DIRECTOR — DR. ROGER I. GL ASS, FOGART Y DIRECTOR Three Three of Fogarty’s Fogarty’s NCD NCD programs programs were were reviewed reviewed recently recently Three of of Fogarty’s NCD programs were reviewed recently by by the the Center’s Center’s Division Division for for International International Science Science Policy, Policy, Three of Fogarty’s NCD programs were reviewed recently by the Center’s Division for International Science Policy, Planning Planning and and Evaluation Evaluation to to determine determine how how the the initiatives initiatives by the Center’s Division for International Science Policy, Planning and Evaluation to determine how the initiatives enhanced enhanced research research collaborations collaborations and and built built sustainable sustainable Planning and Evaluation to determine how the initiatives enhanced research collaborations and built sustainable research research capacity capacity in in NCDs. NCDs. The The team team examined examined grant and and enhanced research collaborations and built sustainable research capacity in NCDs. The team examined grant grant and publications publications data, data, surveyed surveyed U.S. U.S. investigators investigators and and foreign foreign research capacity in NCDs. The team examined grant and publications data, surveyed U.S. investigators and foreign collaborators, collaborators, and and interviewed interviewed Fogarty Fogarty staff staff to determine determine publications data, surveyed U.S. investigators and foreign collaborators, and interviewed Fogarty staff to to determine the the impact impact of of the the NCD NCD programs. programs. The The findings findings have have been collaborators, and interviewed Fogarty staff to determine the impact of the NCD programs. The findings have been been posted posted online online and and include include recommendations recommendations for for future future the impact of the NCD programs. The findings have been posted online and include recommendations for future priorities. priorities. posted online and include recommendations for future priorities. priorities. The The evaluation evaluation and and the the latest latest Fogarty Fogarty funding funding The evaluation and the latest Fogarty funding opportunities opportunities for for NCD NCD research research training training programs come come The evaluation and the latest Fogarty funding opportunities for NCD research training programs programs come at at a critical a critical time. time. Heart Heart disease, disease, cancer, cancer, diabetes diabetes and and opportunities for NCD research training programs come at a critical time. Heart disease, cancer, diabetes and other other NCDs NCDs disproportionately disproportionately affect people people in poorer poorer at a critical time. Heart disease,affect cancer, diabetes and other NCDs disproportionately affect people in in poorer countries. countries. More More than than three-quarters three-quarters of of all all NCD NCD deaths deaths other NCDs disproportionately affect people in poorer countries. More than three-quarters of all NCD deaths globally globally occur occur in in LMICs, LMICs, according according to to the the WHO. WHO. Driven Driven countries. More than three-quarters of all NCD deaths globally occur in LMICs, according to the WHO. Driven by by an an aging aging population, population, rapid rapid urbanization, urbanization, unhealthy unhealthy globally occur in LMICs, according to the WHO. Driven by an aging population, rapid urbanization, unhealthy lifestyles lifestyles and and other other forces, forces, the the burden burden of these these chronic chronic by an aging population, rapid urbanization, unhealthy lifestyles and other forces, the burden of of these chronic diseases diseases is is expected expected to to increase increase further further unless unless proven proven lifestyles and other forces, the burden of these chronic diseases is expected to increase further unless proven interventions interventions are are implemented. implemented. Part Part of of that that challenge, challenge, diseases is expected to increase further unless proven interventions are implemented. Part of that challenge, as asas noted noted in in a 2018 a 2018 WHO WHO report, report, is is that that many many countries countries lack lack interventions are implemented. Part of that challenge, as noted in a 2018 WHO report, is that many countries lack research research capacity. capacity. noted in a 2018 WHO report, is that many countries lack research capacity. research capacity. “Noncommunicable “Noncommunicable diseases diseases are are a a complex problem, problem, “Noncommunicable diseases are a complex complex problem, and and research research and and training training needs needs continue continue to to evolve,” evolve,” “Noncommunicable diseases are a complex problem, and research and training needs continue to evolve,” said said Fogarty Fogarty Director Director Dr. Dr. Roger Roger I. Glass. I. Glass. “This “This evaluation evaluation and research and training needs continue to evolve,” said Fogarty Director Dr. Roger I. Glass. “This evaluation shows shows the the substantial substantial progress progress we we have have made made but but also also said Fogarty Director Dr. Roger I. Glass. “This evaluation shows the substantial progress we have made but also points points out out the the tremendous tremendous need need for for continued continued support.” support.” shows the substantial progress we have made but also points out the tremendous need for continued support.” points out the tremendous need for continued support.”
Resources: Resources: http://bit.ly/NCDResearchEval http://bit.ly/NCDResearchEval Resources: http://bit.ly/NCDResearchEval Resources: http://bit.ly/NCDResearchEval
35
FOCUS ON NONCOMMUNICABLE DISEASES FOCUS ON NONCOMMUNICABLE DISEASES
Programs evolved to meet new challenges Programs evolved to meet new challenges Fogarty’s NCD research training programs began with
Fogarty’s NCD research training programs began with 14 grants awarded through the International Clinical, 14 grants awarded through the International Clinical, Operational and Health Services Research and Training Operational and Health Services Research and Training Award (ICOHRTA) in 2001. Several years later, after an Award (ICOHRTA) in 2001. Several years later, after an update to the Global Burden of Disease Study highlighted update to the Global Burden of Disease Study highlighted the NCDs with the highest burden in developing countries, the NCDs with the highest burden in developing countries, Fogarty launched another program focusing on cancer, Fogarty launched another program focusing on cancer, lung disease, diabetes and cardiovascular disease, known lung disease, diabetes and cardiovascular disease, known as the Noncommunicable Chronic Diseases Research as the Noncommunicable Chronic Diseases Research Training Program (NCoD). Those two programs were Training Program (NCoD). Those two programs were eventually consolidated into a new initiative when program eventually consolidated into a new initiative when program officer Dr. Kathleen Michels recognized the need for a officer Dr. Kathleen Michels recognized the need for a more holistic approach. The Chronic, Noncommunicable more holistic approach. The Chronic, Noncommunicable Diseases and Disorders Across the Lifespan Research Diseases and Disorders Across the Lifespan Research Training Program (NCD-Lifespan), which began in fiscal year Training Program (NCD-Lifespan), which began in fiscal year 2011 and continues today, emphasizes research across the 2011 and continues today, emphasizes research across the aging continuum and aims to support the science needed to aging continuum and aims to support the science needed to develop and implement evidence-based interventions. develop and implement evidence-based interventions. While not part of the evaluation, Fogarty has also seeded the While not part of the evaluation, Fogarty has also seeded the NCD researcher pipeline through other programs focused on NCD researcher pipeline through other programs focused on brain disorders, trauma and injury, and tobacco cessation. brain disorders, trauma and injury, and tobacco cessation. In addition, the Center has broadened the disciplines In addition, the Center has broadened the disciplines included in its Fellows and Scholars program to include included in its Fellows and Scholars program to include cardiology, diabetes, cancer, kidney disease and other NCD cardiology, diabetes, cancer, kidney disease and other NCD specialties. specialties.
NCD research training programs have impact NCD research training programs have impact The three NCD programs combined provided substantial The three NCD programs combined provided substantial training for 660 scientists. Those opportunities, which training for 660 scientists. Those opportunities, which lasted six months or more, included fellowships and lasted six months or more, included fellowships and certificate programs, master’s degrees, research and certificate programs, master’s degrees, research and professional doctorate degrees, and postdoc positions. professional doctorate degrees, and postdoc positions. Nearly half of the long-term participants were in nonNearly half of the long-term participants were in non-
degree programs. While long-term activities were the core degree programs. While long-term activities were the core of the programs, most grants also offered workshops of the programs, most grants also offered workshops and other short-term opportunities to enhance skills in and other short-term opportunities to enhance skills in specific areas such as lab techniques, grant writing and specific areas such as lab techniques, grant writing and research protocol development. research protocol development. As signs of success, trainees and grantees were able to As signs of success, trainees and grantees were able to leverage their experiences to obtain funding for further leverage their experiences to obtain funding for further research or research training projects. Half of the survey research or research training projects. Half of the survey respondents reported having at least one trainee who respondents reported having at least one trainee who
Top Categories of NCD Articles 2003-2015 Top Categories of NCD Articles 2003-2015
Note: Articles can focus on more than one research area. As such, a grant can be counted in more than one NCD category Note: Articles can focus on more than one research area. As such, a grant can be counted in more than one NCD category
NCD category NCD category
Mental Health/Behavioral Health Mental Health/Behavioral Health Risk Factors Risk Factors Diseases Cardiovascular Cardiovascular Diseases Substance Abuse/Addiciton Substance Abuse/Addiciton Cancers Cancers Metabolic/Gastro/Digestive Kidney Disorders Metabolic/Gastro/Digestive HIV/STIs/Infectious DiseasesKidney Disorders HIV/STIs/Infectious Diseases Trauma/Injury Trauma/Injury Neurological/Developmental Disorders Neurological/Developmental Disorders Maternal/Child Health Maternal/Child Reproductive Health Reproductive Environmental/Occupational Health Environmental/Occupational Health Bone Diseases BoneDiseases Diseases Eye Eye DiseasesDiseases Respiratory Respiratory Oral Health Diseases Oral AgingHealth Disorders Aging Disorders Grand Total Grand Total
2003 2004 2003 2004
1 1
1 1 1 1
2 2
36 Delaware Journal of Public Health – May 2019
1 1
2 2
2005 2005
2006 2006
2007 2007
2008 2008
4 14 12 22 22 23 3
3 3
2 21 1
5 5
7 7
21 21
4 4
5 5 3 13 1
16 16
2 2
3 13 31 33 3
15 15
12 124 4
1 81 83 23 22 2
2009 2009
13 136 26 26 61 21 62 56 25 2
2 2
2010 2010
10 108 18 17 107 10 4 44 42 2 2 2
1 1
1 12 12 1
1 1
38 38
47 47
49 49
2011 2011
10 10 11 116 66 68 18 14 64 36 13 11 21 21 1
2012 2012
15 15 17 17 14 14 13 13 11 116 26 72 67 62 22 21 21 2
2013 2013
2014 2014
3 23 21 1
1 1
9 9 25 25 15 15 11 11 13 13 11 11 6 66 96 9
2 21 1 60 60
101 101
20 20 27 27 16 168 87 107 10 12 125 55 52 12 1
1 1 111 111
1 1 116 116
Grand
2015 Grand 2015 Total Total 25 25 22 22 35 35 12 12 11 11 18 184 104 105 95 91 21 2 1 11 11 1 157 157
128 128 120 120 91 91 76 76 62 62 55 55 54 54 52 52 44 44 17 17 10 107 76 65 55 52 12 1 735 735
FOCUS ON ON NONCOMMUNICABLE NONCOMMUNICABLE DISEASES DISEASES
Case studies demonstrate demonstrate impact on NCD policy policy The evaluation evaluation contains contains several several cases cases studies studies representative representative of of how how findings findings from from NCD NCD research research projects have have influenced influenced health health policies policies and and programs programs in developing developing countries. countries. The The opioid opioid Tramadol Tramadol has has become become extremely extremely popular popular in in the the Middle Middle East, East, including including Egypt Egypt where where aa dangerously dangerously toxic toxic version version is is sold sold cheaply cheaply on on the the streets. streets. AA research research training collaboration between Cairo University training collaboration between Cairo University and and the the University University of of California, California, Los Los Angeles Angeles conducted conducted aa multi-country multi-country study study of of Tramadol Tramadol addiction. addiction. Evidence Evidence from this study and others helped from this study and others helped inform inform the the WHO, WHO, and and the the governments governments of of Egypt Egypt and and the the United United Arab Arab Emirates Emirates about about the the treatment treatment needs needs of of Tramadol Tramadol users users and and promoted promoted the the approval approval of of appropriate appropriate medications medications in in the the two two countries. countries. The The research research found found that that grand grand mal seizures occurred in 28.5 percent of study mal seizures occurred in 28.5 percent of study participants participants during during prior prior withdrawal withdrawal periods. periods. Because Because of that, treatment centers in Egypt and of that, treatment centers in Egypt and the the UAE UAE have have seizure seizure prevention prevention strategies strategies as as part part of of their their withdrawal withdrawal management management plans. plans.
Photocourtesy courtesy Bahr Weiss Photo of of Dr.Dr. Bahr Weiss
Findings Findings from from aa research research project project in in Vietnam Vietnam helped helped convince the Ministry of Health to make convince the Ministry of Health to make child child mental mental health health a a priority, priority, and and the the national national health health insurance insurance started started covering covering certain certain conditions. conditions. The The research research was the product of a collaboration between was the product of a collaboration between Vietnam Vietnam National University and Vanderbilt University in the National University and Vanderbilt University in the U.S. Investigators conducted Vietnam’s first nationally U.S. Investigators conducted Vietnam’s first nationally representative child mental health epidemiology survey. representative child mental health epidemiology survey. Among its findings, significant behavioral mental Among its findings, significant behavioral mental health problems were associated with an approximately health problems were associated with an approximately 350 percent increase for risk of academic functional 350 percent increase for risk of academic functional impairment. impairment. This 5-year-old Vietnamese girl was a participant in a study that This 5-year-old Vietnamese girl was a participant in a study that increased her country’s interest in child mental health services. increased her country’s interest in child mental health services.
successfully successfullyobtained obtainedadditional additionalfunding. funding.Many Manyformer former trainees traineesnow nowhave havepositions positionsininacademia academiawhere, where,as as the evaluation confirmed, their roles may range from the evaluation confirmed, their roles may range from “instructing “instructingthe thenext nextgeneration generationofofresearchers, researchers,totoleading leading clinical rounds at a university hospital, clinical rounds at a university hospital,totoconducting conducting research researchin inaalab.” lab.”Other Otheralumni alumnihave haveassumed assumedroles roles within the government or with not-for-profit within the government or with not-for-profitorganizations. organizations. Building Buildinginstitutional institutionalcapacity—creating capacity—creatingaastrong strong research environment—is research environment—isanother anotherarea areawhere whereFogarty’s Fogarty’s NCD NCDprograms programshave havemade madean animpact. impact.Grantees Granteesand and collaborators collaboratorsfrom fromaround aroundthe theworld worldprovided provideddozens dozensofof examples examplesofofhow howtheir theirawards awardshelped helpedcreate createcourses coursesoror certificate and degree programs in topics that certificate and degree programs in topics thatinclude include cancer cancerepidemiology, epidemiology,environmental environmentalsciences, sciences,nutrition, nutrition, mental mentalhealth, health,maternal maternaland andchild childhealth, health,and andthe theethics ethics of clinical trials. Respondents also reported they of clinical trials. Respondents also reported theyhad had produced producedtraining trainingmaterials materialsand andsecured securedLMIC LMICgovernment government commitments to increase staffing. The award, commitments to increase staffing. The award,many manysaid, said, enabled enabledinstitutions institutionstotorecruit recruitor orretain retainfaculty facultyinterested interested in inNCD NCDresearch. research.
Outcomes Outcomesinclude includepapers, papers,protocols protocolsand andproducts products Fogarty’s Fogarty’sprograms programshave haveadded addedtotothe thebody bodyofofknowledge knowledge related to NCDs. The review found that related to NCDs. The review found that982 982scientific scientific publications publicationsciting citingan anNCD NCDgrant grantwere wereproduced producedbetween between 2003 and 2017. The three most common 2003 and 2017. The three most commontopics topicswere were mental mentalhealth, health,risk riskfactors factorssuch suchas asobesity obesityand andnutrition, nutrition, and cardiovascular diseases. and cardiovascular diseases.
AAbibliometric bibliometricanalysis analysisexamined, examined,among amongother otherthings, things, citation impact and collaborations. A key finding citation impact and collaborations. A key findingwas wasthat that 69 percent of alumni grantees published at least three 69 percent of alumni grantees published at least three or more articles with an LMIC colleague after their NCD or more articles with an LMIC colleague after their NCD grant ended, signaling they had kept up the scientific grant ended, signaling they had kept up the scientific relationship that was formed because of the program. relationship that was formed because of the program.
NCD NCD Publications Publicationsand andImpact Impact
Bibliometric indicator Bibliometric indicator
Number of citations (times cited) Number of citations (times cited) Mean citation count Mean citation count Median citation count Median citation count
Value Value
7,761 7,761 13.13 13.13 7 7
Bibliometric indicators for NCD articles supported by Fogarty programs, Bibliometric indicators for NCD articles supported by Fogarty programs, 2003-2015 2003-2015 “Overall the results of the bibliometric analysis and co“Overall the results of the bibliometric analysis and coauthorship network suggest that grantees and alumni are authorship network suggest that grantees and alumni are producing high quality scientific articles, continuing to producing high quality scientific articles, continuing to foster collaborations between U.S. and foreign scientists, foster collaborations between U.S. and foreign scientists, and have contributed to important empirical evidence to and have contributed to important empirical evidence to combat NCDs in LMICs,” as noted in the assessment. combat NCDs in LMICs,” as noted in the assessment. Grantees and their collaborators have made other Grantees and their collaborators have made other contributions to science. When asked what their project contributions to science. When asked what their project produced, 19 investigators—nearly half of those who produced, 19 investigators—nearly half of those who responded—reported developing clinical protocols for use responded—reported developing clinical protocols for use
37
in LMICs. They include a clinical trial of a therapy targeting breast cancer and a protocol to manage sickle cell disease. Seventeen grantees reported building patient registries and databases; 11 created software and analytic tools; and four produced devices or prototypes.
Challenges and unmet needs
represented in research training such as metabolic disorders, hearing issues and chronic kidney diseases. Additionally, investigators may want to consider requiring each trainee to write and submit a grant proposal, because the process and feedback could help them take a critical step toward becoming an independent investigator.
While progress has been made, tackling NCDs will require many more well-qualified researchers and mentors, according to the evaluation. Grantees and collaborators who were surveyed named a range of research topics that still require attention. “Adding to this need, the diversity of NCDs that make up the epidemic adds complexity to the process of building capacity. For example, a country may have built a critical mass of researchers in cardiovascular disease, but there remains a lack of experts that can manage the growing diabetes, trauma/injury or hypertension issues in the country,” the review stated.
Some of the evaluation’s findings have been incorporated into the newest funding opportunity announcements, which have deadlines in November 2019 and 2020. In a further effort to build institutional capacity, renewal applications funded solely by Fogarty must come from the foreign site. The move away from U.S.-led projects is intended to bolster LMIC institutions’ capacity to secure their own funding. New applications are expected to propose collaborations with a single LMIC institution as the major partner, thereby concentrating resources and training opportunities at one institution so a strong foundation is built.
Many grantees pointed to implementation science research as an area for growth, given its value in developing health policy guidelines and determining how to adapt or scale up interventions. Funding was an issue, with many grantees noting that even though LMIC governments may recognize the benefit of NCD research, their national budgets are too strained to support it. Creating protected time for research was also identified as an ongoing challenge, given that faculty at LMIC institutions often have competing interests.
Fogarty has additional funding opportunities to help NCD training program alumni and other early-career researchers make the transition to independent investigator. The Emerging Global Leader Award gives junior faculty at LMIC institutions financial support and protected time for research. And the Global Noncommunicable Diseases and Injury Across the Lifespan: Exploratory Research program gives LMIC investigators the opportunity to jumpstart research programs related to NCDs, trauma and injury.
When asked about hurdles they faced in building capacity, some grantees said that five years of funding, which is typical for the research training grant mechanism (known as D43), was not long enough to effect change in some countries. The biggest obstacles within the research infrastructure at LMICs were related to grant management and accounting, and institutional review boards that were either lacking or slow to give approval.
“These programs can prime the NCD research pipeline in LMICs by giving younger scientists additional opportunities to develop their research skills,” said Fogarty’s Dr. Glass. “It’s our hope these experiences will propel them toward becoming the scientific leaders in their countries who will in turn prepare future generations of researchers.” Strong NIH support for Fogarty’s NCD programs The NCD research programs have enjoyed broad
Recommendations and next steps
support across NIH. Over time, Fogarty has had a
Recognizing that LMICs are facing the dual burden of NCDs and infectious diseases, the evaluation recommended collaboration between those scientific communities and suggested that future iterations of the NCD program consider how to prioritize the nexus between NCDs and infectious diseases. Encouraging such comorbidity research, the review noted, will help build a highly skilled and nimble research workforce.
dozen partners: the National Cancer Institute (NCI),
Priority also should be given to research topics that cut across diseases, including prevention and implementation science, common risk factors, developmental origins, maternal and child health, and stigma. An emphasis also should be placed on research areas that so far have been under38 Delaware Journal of Public Health – May 2019
National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health (NCCIH), National Institute on Aging (NIA), National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA), Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD), National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA), National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research (NIDCR), National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS), National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH), National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke NINDS), National Institute of Nursing Research (NINR), and the Office of Dietary Supplements (ODS).
OPINION OPINION OPINION
ByBy Dr.Dr. Roger Roger I. Glass, I. Glass, Director, Director, Fogarty Fogarty International International Center Center By Dr. Roger I. Glass, Director, Fogarty International Center
New New energy for global health blossoming across NIH Newenergy energyfor forglobal globalhealth healthisis isblossoming blossomingacross acrossNIH NIH There’s There’s a new a new wave wave of of enthusiasm enthusiasm a new wave of enthusiasm forThere’s for global global health health sweeping sweeping across across for global health sweeping across NIH. NIH. In In addition addition to to the the continuing continuing NIH. In addition to the continuing strong strong support support from from NIH NIH Director Director support from I’m NIH Director Dr.strong Dr. Francis Francis S.S. Collins, Collins, I’m pleased pleased Dr. Francis S. Collins, I’m to to have have three three new new institute institutepleased to have on three new institute directors directors on campus campus who who share share directors on campus who share our our passion passion to to build build research research our passion tofund build research capacity capacity and and fund studies studies to to capacity and fund studies to improve improve the the health health of of the the world’s world’s improve the health of the world’s least least fortunate. fortunate. I was I was delighted delighted fortunate. I was delighted to least to bebe joined joined in in Kenya Kenya recently recently byby to be joined in Kenya recently by the the relatively relatively new new directors directors of of the the institutes institutes concerned concerned with with the relatively new directors of the institutes concerned with mental mental and and child child health health research. research. There, There, they they were were able able to to mental and the child healththeir research. There, they were able to see see firsthand firsthand the impact impact their programs programs are are having having onon the the see firsthand the impact their programs are having on the ground. ground. ground. AA visit visit to to anan innovative innovative project project in in rural, rural, western western Kenya Kenya A visit to an innovative projectInstitute inInstitute rural, of western Kenya particularly particularly impressed impressed National National of Mental Mental Health Health particularly impressed National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) (NIMH) Director Director Dr.Dr. Josh Josh Gordon. Gordon. ByBy enhancing enhancing irrigation irrigation (NIMH) Director Dr. Josh Gordon. By enhancing irrigation and and improving improving productivity productivity of of farmers farmers living living with with HIV, HIV, and improving productivity of farmers living will with HIV, researchers researchers found found it’sit’s more more likely likely the the farmers farmers will adhere adhere researchers found it’s more likely the farmers will adhere to to their their antiviral antiviral medication medication regimens regimens and and keep keep their their to their antiviral medication regimens and keep their clinic clinic appointments. appointments. AA few few hours’ hours’ drive drive away away in in Eldoret, Eldoret, clinic appointments. A few hours’ drive away in Eldoret, Kenyan Kenyan and and U.S. U.S. researchers researchers are are studying studying how how to to keep keep Kenyan and U.S. researchers are studying how to keep adolescents adolescents with with HIV HIV onon treatment treatment using using peer peer advisors advisors adolescents with HIV on treatment using peer advisors and and group group therapy. therapy. They’re They’re also also investigating investigating how how to to treat treat and groupand therapy. They’re also investigating how to treat depression depression and trauma trauma to to improve improve control control of of HIV HIV infection, infection, depression and trauma tosymptoms. improve control of HIV you infection, and and alleviate alleviate mental mental health health symptoms. I encourage I encourage you to to and alleviate mental health symptoms. I encourage you to read read Dr.Dr. Gordon’s Gordon’s full full blog blog post post about about hishis travels, travels, which which Dr. full blog post about his travels, which heread he sums sums upGordon’s up with with this this observation, observation, “Through “Through cutting-edge cutting-edge he sums up with this observation, “Through cutting-edge research research around around the the world, world, global global efforts efforts yield yield truly truly global global research impacts.” impacts.”around the world, global efforts yield truly global impacts.”
She She reported reported being being moved moved byby her her interactions interactions with with children children She reported being moved by her interactions with and and families families who who are are living living with with HIV/AIDS. HIV/AIDS. She She also alsochildren and families who areby living with HIV/AIDS. She alsoto to said said she she was was inspired inspired by many many of of the the women women working working said she was inspired by many of the women working to reduce reduce HIV HIV infections infections among among adolescent adolescent girls girls and and young young reduce HIV infections among adolescent girls and young women women through through the the program program called called DREAMS DREAMS (Determined, (Determined, women through the program called DREAMS (Determined, Resilient, Resilient, Empowered, Empowered, AIDS-free, AIDS-free, Mentored, Mentored, and and Safe Safe Resilient, Empowered, AIDS-free, Mentored, and Safe women). women). Administered Administered byby the the President’s President’s Emergency Emergency women). Administered by the President’s Emergency Plan Plan forfor AIDS AIDS Relief Relief (PEPFAR), (PEPFAR), the the DREAMS DREAMS partnership partnership Plan forthe AIDS Relief (PEPFAR), the DREAMS and partnership includes includes the Bill Bill && Melinda Melinda Gates Gates Foundation Foundation and other other includes the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation and other private private organizations. organizations. private organizations. Overall, Overall, the the trip trip was was a powerful a powerful demonstration demonstration of of the the Overall, the and trip was a powerful demonstration of impact impact NIMH NIMH and NICHD NICHD investments investments have have made made inthe in impact NIMH and NICHD investments have made in advancing advancing global global health health capacity capacity and and research, research, with with a a advancing global health capacity and research, with awork. reminder reminder that that real real people’s people’s lives lives depend depend onon this this vital vital work. reminder that real people’s lives depend on this vital work. Back Back home home in in Bethesda, Bethesda, I was I was pleased pleased to to have have Dr.Dr. Gordon Gordon Back home inNational Bethesda, I was to have Dr. Gordon and and the the new new National Institute Institute ofpleased of Biomedical Biomedical Imaging Imaging and the new National Institute of Biomedical Imaging and and Bioengineering Bioengineering (NIBIB) (NIBIB) Director Director Dr.Dr. Bruce Bruce Tromberg Tromberg and Bioengineering (NIBIB) Director Dr. Bruce Tromberg join join meme forfor a discussion a discussion with with Fogarty’s Fogarty’s advisory advisory board. board. join me for a discussion with Fogarty’s advisory board. Both Both gave gave usus valuable valuable insights insights into into how how wewe might might spur spur Both gave us valuable insights into how we might spur innovation innovation in in global global health health and and build build LMIC LMIC capacity capacity in in innovation in global health and build LMIC capacity in bioengineering bioengineering and and other other related related fields. fields. bioengineering and other related fields.
Arriving Arriving at at NIH NIH from from the the University University of of California, California, Irvine, Irvine, at NIH from the University ofschools California, Irvine, Dr.Arriving Dr. Tromberg Tromberg said said many many engineering engineering schools now now have have Dr. Tromberg said many engineering schools now have improving improving human human health health asas their their top top goal. goal. Engineering Engineering is is improving human health as their top goal. Engineering even even being being combined combined with with medicine medicine asas a new a new discipline. discipline.is even being combined with medicine as a Pettigrew, new discipline. For For instance, instance, hishis predecessor, predecessor, Dr.Dr. Roderic Roderic Pettigrew, is is now now For instance, his predecessor, Dr. Roderic Pettigrew, isat now building building the the first first such such fully fully integrated integrated national national program program at building the first such fully integrated national program Texas Texas A&M A&M University. University. I was I was also also excited excited to to hear hear that that Dr.Dr.at Texas A&M I was also excited to hear that Dr. Tromberg Tromberg is is a University. proponent a proponent of of engineering engineering capacity capacity building, building, Tromberg is a proponent of engineering capacity building, having having ledled a two-week a two-week workshop workshop in in Côte Côte d’Ivoire d’Ivoire to to teach teach having led a two-week workshoptoin Côte d’Ivoire to teach entrepreneurship entrepreneurship and and innovation innovation to African African scientists. scientists. entrepreneurship and innovation to African scientists. Indeed, Indeed, hehe said said the the experience experience changed changed hishis life. life. Now Now that that MyMy colleague colleague Dr.Dr. Diana Diana Bianchi, Bianchi, director director of of the the Eunice Eunice Indeed, he said the experience changed his life. Now that My colleague Dr. Diana Bianchi, director of the Eunice sensors sensors and and other other components components are are inexpensive inexpensive and and more more Kennedy Kennedy Shriver Shriver National National Institute Institute of of Child Child Health Health and and sensors and other components are inexpensive and more Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and easily accessible accessible in in LMICs, LMICs, technologies technologies forfor health health can can bebe Human Human Development Development (NICHD), (NICHD), said said it was it was “an “an unforgettable unforgettable easily easily accessible inneeds, LMICs, technologies for tools health can Human Development (NICHD), said “an unforgettable adapted adapted to to suit suit local local needs, he he said. said. Portable Portable tools can can bebe be experience.” experience.” Her Her visit visit included included time time at it at a was busy a busy public public adapted to suit local needs, he said. Portable tools can be experience.” Her visit included time at a busy public developed to to reduce reduce barriers barriers to to care, care, improve improve access access and and hospital hospital in in Nairobi, Nairobi, asas well well asas rural rural sites sites in in western western Kenya. Kenya. developed developed to reduce barriers to care, improve access and hospital in Nairobi, as well as rural sites in western Kenya. democratize democratize human human health. health. She She reported reported being being very very impressed impressed byby the the fact fact that that postpostdemocratize human health. She reported being very impressed byin the fact thatfor postpartum partum mothers mothers are are housed housed and and fedfed in the the hospital hospital for partum mothers are housed and fed the hospital for With this this wonderful wonderful energy energy and and enthusiasm enthusiasm from from mymy new new weeks weeks and and months months after after delivery delivery of of a premature a in premature baby, baby, and and With With this I’m wonderful energy and enthusiasm from my new weeks and months after delivery of a premature baby, and colleagues, colleagues, I’m more more optimistic optimistic than than ever ever that that by by working working are are incorporated incorporated into into the the daily daily nursery nursery routine routine byby providing providing colleagues, I’m moreNIH, optimistic than ever that by to working are incorporated into the daily nursery routine by providing collaboratively collaboratively across across NIH, wewe can can speed speed advances advances to expressed expressed breast breast milk milk and and changing changing their their babies’ babies’ diapers. diapers. collaboratively across NIH, we can speed advances to expressed breast milk and changing their babies’ diapers. improve improve the the health health of of allall people. people. She She was was also also struck struck at at how how clinical clinical and and implementation implementation improve the health of all people. She was also struck at how clinical and implementation research research is is embedded embedded in in the the overall overall culture culture and and operations operations is embedded inmore the culture and operations at research at Moi Moi University, University, even even more sooverall so than than in in many many American American RESOURCES RESOURCES at Moi University, even more so than in many American academic academic medical medical centers. centers. RESOURCES http://bit.ly/NIHglobalhealth http://bit.ly/NIHglobalhealth academic medical centers. http://bit.ly/NIHglobalhealth
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PEOPLE PEOPLE PEOPLE PEOPLE PEOPLE
Bridbord, Bridbord,Holmes Holmeslauded laudedasasglobal globalhealth healthleaders leaders Bridbord, Bridbord, Holmes Holmes lauded lauded as asglobal global health healthleaders leaders Drs. Drs. Ken Ken Bridbord Bridbord and and King King Holmes Holmes are are co-recipients co-recipients of of the the
Drs. Drs. Ken Ken Bridbord Bridbord and and King King Holmes Holmes are are co-recipients co-recipients of of the the Consortium Consortium of of Universities Universities for for Global Global Health Health 2019 2019 Distinguished Distinguished Bridbord, Holmes lauded as global health leaders Consortium Consortium of of Universities Universities for for Global Global Health Health 2019 2019 Distinguished Distinguished Leadership Leadership Award, Award, the the organization’s organization’s highest highest honor. honor. AsAs longtime longtime Drs. Ken Bridbord and King Holmeshighest are co-recipients oflongtime the Leadership Leadership Award, Award, the the organization’s organization’s highest honor. honor. Ascreated As longtime director director of of Fogarty’s Fogarty’s extramural extramural programs, programs, Bridbord Bridbord created Consortium of Universities for programs, Global Health 2019 created Distinguished director director of of Fogarty’s Fogarty’s extramural extramural programs, Bridbord Bridbord created initiatives initiatives that that provided provided research research training training forfor 6,000 6,000 scientists scientists Leadership Award, theresearch organization’s highest honor. As longtime initiatives that that provided provided research training training for for 6,000 6,000 scientists scientists in initiatives in lowlowand and middle-income middle-income countries. countries. Now Now retired, retired, Bridbord Bridbord is is a a director ofmiddle-income Fogarty’s extramural programs, Bridbord created in in lowlowand and middle-income countries. countries. Now Now retired, retired, Bridbord Bridbord is is a a Fogarty Fogarty senior senior scientist scientist emeritus. emeritus. initiatives that provided research training for 6,000 scientists Fogarty Fogarty senior senior scientist scientist emeritus. emeritus. in low-aand middle-income countries. Now retired, Bridbord Holmes, Holmes, Fogarty a Fogarty advisory advisory board board member member and and grantee, grantee, is is is a Holmes, Holmes, Fogarty aand Fogarty advisory advisory board board member and and grantee, grantee, is is Fogartyaand senior scientist emeritus. professor professor founding founding director director of member of the the Department Department of of Global Global professor professor and and founding founding director director of of the the Department Department of of Global Global Health Health (DGH) (DGH) at at the the University University of of Washington. Washington. InIn hishis more more Holmes, a Fogarty advisory board member and grantee, is Health Health (DGH) at the the University University ofresearch of Washington. Washington. InIn hishis more more than than 50(DGH) 50 years years ofat of global global health health research and and training, training, Holmes Holmes professor and founding director of theand Department of Global than than 50 50 years years of of global global health health research research and training, training, Holmes Holmes has has collaborated collaborated with with over over 170 170 trainees trainees and and mentees, mentees, and and has has Health (DGH) atwith the University of Washington. In hisand more has has collaborated collaborated with over over 170 170 trainees trainees and and mentees, mentees, and has has produced produced some some 800 800 publications. publications. than 50 some years of800 global health research and training, Holmes produced produced some 800 publications. publications. hascancer collaborated with over 170 trainees and NIH NIH cancerdirector director Sharpless Sharpless moves moves tomentees, toFDA FDA and has produced some 800 publications. NIH NIH cancer cancer director director Sharpless Sharpless moves moves to to FDA FDA Dr.Dr. Norman Norman E.E. "Ned" "Ned" Sharpless, Sharpless, director director of of NIH’s NIH’s National National Cancer Cancer Dr. Dr. Norman Norman E. E. "Ned" "Ned" Sharpless, Sharpless, director director of of NIH’s NIH’s National National Cancer Cancer Institute Institute since since 2017, 2017, has has been been tapped tapped to to become become acting acting FDA FDA NIH cancer director Sharpless moves to FDA Institute Institute since since 2017, 2017, has has been been tapped tapped to to become become acting acting FDA FDA commissioner commissioner in in April. April. Previously, Previously, Sharpless Sharpless directed directed the the Lineberger Lineberger Dr. Norman E. "Ned" Sharpless, director of directed NIH’s National Cancer commissioner commissioner inCancer in April. April. Previously, Previously, Sharpless Sharpless directed the the Lineberger Lineberger Comprehensive Comprehensive Cancer Center Center at at the the University University of of North North Carolina. Carolina. Institute since 2017, has been tapped to become acting FDA Comprehensive Comprehensive Cancer Cancer Center Center at at the the University University of of North North Carolina. Carolina. Sharpless Sharpless treated treated leukemia leukemia patients patients and and conducted conducted research research onon commissioner inleukemia April. Previously, Sharpless directed the Lineberger Sharpless Sharpless treated treated leukemia patients patients and and conducted conducted research research onon cancer cancer and and aging. aging. Comprehensive Cancer Center at the University of North Carolina. cancer cancer and and aging. aging. Sharpless treated leukemia patients andscientist conducted Swaminathan Swaminathan named named WHO’s WHO’s chief chief scientist research on cancer and aging. Swaminathan Swaminathan named named WHO’s WHO’s chief chief scientist scientist Dr.Dr. Soumya Soumya Swaminathan, Swaminathan, a former a former Fogarty Fogarty trainee, trainee, has has been been Dr. Dr. Soumya Soumya Swaminathan, Swaminathan, a former a former Fogarty Fogarty trainee, trainee, has has been been appointed appointed to to a newly a newly created created WHO WHO position, position, Chief Chief Scientist, Scientist, Swaminathan named WHO’s chief scientist appointed appointed to to a newly a newly created created WHO WHO position, position, Chief Chief Scientist, Scientist, charged charged with with strengthening strengthening the the organization’s organization’s core core scientific scientific work. work. Dr. Soumya Swaminathan, athe former Fogarty core trainee, has been charged charged with with strengthening strengthening the organization’s organization’s core scientific work. work. She She had had been been deputy deputy director-general director-general forfor programs. programs. Ascientific pediatrician A pediatrician appointed todeputy adeputy newlydirector-general created WHO position, Chief Scientist, She She had had been been director-general for for programs. programs. A pediatrician A pediatrician and and clinical clinical researcher, researcher, Swaminathan Swaminathan was was director director general general of of the the charged with strengthening the organization’s core scientific work. and and clinical clinical researcher, researcher, Swaminathan Swaminathan was was director director general general of of the the Indian Indian Council Council of of Medical Medical Research Research before before joining joining WHO. WHO. She had beenofdeputy director-general forjoining programs. A pediatrician Indian Indian Council Council of Medical Medical Research Research before before joining WHO. WHO. and clinical researcher, Swaminathan was director general Richards-Kortum Richards-Kortum added added totoInventors Inventors Hall HallofofFame Fame of the Richards-Kortum Richards-Kortum added added to to Inventors Inventors Hall Hall of of Fame Fame Indian Council of Medical Research before joining WHO. Former Former Fogarty Fogarty advisory advisory board board member member Dr.Dr. Rebecca Rebecca RichardsRichardsFormer Former Fogarty Fogarty advisory advisory board board member member Dr. Dr. Rebecca Rebecca RichardsRichardsKortum Kortum is is among among the the 2019 2019 inductees inductees into into the the National National Inventors Inventors Richards-Kortum added to Inventors Hall of Fame Kortum Kortum is is among among the the 2019 2019 inductees inductees into into the the National National Inventors Hall Hall of of Fame. Fame. A professor A professor of of bioengineering bioengineering and and director director ofInventors of the the Former Fogarty advisoryofboard member Dr. Rebecca RichardsHall Hall of of Fame. Fame. A professor A professor of bioengineering bioengineering and and director director ofRichardsof the the Rice Rice 360° 360° Institute Institute forfor Global Global Health Health at at Rice Rice University, University, RichardsKortum is Institute amongfor the 2019 inductees into the NationalRichardsInventors Rice Rice 360° 360° Institute for Global Global Health Health at at Rice Rice University, University, RichardsKortum Kortum develops develops medical medical devices devices forfor use use in in low-resource low-resource settings. settings. Hall ofdevelops Fame. Amedical professor of bioengineering and directorsettings. ofsettings. the Kortum Kortum develops medical devices devices forfor use use in in low-resource low-resource Rice 360° Institute for Global Health at Rice University, RichardsKortum develops medical devices for Clemens use in low-resource settings. Oral Oral cholera cholera vaccine vaccine developer developer Clemens honored honored
Oral cholera cholera vaccine vaccine developer developer Clemens Clemens honored honored Dr.Oral Dr. John John D.D. Clemens, Clemens, executive executive director director of of Fogarty Fogarty grantee grantee
Dr. Dr. John John D.the D. Clemens, Clemens, executive executive director director ofDiarrhoeal of Fogarty Fogarty grantee grantee institution institution the International International Centre Centre forfor Diarrhoeal Disease Disease Oral cholera vaccine developer Clemens honored institution institution the the International International Centre forfor Diarrhoeal Disease Disease Research, Research, Bangladesh, Bangladesh, is is a co-recipient aCentre co-recipient ofDiarrhoeal of Thailand’s Thailand’s Prince Prince Dr. JohnBangladesh, D. Clemens,isexecutive director of Thailand’s Fogarty grantee Research, Research, Bangladesh, is a and co-recipient a co-recipient ofcollaborator of Thailand’s Prince Prince Mahidol Mahidol Award. Award. Clemens Clemens and longtime longtime collaborator Dr. Dr. Jan Jan institution theClemens International Centre for DiarrhoealDr. Disease Mahidol Mahidol Award. Award. Clemens and and longtime longtime collaborator collaborator Dr. Jan Jan R. R. Holmgren Holmgren of of Sweden Sweden were were recognized recognized for for developing developing an an oral oral Bangladesh, is a recognized co-recipient of Thailand’s Prince R.Research, R. Holmgren Holmgren of of Sweden Sweden were were recognized for for developing developing oral oral cholera cholera vaccine vaccine that that has has protected protected millions millions of of people. people.anan Mahidol Award. Clemens and longtime collaborator Dr. Jan cholera cholera vaccine vaccine that that has has protected protected millions millions of of people. people. R. Holmgren of awarded Sweden were recognized for developing an oral Abdool Abdool Karim Karim awarded byby Kuwait Kuwaitfor forHIV HIVresearch research cholera vaccine that has protected millions of people. Abdool Abdool Karim Karim awarded awarded by by Kuwait Kuwait for for HIV HIV research research Longtime Longtime Fogarty Fogarty grantee grantee Dr.Dr. Salim Salim Abdool Abdool Karim Karim shares shares Longtime Longtime Fogarty Fogarty grantee grantee Dr. Dr. Salim Salim Abdool Abdool shares shares Kuwait’s Kuwait’s 2018 2018 Al-Sumait Al-Sumait Prize Prize for for Health, Health, a Karim Kuwaiti a Karim Kuwaiti award award Abdool Karim awarded by Kuwait for HIV research Kuwait’s Kuwait’s 2018 2018 Al-Sumait Al-Sumait Prize Prize for for Health, Health, a Kuwaiti a Kuwaiti award award honoring honoring people people and and organizations organizations that that address address challenges challenges Longtime Fogarty grantee Dr. Salim Abdool Karim shares honoring honoring people people and and organizations organizations that that address address challenges challenges in in Africa. Africa. Abdool Abdool Karim, Karim, director director of of the the Centre Centre forfor the the AIDS AIDS Kuwait’s 2018 Al-Sumait Prize of forof Health, a Kuwaiti award in in Africa. Africa. Abdool Abdool Karim, Karim, director director the the Centre Centre for for the the AIDS AIDS Programme Programme of of Research Research in in South South Africa, Africa, was was recognized recognized forfor hishis honoring people and organizations thatwas address challenges Programme Programme of of Research Research in in South South Africa, Africa, was recognized recognized hishis contributions contributions to to HIV/AIDS HIV/AIDS treatment treatment and and prevention. prevention. forfor in Africa. Abdool Karim, director of the Centre for the AIDS contributions contributions to to HIV/AIDS HIV/AIDS treatment treatment and and prevention. prevention. Programme of Research in South Africa, was recognized for his 40 Delaware Journal contributions of Public Health to – May 2019 HIV/AIDS treatment and prevention.
Global Global Global Global HEALTH HEALTH Briefs Global Briefs HEALTH HEALTH Briefs Briefs HEALTH Briefs
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FullFull report: report: http://bit.ly/NIHwomen http://bit.ly/NIHwomen tailored to women’s individual needs, and ensure FullFull report: report: http://bit.ly/NIHwomen http://bit.ly/NIHwomen women in biomedical careers reach their potential. 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The supplement supplement is fortified is fortified with vitamins vitamins andand conception or in earlyispregnancy may improve study. study. The The supplement supplement fortified is fortified with with vitamins andand minerals, minerals, andand provides provides protein protein andand fat.fat.vitamins growth and of and the fetus, according toand an fat. NIH-funded minerals, minerals, provides provides protein protein and fat. Journal Journal article: article: http://bit.ly/NutritionForMoms http://bit.ly/NutritionForMoms study.article: The supplement is fortified with vitamins and Journal Journal article: http://bit.ly/NutritionForMoms http://bit.ly/NutritionForMoms minerals, and provides protein and fat. 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WHO WHO posts posts R&D R&D spending spending byby country country Full posts report: http://bit.ly/WHO_malaria WHO WHO posts R&D R&D spending spending byby country country New New analysis analysis from from the the WHO WHO Global Global Observatory Observatory on on New New analysis analysis from from the the WHO WHO Global Global Observatory on on Health Health R&D R&D shows shows thatthat only only 41% 41% of 75 of Observatory 75 countries countries WHO posts R&D spending by75 country Health Health R&D R&D shows shows that that only only 41% 41% of of 75 countries countries analyzed analyzed metmet their their health health R&D R&D spending spending targets targets New analysis from the WHO Global Observatory on analyzed analyzed met met their their health health R&D R&D spending spending targets targets using using thethe most most recent recent data data available. available. Some Some lowlowHealth R&D shows that only 41% ofSome 75Some countries using using the the most most recent recent data data available. available. lowlowincome income countries countries allocated allocated a higher a higher percentage percentage of of analyzed met their healtha R&D spending targets income income countries countries allocated allocated higher a higher percentage percentage of of their their GDP GDP on on health health than than high-income high-income countries. countries. using the most recent data available.countries. Some lowtheir their GDP GDP on on health health than than high-income high-income countries. Website: Website: http://bit.ly/WHO_benchmark http://bit.ly/WHO_benchmark incomehttp://bit.ly/WHO_benchmark countries allocated a higher percentage of Website: Website: http://bit.ly/WHO_benchmark their GDP on health than high-income countries. NIH, NIH, FDA FDA host host treatment treatment collaboration collaboration tool tool Website: http://bit.ly/WHO_benchmark NIH, NIH, FDA FDA host host treatment treatment collaboration collaboration tool tool To encourage To encourage information information sharing sharing of treatment of treatment To encourage To encourage information information sharing sharing of treatment of treatment practices practices forfor neglected neglected diseases diseases andand emerging emerging or or NIH, FDA host treatment collaboration practices practices forfor neglected neglected diseases diseases and and emerging emerging ortool or drug-resistant drug-resistant infections, infections, the the NIHNIH and and FDA FDA have have To encourage information sharing ofFDA treatment drug-resistant drug-resistant infections, infections, the the NIH NIH and and FDA have have built built a tool a tool called called Collaborative Collaborative UseUse Repurposing Repurposing practices forcalled neglected diseases and emerging or built built a tool a tool called Collaborative UseUse Repurposing Repurposing Engine Engine (CURE). (CURE). TheCollaborative The aim aim is to is capture to capture and and centralize centralize drug-resistant infections, the NIH and FDA have Engine Engine (CURE). (CURE). The The aim aim is to is capture to capture and centralize centralize thethe global global experience experience of new of new uses uses of approved ofand approved built a tool called Collaborative Use Repurposing the the global global experience experience of new of new uses uses of approved of approved medical medical products products −both −both positive positive andand negative. negative. Engineproducts (CURE). The aim ispositive to capture and centralize medical medical products −both −both positive andand negative. negative. Website: Website: https://cure.ncats.io https://cure.ncats.io the global experience of new uses of approved Website: Website: https://cure.ncats.io https://cure.ncats.io medical products−both positive and negative. PAHO PAHO studies studies youth youth health health in in Americas Americas Website: https://cure.ncats.io PAHO PAHO studies studies youth health health ininin Americas Half Half of all of all deaths deaths ofyouth young of young people people the inAmericas the Americas Americas Half ofdue all oftoall deaths of young of young people people inasthe inas the Americas Americas areHalf are due preventable to deaths preventable causes causes such such homicide, homicide, PAHO studies youth health in Americas are are due due to preventable to preventable causes causes such such as as homicide, homicide, traffic traffic fatalities fatalities andand suicide, suicide, according according to atonew a new Halffatalities of all deaths of suicide, youngaccording people intothe traffic traffic and and suicide, according atonew aAmericas new report report byfatalities by thethe Pan Pan American American Health Health Organization Organization are due tothe preventable causes such as homicide, report report by by the Pan Pan American American Health Health Organization Organization (PAHO). 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MARCH/APRIL 2019
Funding Opportunity Announcement
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Global Infectious Disease (GID) Research Training Program (D71) (D43) Clinical Trial Optional
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July 25, 2019
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Nov 7, 2019
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Nov 7, 2019
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Nov 12, 2019
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Nov 20, 2019
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Global Health Matters Volume 18, No. 2 ISSN: 1938-5935 Fogarty International Center National Institutes of Health Department of Health and Human Services Managing editor: Ann Puderbaugh Ann.Puderbaugh@nih.gov Writer/editor: Shana Potash Shana.Potash@nih.gov Writer/editor: Karin Zeitvogel Karin.Zeitvogel@nih.gov Web manager: Anna Pruett Ellis Anna.Ellis@nih.gov Designer: Carla Conway All text produced in Global Health Matters is in the public domain and may be reprinted. Please credit Fogarty International Center. Images must be cleared for use with the individual source, as indicated.
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March/April 2019
Poor quality drugs pose “health emergency,” study says More than a quarter of a million children die each year due to poor quality and fake medicines, according to a study published in March in the American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene. The assessment by a team of experts from the public and private sector concludes that a “pandemic” of falsified and substandard drugs for treating malaria, pneumonia, hypertension and other diseases has become a “public health emergency,” especially in low- and middleincome countries. It cites evidence that up to 155,000 children die Poor quality and fake medicines (top photo) every year due to fake malaria are an urgent threat. drugs alone, and that a similar number die from low-quality or counterfeit antimicrobial drugs prescribed to treat pneumonia. Other common fake drugs include prescription opioids and medicines for heart disease, erectile dysfunction and cancer. Fogarty senior scientist emeritus Dr. Joel Breman, a co-author on the study, said that fake drugs are often peddled over the internet and sometimes linked to organized crime and terrorist groups. Poor quality drugs cost the global economy an estimated $200 billion per year, Breman said, and contribute to the growing problem of antimicrobial resistance.
R E SOURCE Journal article: http://bit.ly/ASTMH_fakedrugs 41
Hepatitis C in Pregnant Women and Their Children Stephen C. Eppes, M.D. Vice Chair, Department of Pediatrics Professor of Pediatrics Sidney Kimmel Medical College at Thomas Jefferson University
ABSTRACT Hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection presents unique challenges in the setting of pregnancy. HCV can contribute to pregnancy-related morbidity and pregnancy can influence the course of HCV infection. There is a significant risk of transmission to the fetus and newborn infant. Identification of HCV infection in women of childbearing potential and those who are currently pregnant offers important opportunities for the woman and for past, present and future children.
INTRODUCTION Infection with hepatitis C virus (HCV) is common in women of childbearing potential, having doubled between 2006 and 2014. This increase is due in large part to the opioid epidemic and injection drug use (IDU). Currently, 1-2.5% of women in the peak childbearing age range have HCV, with wide geographical variation in the United States.1 The State of Delaware has recently sought to identify infected pregnant women through use of the hepatitis C registry. Through 2014, about 29,000 infected women gave birth each year in the U.S., and that number is expected to increase.2 Currently, it is estimated that 132,000 U.S. children and adolescents have HCV. In developed countries with hepatitis B virus (HBV) immunization programs, HCV has become the most common cause of chronic hepatitis in children.3 Caring for women of childbearing potential who are infected with HCV has challenges. They often are young, un- or underinsured, and currently or formerly addicted to opioids and other substances. Paradoxically, independent of access and linkage to care, this group is often considered “easy to treat,” in that most have been infected less than five years, have minimal hepatic fibrosis, and have fewer co-morbidities. Pregnancy is a time of potential opportunity for engaging women in HCV care, as they are usually seeking prenatal services and may be more likely to have insurance coverage. Pregnancy has an effect on the course of HCV and vice versa. HCV RNA levels rise during the first and third trimesters and transaminase levels tend to fall at those times. Women with HCV also have higher rates of intrahepatic cholestasis of pregnancy. Currently, antiviral therapy during pregnancy is not recommended since the safety and efficacy of direct-acting antivirals (DAAs) in pregnancy have not been established (ribavirin is contraindicated due to risk of teratogenicity). There is an ongoing phase 1 study of HCV DAA treatment of pregnant women.4 It is evaluating the pharmacokinetics and safety of the fixed dose combination of ledipasvir/sofosbuvir and is expected to be completed by September 2019. Women who are on antiviral treatment and become pregnant should discuss the potential risks and benefits of continuing therapy with their physicians. Pregnant women with cirrhosis should be counselled about the risks of adverse maternal and fetal outcomes and should be co-managed with a maternal-fetal medicine specialist. 42 Delaware Journal of Public Health – May 2019
The risk of a pregnant woman transmitting HCV to her fetus or infant is 5.8% and with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) co-infection, that risk almost doubles to 10.8%.5 Transmission may occur during pregnancy, as a result of transplacental passage of the virus, or during vaginal or cesarean delivery. Vertical transmission is generally confined to women who have detectable HCV RNA during pregnancy, but has been reported in women with undetectable HCV RNA as viremia can be intermittent. There is an increased risk of HCV transmission with higher viral loads. When HCV is acquired during pregnancy, the risk of transmission is higher due to higher RNA levels. Obstetric procedures and prolonged rupture of membranes (PROM) are additional risk factors for transmission. Mother-to-childtransmission (MTCT) is not associated with HCV genotype, mode of delivery or breastfeeding. However, women should be advised to abstain from breastfeeding if their nipples are cracked or bleeding. The main strategy for reducing the risk of vertical HCV transmission is to identify and treat HCV-infected women prior to conception (Figure 1). Unfortunately, risk-based screening probably misses many HCV infected patients, including pregnant women.6 This was also the case in the early days of HBV screening, which is now universally recommended. Guidelines jointly published by the American Association for the Study of Liver Diseases and Infectious Diseases Society of American recommend screening for HCV infection during pregnancy.7 There are many advantages to this approach. Knowledge of HCV status allows for education and appropriate referrals for the pregnant woman. Obstetricians would be able to avoid performing invasive procedures which pose a risk for transmission to the fetus. The infant will be identified as perinatally exposed to HCV so that testing can be performed at the appropriate time. Moreover, children previously born to an HCV-infected woman can be tested for HCV. Women can be counselled about the availability and benefits of antiviral treatment at the conclusion of the current pregnancy, with obvious health benefits to the mother, but also to prevent perinatal transmission during future pregnancies. Finally, women who are identified as infected could facilitate the evaluation and treatment of their sexual and IDU partners and thereby increase the public health benefit of screening. A recent study concluded that universal screening for HCV, including for pregnant women and women of childbearing age, would be cost effective.8
Differing from the above, the American College of Obstetrics and Gynecology (ACOG) and the Society for Maternal-Fetal Medicine recommend targeted HCV screening during pregnancy with a focus on high risk groups including women who have used illicit drugs, women on long-term hemodialysis, women with percutaneous/parenteral exposures in an unregulated setting (e.g. unlicensed tattoo parlors), recipients of transfusion or organ transplantations before 1992, recipients of blood products from a donor who later tested positive for HCV, women with a history of incarceration, women being evaluated for sexually transmitted infections (STIs), and those with chronic liver disease.9 ACOG recommends testing high risk women for HCV at their first prenatal visit and later in pregnancy if there are new or persistent risk factors. Other recommendations include that HCV-infected women be screened for other STIs and should also be counselled to refrain from alcohol use. ACOG further recommends that women undergoing invasive prenatal diagnostic testing (e.g. amniocentesis) be counselled that data on vertical transmission, while limited, are reassuring. Obstetrical providers should avoid internal fetal monitoring and episiotomy, as well as PROM. Cesarean delivery has not been shown to reduce vertical transmission and ACOG recommends against this solely for the indication of HCV infection. Finally, providers should not discourage breastfeeding because of maternal HCV infection.
Current recommendations for the diagnosis of HCV infection in childhood are: â&#x20AC;˘ Anti-HCV antibody at > 18 months of age is the gold standard. â&#x20AC;˘ HCV RNA between 1 and 2 months of age can be used if the 18 month antibody testing cannot be assured. â&#x20AC;˘ Infants with negative HCV RNA results should still have the 18 month antibody test if possible.13 Treatment recommendations for children are limited. Ledipasvir/ sofosbuvir and ribavirin/sofosbuvir are recommended for certain adolescents with HCV, but there is no current treatment available for children under 12 years of age. Other pediatric recommendations for DAAs are expected soon.
CONCLUSION Women of childbearing potential and women who are pregnant comprise a very important population of HCV-infected persons. Identification of these women is critical, in order to link them to care and provide appropriate evaluation and treatment. Opportunities exist to improve HCV screening rates of these women and to test their children. Antiviral treatment during pregnancy and in early childhood are areas in urgent need of research.
There is growing enthusiasm and support for universal screening. Figure 1. Algorithm for diagnostic testing for HCV. Kentucky, a state with a high incidence of HCV in the general population, has enacted legislation mandating HCV screening of all pregnant women. Infants who acquire HCV perinatally are completely asymptomatic. Their liver function tests are usually normal and 20% spontaneously clear their HCV, like the adult population. The 80% who are chronically infected will eventually develop liver disease, usually taking years to decades, with the concomitant risk of hepatocellular carcinoma. Co-morbidities like HIV or HBV co-infection, alcohol dependence, and obesity can hasten the progression of liver disease. Unfortunately, multiple studies demonstrate low rates of testing of perinatally HCV-exposed infants. In Philadelphia, only 16% of infants with perinatal HCV exposure underwent HCV testing.10 A report from Pittsburgh indicated that 30% of infants with perinatal HCV exposure were ever tested for HCV.11 A recently published study from Boston demonstrated the enormity of the problem in women with opioid use, but also presented more favorable data in terms of infant testing.12 Of 744 women with opioid use disorder who were tested for HCV infection, 510 (69%) were seropositive. Of the 404 infants born to seropositive women, 273 (78%) were tested at least once for HCV and 12 were diagnosed with chronic HCV infection. In Delaware, there are no current data concerning follow up of HCV-exposed infants. Pediatric follow up of these infants is of paramount importance. Frequently, pediatric providers will see these infants due to neonatal abstinence syndrome (NAS). Women who deliver babies with NAS, if not already tested, should have their HCV status assessed. Newborns can be tested for antibody to HCV as well, but providers should realize that transplacentally transferred maternal IgG will cause a positive result until 18 months of age. 43
REFERENCES: 1. Patrick, S. W., Bauer, A. M., Warren, M. D., Jones, T. F., & Wester, C. (2017, May 12). Hepatitis C virus infection among women giving birth – Tennessee and United States, 2009 – 2014. MMWR Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 66(18), 470–473. Retrieved from https://www.cdc.gov/ mmwr/volumes/66/wr/mm6618a3.htm PubMed https://doi. org/10.15585/mmwr.mm6618a3 2. Ly, K. N., Jiles, R. B., Teshale, E. H., Foster, M. A., Pesano, R. L., & Holmberg, S. D. (2017, June 6). Hepatitis C virus infection among reproductive-aged women and children in the United States, 2006 to 2014. Annals of Internal Medicine, 166(11), 775–782. PubMed https://doi.org/10.7326/M16-2350 3. Indolfi, G., Bartolini, E., Casavola, D., & Resti, M. (2010, October 5). Chronic hepatitis C virus infection in children and adolescents: Epidemiology, natural history, and assessment of the safety and efficacy of combination therapy. Adolescent Health, Medicine and Therapeutics, 1, 115–128. https://doi.org/10.2147/ AHMT.S6750 PubMed 4. At. https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT02683005 5. Benova, L., Mohamoud, Y. A., Calvert, C., & Abu-Raddad, L. J. (2014, September 15). Vertical transmission of hepatitis C virus: Systematic review and meta-analysis. Clinical Infectious Diseases, 59(6), 765–773. PubMed https://doi.org/10.1093/cid/ ciu447 6. Jhaveri, R., Broder, T., Bhattacharya, D., Peters, M. G., Kim, A. Y., & Jonas, M. M. (2018, October 30). Universal screening of pregnant women for hepatitis C: The time is now. Clinical Infectious Diseases, 67(10), 1493–1497. PubMed https://doi. org/10.1093/cid/ciy586 7. AASLD-IDSA HCV Guidance Panel. (2018, October
30). Hepatitis C guidance 2018 update: AASLD-IDSA recommendations for testing, managing, and treating hepatitis C virus infection. Clinical Infectious Diseases, 67(10), 1477– 1492. PubMed https://doi.org/10.1093/cid/ciy585 8. Assoumou, S. A., Tasillo, A., Leff, J. A., Schackman, B. R., Drainoni, M. L., Horsburgh, C. R., . . . Linas, B. P. (2018, January 18). Cost-effectiveness of one-time hepatitis C screening strategies among adolescents and young adults in primary care settings. Clinical Infectious Diseases, 66(3), 376–384. PubMed https://doi.org/10.1093/cid/cix798 9. Society for Maternal-Fetal Medicine. (2017). Hughes BL, Page CM, Kuller JA. Hepatitis C in pregnancy: Screening, treatment, and management. Society for Maternal-Fetal Medicine Consult Series, 43, B2–B12. 10. Kuncio, D. E., Newbern, E. C., Johnson, C. C., & Viner, K. M. (2016, April 15). Failure to test and identify perinatally infected children born to hepatitis C virus-infected women. Clinical Infectious Diseases, 62(8), 980–985. PubMed https:// doi.org/10.1093/cid/ciw026 11. Chappell, C. A., Hillier, S. L., Crowe, D., Meyn, L. A., Bogen, D. L., & Krans, E. E. (2018, June). Hepatitis C virus screening among children exposed during pregnancy. Pediatrics, 141(6), e20173273. PubMed https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2017-3273 12. Epstein, R. L., Sabharwal, V., Wachman, E. M., Saia, K. A., Vellozzi, C., Hariri, S., & Linas, B. P. (2018, December). Perinatal transmission of hepatitis C virus: Defining the cascade of care. The Journal of Pediatrics, 203, 34–40.e1. PubMed https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpeds.2018.07.006 13. Academy of Pediatrics. Hepatitis C. Red Book: 2018 Report of the Committee on Infectious Diseases. Elk Grove. Village, IL, p. 433.
The Delaware Journal of Public Health is posting an open call for submissions. The DJPH publishes scientific articles, case reports, opinion pieces, editorials, and other articles relating to the public health sector. Authors should refer to the Submission Information page:
http://bit.ly/DJPHsubmission Submissions should be sent to ehealy@delamed.org 44 Delaware Journal of Public Health – May 2019
The DPH Bulletin
From the Delaware Division of Public Health
May 2019 Be prepared for tornadoes
Recent tornadic activity reported in Sussex County remind us to be prepared for emergencies. Advance preparations can reduce storm anxiety.
Inflatable lungs are traveling to Delaware’s high-traffic events, hospitals, and schools to promote lung cancer screenings. Governor John Carney, center, stands with DPH Director Dr. Karyl Rattay, left, and Delaware Cancer Consortium Chair Kathleen Connolly. Photo by Donna Sharp.
Governor Carney signs Tobacco 21 legislation and promotes lung cancer screenings for high risk Delawareans On April 17, Governor John Carney signed Senate Bill 25 that raises the legal age for sales of tobacco and vape products from 18 to 21. The law is effective 90 days from enactment. A day earlier at the Delaware Cancer Consortium (DCC) Retreat, Governor Carney proclaimed April Lung Cancer Screening Awareness Month. The DCC recommends that eligible Delawareans – including those between the ages of 55 and 80 who have a smoking history equivalent to a pack a day for 30 years or longer, and who currently smoke or have quit within the past 15 years – receive a lowdose computed tomography (CT) scan. Low-dose CT scans can catch lung cancer early, when it is most treatable. The screenings are covered by insurance or by the Screening for Life program within the Division of Public Health (DPH). Determine eligibility at HealthyDelaware.org/lung. Lung cancer is the most frequently diagnosed cancer in Delaware, with 3,965 cases (14 percent of all newly diagnosed cancer cases) and 2,839 deaths (30 percent of all cancer deaths) from 2010 to 2014. In the same period, Delaware (70.9 people per 100,000) had a statistically significantly higher lung cancer incidence rate compared to the U.S. (55.8 people per 100,000). Tobacco use is the number one risk factor for lung cancer. To schedule a low-dose CT scan, visit www.healthydelaware.org and call 302-744-1020 to speak to a nurse navigator.
The National Weather Service issues these alerts: • Tornado Watch: Weather conditions could form tornadoes or severe storms. Know your safe place and be prepared to act quickly. • Tornado Warning: A tornado was spotted or weather radar indicated that it is occurring or will occur soon. There is imminent danger to life and property; immediately take shelter in a safe place. Designate your household’s safe room, such as a basement, storm cellar, or an interior room on the lowest floor with no windows. Clear the safe room of clutter. Store sleeping bags, blankets, pillows, and sports or motorcycle helmets there to protect heads from flying debris. Best sheltering options recommended by the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) are in an above or below ground Tornado Storm Shelter (NSSA/ICC 500 compliant) or a specifically designed FEMA Safe Room. Less optimal shelter choices are gymnasiums and auditoriums, manufactured housing, mobile homes, and vehicles. When driving, get off the road and seek shelter in a safe structure or lay in a ditch or ravine. Do not seek shelter under a tree or an overpass. Routinely check weather forecasts. Heed dark, greenish skies; hail without rain; funnel or wall clouds; and a loud roar. Delawareans should have multiple ways to receive weather alerts and warnings, such as television, free phone apps, websites, and social media. A NOAA Weather Radio can alert sleeping families and is useful during power outages. Set cell phone settings to receive free government text messages known as Wireless Emergency Alerts. They warn of severe weather and other emergencies, including Presidential Messages during national emergencies. When asleep, keep cell phones nearby to hear emergency alerts. For more information, visit https://www.weather.gov/.
45
Delaware and Hepatitis C: Is it time for universal screening? Navin Vij, M.D., M.S.H.P.
While training to become a physician caring for both children and adults, I relied upon evidence-based recommendations to guide nearly every decision I made: when should a pediatric patient be tested for lead exposure? How often should I screen for hypertension in an adolescent? In which patients should I screen for hepatitis C virus infection (HCV)? During this same time, I learned that I had been unknowingly living with HCV for nearly 26 years. My own experience led me to question this last guideline as I realized how many patients might fall through the gaps of current HCV screening recommendations.1 I was in my first year of medical residency training when I was diagnosed with HCV. After an accidental needle stick while performing a procedure, I went to employee health services, only to learn days later that I had HCV – and that it did not originate from that needle stick. My life stopped. In a dimly lit hallway near the end of a long night shift, I stood in silence, feeling numb and scared of what lay ahead. In the weeks and months that followed, I met with a hepatologist, made decisions about treatment that would eventually cure me, and reflected on my medical history to learn how I contracted the infection. In the summer of 1983, I was born a 27-week premature baby. Over several months in the neonatal intensive care unit (NICU), I had received - among other things - occasional blood transfusions. It was likely through those transfusions (which, until the early 1990s, were not routinely screened for HCV and HIV), that I contracted the virus. HCV is an infectious disease of the liver. Transmitted through direct contact with blood, it is a silent disease, with most patients living asymptomatically for years. Nearly 50% of patients living with HCV are unaware of their status and less than 10% of patients with known HCV have received successful HCV treatment.2 The consequences are enormous. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), HCV now kills more people in the United States than 60 other infectious diseases combined.3 Economically, chronic HCV costs the U.S. healthcare system at least $10 billion annually.4 And until recently, HCV was the leading cause of liver transplantations.5 I was ironically lucky to experience that needle stick. Without it, I could have lived for additional years or decades as the virus silently damaged my liver, potentially causing cirrhosis, hepatocellular carcinoma, and even liver failure. Across exam rooms and hospital beds throughout Delaware and the country, young adults and babies may face a similar situation, but for an entirely different reason. Although blood is now routinely screened for HCV and other communicable diseases, the epidemic of opioid abuse has placed a new generation at risk for the disease. After over a decade’s long decline both locally and nationally, the incidence of new cases of acute HCV began to dramatically increase after 2010, largely due to the explosion of intravenous drug use among young adults.6 46 Delaware Journal of Public Health – May 2019
In Delaware alone, nearly 2,600 HCV cases were reported in 2016, which is likely a significant underestimate. CDC research demonstrates nearly 13 unreported cases for every reported case of HCV annually.6,7 Delaware has a higher estimated prevalence of HCV than any of its neighboring states, placing it among the top ten nationally.8 Over half of these new cases are in Delawareans under the age of 40.7 Currently there are no national or state-based recommendations that endorse universal HCV screening for all adults. National guidelines from the CDC and United States Preventative Services Task Force (USPSTF) call for testing all patients born between 1945 and 1965 and others with identified risk factors for exposure.1 Unfortunately, these guidelines result in a disjointed approach toward HCV screening, leaving providers to make decisions on a case-by-case basis. This ultimately contributes to delays in HCV diagnosis and increased potential for HCV transmission. Furthermore, with HCV increasingly affecting women of childbearing age, newborns are entering the world already infected and at risk for the long-term consequences of the virus, all because their mothers went undiagnosed during pregnancy. Critics of universal HCV screening argue that it casts too wide a net or that the financial burden of universal screening outweighs the benefits. Recent studies provide evidence to the contrary, showing that universal 1-time screening either for an all adult cohort or as prenatal screening is both cost effective and improves health outcomes for women diagnosed with HCV infection.9–11 With new pan-genotypic direct-acting antiviral (DAA) therapy with treatment courses as short as 8 to 12 weeks and cure rates upwards of 95%, including in children, guidelines regarding HCV testing need to change. Delaware can lead the way by becoming the first state to endorse or mandate universal HCV screening. With recent changes in 2018 to its state Medicaid restrictions on HCV insurance coverage, Delaware has expanded patient access to HCV treatment. Furthermore, recent precedent exists within the state to conduct universal screening in adults – and in doing so, utilize primary care as an option for patients to concurrently seek HCV treatment.12 As I think back to my own journey with HCV and the patients I see every day affected by the opioid and heroin epidemics, I think of those 26 years that passed while I lived with this silent killer. I know I was lucky – lucky to have the needle stick, lucky to have access to curative treatment, and lucky to have the support of many friends, family, and physicians to help me through my experience. Others in this world should be just as lucky. Ask yourself – should another baby or young adult have to wait 26 years or an entire lifetime to know that they too can be cured? It is time for Delaware – and the country - to adopt universal screening for Hepatitis C.
REFERENCES 1. American Association for the Study of Liver Diseases. Infectious Diseases Society of America. (2014). HCV Guidance: Recommendations for Testing, Managing, and Treating Hepatitis C Welcome and Methods. (1), 65. https://doi.org/10.1001/ jama.282.20.1975-JBK1124-5-1 2. Ford, M. M., Johnson, N., Desai, P., Rude, E., & Laraque, F. (2017, March 1). From care to cure: Demonstrating a model of clinical patient navigation for hepatitis C care and treatment in high-need patients. Clin Infect Dis, 64(5), 685–691. 10.1093/cid/ ciw806 PubMed 3. Ly, K. N., Hughes, E. M., Jiles, R. B., & Holmberg, S. D. (2016, May 15). Rising mortality associated with Hepatitis C virus in the United States, 2003-2013. Clin Infect Dis, 62(10), 1287– 1288. https://doi.org/10.1093/cid/ciw111 PubMed 4. Stepanova, M., & Younossi, Z. M. (2017, August). Economic burden of hepatitis C infection. Clinics in Liver Disease, 21(3), 579–594. PubMed https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cld.2017.03.012 5. Lee, B. P., Vittinghoff, E., Dodge, J. L., Cullaro, G., & Terrault, N. A. (2019, January 22). National trends and long-term outcomes of liver transplant for alcohol-associated liver disease in the United States. JAMA Intern Med, 179(3), 340–348. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamainternmed.2018.6536 PubMed 6. CDC. (2019). Hepatitis C Questions and Answers for Health Professionals.
7. Delaware Division of Health and Social Services. (2017). Hepatitis C Epidemiological Profile. Retrieved from: https:// www.dhss.delaware.gov/dph/dpc/files/dehcvepi2017.pdf 8. Rosenberg, E. S., Hall, E. W., Sullivan, P. S., Sanchez, T. H., Workowski, K. A., Ward, J. W., & Holtzman, D. (2017, June 1). Estimation of state-level prevalence of hepatitis C virus infection, US states and District of Columbia, 2010. Clin Infect Dis, 64(11), 1573–1581. https://doi.org/10.1093/cid/cix202 PubMed 9. Chaillon, A., Rand, E. B., Reau, N., & Martin, N. K. (2019). Cost-Effectiveness of Universal Hepatitis C Virus Screening of Pregnant Women in The United States. Clin Infect Dis, ciz063, 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1093/cid/ciz063 10. Eckman, M. H., Ward, J. W., & Sherman, K. E. (2019, April). Cost effectiveness of universal screening for hepatitis C virus infection in the era of direct-acting, pangenotypic treatment regimens. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol, 17(5), 930–939.e9. PubMed https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cgh.2018.08.080 11. Tasillo, A., Eftekhari Yazdi, G., Nolen, S., Schillie, S., Vellozzi, C., Epstein, R., . . . Linas, B. P. (2019, February). Short-term effects and long-term cost-effectiveness of universal hepatitis C testing in prenatal care. Obstetrics and Gynecology, 133(2), 289–300. https://doi.org/10.1097/AOG.0000000000003062 PubMed 12. Kahal, D., Goldstein, N. D., Bincsik, A., Testa, K., & Szabo, S. (2018). Expanding care for patients infected with Hepatitis C through community partnership in Delaware. Delaware Journal of Public Health, 4(5), 76–80.
47
The Consequences of Medication Nonadherence are Stacking Up 125,000
145 Million Americans suffer from CHRONIC DISEASES
PREMATURE DEATHS in the U.S. each year result from NON-ADHERENCE
$300
BILLION In avoidable costs to the U.S. health care system ANNUALLY
50%
of patients with chronic diseases DO NOT take medication as prescribed
APPROXIMATELY
1 IN 5
new prescriptions are NEVER FILLED in the U.S.
Sources: https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/66/wr/m m6645a2.htm https://www.pillsy.com/articles/medicationadherence-stats
Help your patients help themselves. Quality Insights can arm your practice with the strategies and resources to make an impact on medication adherence among your patients, especially those with chronic conditions, and improve their overall health.
48 Delaware Journal of Public Health â&#x20AC;&#x201C; May 2019
Help Your Patients Help Themselves The Statistics Don’t Lie As you can see, the statistics surrounding medication non-adherence are frightening. Non-adherence is a complex and multidimensional health care problem that can lead to a huge amount of unnecessary physical and emotional suffering, financial loss, and premature deaths. Although it’s incredibly important, there tends to be very little social support provided around this problem due of the personal nature of medications.
What Can Your Practice Do to Improve Medication Adherence? Quality Insights, under a contract from the Delaware Division of Public Health, is leading a statewide initiative to prevent and control diabetes, heart disease, obesity and associated risk factors. Improving medication adherence among patients with these chronic conditions is one of the key focuses of this project. We invite you to join us in this important work!
Resources & Education As a participant in this initiative, Delaware clinicians have access to a variety of practice and patient tools & resources to manage patient medication adherence at the point-of care, and most importantly, when the patients leave the medical office. Some examples of the resources we offer include a customizable office Medication Adherence Protocol, a descriptive list of FREE apps to help patients better manage their medications, and the Adherence Estimator tool that can help you identify patients at risk for non-adherence. Your practice will also receive free jump drives containing the Adherence Estimator tool to share with your patients.
Contact Quality Insights Quality Insights is here to support your practice’s efforts to improve medication adherence among your patient population. Contact Quality Insights Practice Transformation Specialist Ashley Biscardi to sign-up or visit our website to learn more. This publication was supported by the Cooperative Agreement Number 1U58DP004799-01 from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Its contents are solely the responsibility of the authors and do not necessarily represent the official views of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Publication number: DEDPH-HD-052519
49
Statewide Antibiotic Stewardship: An eBrightHealth Choosing Wisely Initiative Marci Drees, M.D., M.S.1,2; Kimberly Fischer, B.S.N., R.N.3; Loretta Consiglio-Ward, M.S.N., R.N.1,4; Janelle Caruano, PharmD, B.C.I.D.P.6; Shannon Chan, PharmD7; William Chasanov, DO, M.B.A.; 8 Jami Jones, R.N., B.S.N.5; Alexander Kashmanian, PharmD, B.C.P.S., B.C.I.D.P.6; Jillian D. Laude, PharmD, B.C.P.S.1; Nicole Harrington, PharmD, B.C.P.S. AQ-ID1; Elizabeth A. Richardson, M.S.N., M.P.H., R.N.8; Arezoo Zomorrodi, M.D.7; Robert Dressler, M.D., M.B.A.1,2,4 1 Christiana Care Health System, Wilmington, Delaware. 2 Sidney Kimmel Medical College, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. 3 Nanticoke Health Services, Seaford, Delaware. 4 eBrightHealth, LLC, New Castle, Delaware. 5 Quality Insights, Charleston, West Virginia. 6 Bayhealth Medical Center, Dover, Delaware. 7 Nemours/A.I. duPont Hospital for Children, Wilmington, Delaware. 8 Beebe Healthcare, Lewes, Delaware.
Abstract Objective: To implement a collaborative statewide antibiotic stewardship initiative in both the ambulatory and inpatient settings. Methods: Five participating Delaware health systems each convened internal team(s) to translate the vision set forth by the eBrightHealth LLC Choosing Wisely Work Group into clinical action through process improvement efforts at their institutions. The teams focused on implementing antibiotic time-outs, and on improving antibiotic prescribing for upper respiratory infections in ambulatory settings. The learning network utilized an “all teach, all learn” methodology via monthly conference calls and quarterly face-to-face meetings. Results: All inpatient teams implemented antibiotic time-outs for at least 1 unit. Other interventions included commitment posters; submitting antibiotic utilization data nationally; provider/patient surveys; local stewardship champions; and provider prescribing data feedback. Barriers to implementation included competing priorities, lack of reliable utilization data, and suboptimal provider engagement. Overall antibiotic utilization decreased by 9%, compared to the pre-intervention period. Conclusions: This initiative has demonstrated the value of multidisciplinary teams, from varying healthcare systems, coming together to work on a single project. While each team’s interventions and specific goals differed slightly, all teams implemented new initiatives to promote appropriate use of antibiotics. Policy Implications: Antibiotic stewardship is a national priority. Acute care hospitals are required to have antibiotic stewardship programs; similar programs are proposed for ambulatory settings.
INTRODUCTION In 2016, five Delaware hospital systems (Bayhealth, Beebe Healthcare, Christiana Care Health System, Nanticoke Health Services and Nemours/Alfred I. duPont Hospital for Children) developed a statewide strategic alliance named eBrightHealth LLC. The goals of eBrightHealth LLC are to increase access to health care services, to improve the quality and affordability of care, and to offer all Delawareans an even brighter health care future through collaboration and innovation. The alliance builds on the foundation and strengths of the statewide eBrightHealth Accountable Care Organization (ACO), which includes approximately 300 primary care and 900 specialist providers who are working together to deliver high quality care at a lower cost for traditional Medicare beneficiaries across the region. The network includes both employed and affiliated providers. The partners included in eBrightHealth LLC differ slightly from those of eBrightHealth ACO (Figure 1). One of the early innovations eBrightHealth LLC (hereafter referred to as eBH) chose to focus on was to implement recommendations from the national Choosing Wisely campaign to avoid wasteful or unnecessary medical tests, treatments and 50 Delaware Journal of Public Health – May 2019
procedures, thus promoting better care and higher efficiencies. More than 80 professional societies and other partners have submitted lists with recommendations for tests and procedures “whose necessity should be questioned or discussed.”1 The eBH Choosing Wisely Work Group decided to pursue antibiotic stewardship as its initial focus, given that antibiotic recommendations represented more than 30 items on the Choosing Wisely lists, across multiple primary care and specialty societies. Concurrently, the Work Group learned that others in the state were focusing on this topic and invited them to be collaborative partners in this state-wide effort. They included Quality Insights, the Quality Innovation Network-Quality Improvement Organization (QIN-QIO) for Delaware, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, West Virginia and Louisiana, who had been awarded a contract from the Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services (CMS) to work on improving antibiotic stewardship best practices among all providers within the represented states; and the Delaware Division of Public Health (DPH), who had received grant funding to support antibiotic stewardship efforts in the state. Antibiotic stewardship refers to programs, policies and actions designed to optimize treatment of infections while reducing
adverse events associated with antibiotic use.2 More than half of all hospitalized patients receive at least one antibiotic during their stay,3 and enough antibiotics are dispensed from outpatient pharmacies in the U.S. each year for five out of every six people to receive one antibiotic prescription.4–6 While antibiotics have transformed the practice of medicine, approximately 30-50% of all antibiotics prescribed in the U.S. are either unnecessary or inappropriate.7 Based on available data, Delaware appears to have higher than average antibiotic prescribing practices. In 2016, 929 antibiotic prescriptions per 1000 population were dispensed by community and mail-order pharmacies in Delaware, above the national average of 836 per 1000 population.5 These represent prescriptions filled at the time of hospital discharge, as well as those prescribed in the context of outpatient visits or via telephone consultation. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) has published what they consider to be Core Elements of hospital antibiotic stewardship programs8 (Table 1); similar documents have also been published for long term care settings10 and ambulatory care.9 As of 2016, 75% of Delaware hospitals reported meeting all seven hospital core elements, greater than the national average of 64%.11 However, the goal is to achieve 100% by 2020. Most hospital antibiotic stewardship programs, including all of those in Delaware prior to the eBH Choosing Wisely initiative, have focused primarily on inpatient utilization; however, more than 60% of all antibiotic expenditures in humans in the U.S. are related to care received in outpatient settings.12 Based upon this information, the Work Group’s initial focus was to implement a collaborative statewide antibiotic stewardship initiative in both inpatient and ambulatory settings. To facilitate this effort, the Work Group decided to initially narrow the focus to treatment of upper respiratory infections (URI) in the ambulatory setting, and the implementation of an “antibiotic time-out” after 48-72 hours of antibiotics. The intention of an antibiotic time-out is to encourage data review, enhance documentation, and provide clarity amongst multiple caregivers. Improved documentation and clarity allows for increased knowledge about the patient and disease state, facilitating antibiotic de-escalation or discontinuation if appropriate, efficient and smooth transitions in care, and appropriate discharge planning. Upper respiratory conditions were chosen as the initial target because they are commonly caused by viruses (including the common cold, viral sore throats, and bronchitis) and thus do not require antibiotics, or do so only under specific circumstances (such as some sinus and ear infections).4
METHODS THE COLLABORATIVE STATEWIDE ANTIBIOTIC LEARNING NETWORK The eBH Choosing Wisely Work Group developed the infrastructure to lead and support a collaborative statewide learning network. They brought together both national and other statewide organizations with an interest in promoting antibiotic stewardship (e.g., American Board of Internal Medicine [ABIM] Foundation, the Delaware Health Information Network [DHIN], DPH, CareLink-CareNow, and Quality Insights); thereby enabling the coordination of efforts and messages to both the provider community and the broader communities in Delaware. In addition to the eBH organizations, other Delaware health systems
that are not members of eBH were invited to participate in this learning network. Each participating health system was asked to convene an internal team to translate the vision set forth by the Work Group into clinical action through process improvement efforts at their institutions. The benefit of participation for each team was the collaborative environment that enabled learning from one another, and teaching one another (“all teach, all learn”). This was accomplished primarily through monthly facilitated teleconference calls with all institutional team leads. Additionally, there were quarterly face-to-face meetings for all team members. These meetings were structured with a plenary speaker and breakout sessions where the attendees were taught process improvement skills, and had facilitated discussions on implementation tactics that included direct application of the day’s learning to their individual projects. The project initially kicked off with a face-to-face meeting in August 2017, and concluded in August 2018; however, each institution has continued their internal work groups, and collaboration has continued via teleconference and in-person meetings, supported by the Healthcare-associated Infections Advisory Committee under DPH. Throughout this initiative, Quality Insights distributed resources to all participating providers (including not only the eBH Choosing Wisely teams, but also urgent care centers, physician practices, and community pharmacies throughout Delaware) and met one-on-one with providers to review the CDC Core Elements and provide guidance on strategies to implement them. Additionally, Quality Insights created provider-specific antibiotic prescribing reports using Medicare claims data for participating providers. Lastly, they developed patient-focused educational videos and handouts supporting appropriate antibiotic use. In addition, the teams reviewed and selected resources from CDC’s “Be Antibiotics Aware”13 and the ABIM Foundation’s Choosing Wisely® campaigns.1
STRUCTURE AND ACTIVITIES OF INDIVIDUAL TEAMS The five participating hospitals convened six stewardship teams (Christiana Care created separate inpatient- and outpatientfocused teams). Of these six teams, most (n=4) included an infectious diseases (ID)-trained pharmacist, and three included ID-trained physicians. All teams comprised of both pharmacist and physician representatives, who included specialists such as hospital medicine and primary care. Infection Preventionists were also common members (n=4); other individuals included nurses and Quality/Safety representatives. Prior to the initiation of the eBH Choosing Wisely project, all participating hospitals had inpatient stewardship teams already working on various initiatives (Figure 2). These initiatives included restricting certain antibiotics to specific providers, retrospective audit and feedback, requiring an indication for antibiotic prescriptions, making changes within the electronic medical record (EMR) to facilitate stewardship goals, guidelines development, and patient and provider education. One team had signed up to participate in the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (AHRQ) Safety Program for Improving Antibiotic Use.14,15 During the eBH Choosing Wisely project, many of these previous initiatives were either maintained or newly introduced at 51
other hospitals. Additionally, new stewardship interventions were initiated (Figure 2). All inpatient teams implemented an antibiotic time-out at 48-72 hours, a main goal of the project. Other interventions included developing and posting commitment posters, an evidence-based practice in which the provider(s) pledge to use antibiotics appropriately and these pledges are posted in exam rooms or other areas visible to patients;16 submitting antibiotic utilization data to CDC for benchmarking; surveying providers and/or patients; identifying stewardship champions at the clinic or unit level; and providing prescribing data feedback to providers.
AHRQ four moments of antibiotic decision making.14 Quality Insights webinars were made available to hospital and outpatient providers, and Choosing Wisely commitment posters were placed strategically in both hospital and outpatient settings. The team implemented an EMR tool to submit antibiotic use and antibiotic resistance to the CDC, and conducted data analysis and timely feedback for specific antibiotics (e.g., mainly focusing on broad spectrum carbapenem usage, specifically ertapenem). The team conducted C. difficile deep dives for all hospital onset cases, as well as 1:1 meetings when opportunities for provider feedback and education were identified.
It was well-recognized by all participants that patient education was an important part of this initiative, as real or perceived demand for antibiotics is considered a primary driver of inappropriate antibiotic prescriptions.17–19 Teams reported that prior to the project, patient education included handouts (n=2), posters in waiting rooms (n=3), and education embedded into the EMR that was available for nursing to distribute to patients (n=3). Additional methods that were utilized during the project included updating an external website (n=1), creating videos (n=2), and creating phone messages for patients while waiting on hold (n=1). In addition, more programs added handouts, posters and other signage, and EMR-based education.
CHRISTIANA CARE HEALTH SYSTEM– AMBULATORY
INDIVIDUAL PROGRAM VIGNETTES
For the system’s 14 primary care practices, similar efforts were made to emphasize the importance of using antibiotics appropriately. Unfortunately antibiotic utilization data was not available for these practices, so efforts focused on provider engagement and education and patient education. The team distributed needs assessment surveys to all primary care providers, nurses, and medical assistants to gain a better understanding of the groups’ baseline knowledge. The survey identified barriers to appropriate antibiotic prescribing that included lack of access to educational materials. Therefore, the team made educational resources more readily available within the practices. Posters and pamphlets that were developed by CDC and Choosing Wisely were made available in the practices’ ordering system, and the task force developed a commitment letter that was posted in all exam rooms. Additional patient education efforts included developing a patient-focused external website, a phone recording that patients will hear when calling to request a sick visit appointment, in-person provider education at monthly clinic meetings at all sites, provider quizzes, creating a new sinusitis guideline, and identifying an office stewardship champion at each site.
BAYHEALTH Bayhealth’s inpatient goal was to implement an antibiotic timeout to reduce antibiotic patient days by 10% in one year, and to improve patient outcomes including Clostridium difficile, readmission, and excess length of stay. This effort included participating in the AHRQ program in the intensive care unit (ICU). A dedicated pharmacist was assigned to complete the time-out for 10 patients per month, hoping that selecting a single pharmacist would increase rapport with the ICU intensivist team. The team also implemented a best practice alert in the EMR for a 72-hour antibiotic time-out for all inpatients receiving piperacillin/tazobactam or ceftriaxone. This time-out would alert only the attending hospitalist. The outpatient initiative’s goal was to reduce the number of outpatient antibiotic prescriptions for the treatment of URI (sinusitis, acute bronchitis, otitis media, and pharyngitis) by 10% over one year. Efforts toward this goal included displaying patient education posters in the emergency department (ED) fast-track rooms and patient bathrooms. Provider education targeted internal medicine and other primary care physicians via letters and staff meetings about decreasing antibiotic use for URI.
BEEBE HEALTHCARE The Beebe team’s overarching goal was to develop and sustain a culture of optimal antimicrobial use throughout the health system. The team recruited ID and hospitalist provider champions, trained pharmacists via certification through the Society of Infectious Diseases Pharmacists (SIDP),20 and identified the medical-surgical ICU – as the area with greatest opportunity – to participate in the AHRQ Safety Program for Improving Antibiotic Use. The team used adaptive training via TeamSTEPPS,21 clinical education via monthly webinars, and standardized real-time reviews of antibiotic use employing the 52 Delaware Journal of Public Health – May 2019
The ambulatory team chose two key areas of focus: the health system’s five urgent care centers, known as medical aid units (MAUs), and primary care practices. Within the MAUs, the lead physician served as a stewardship champion. After on-site education by the stewardship team to MAU providers, the lead physician performed manual chart audits in order to review antibiotic prescribing, and gave the MAU providers feedback via email or in-person meetings. Antibiotic utilization data became available in February 2018, and from this point forward emails were distributed monthly to all MAU providers with their antibiotic prescribing rates, allowing for peer-to-peer comparison.
CHRISTIANA CARE HEALTH SYSTEM – INPATIENT The primary goal of the inpatient team was the incorporation of an antibiotic time-out into the rounding process with a focus on the 5D’s of stewardship – discernment, drug, dose, de-escalation and duration of therapy. The team completed a pilot in the fall of 2017 with the help of medical residents, who completed a separate antibiotic time-out note for 29 patients over a period of two weeks. While the process was not overly time-consuming or difficult, the lack of ability to force this function created limitations. The team also had the opportunity to participate in the AHRQ Safety Program for Improving Antibiotic Use, choosing a geriatric medicine unit and surgical/trauma ICU to participate. The project started with engaging key stakeholders
including pharmacy, nursing, physician extenders, residents and physicians on each unit; sharing antibiotic utilization; and exploring opportunities for improvement. The geriatric unit focused on ceftriaxone use and the management of asymptomatic bacteriuria, while the surgical ICU focused on linezolid use.
NANTICOKE HEALTH SERVICES Nanticoke formed outpatient and inpatient Antibiotic Stewardship Committees, which worked with their EMR to develop reports so that meaningful data could be collected. The team distributed education to all staff regarding antimicrobial stewardship, and provided face-to-face education to ED clinicians by pharmacy and physician leaders. The Infection Preventionist also provided face-to-face education at several community events. The team is currently testing a 72-hour antibiotic time-out for four frequently used antibiotics in the inpatient population.
NEMOURS/A.I. DUPONT HOSPITAL FOR CHILDREN The Nemours team focused on two areas of antimicrobial stewardship: development and implementation of clinical pathways for ambulatory care practices including primary care, emergency department and urgent care; and development of an inpatient unit-specific antimicrobial stewardship initiative via the AHRQ Safety Program for Improving Antibiotic Use. For the clinical pathways, a multidisciplinary team was established and identified common diagnoses with the greatest potential for practice variation (i.e. acute respiratory tract infection). The team measured baseline data on antimicrobial prescribing and diagnostic test utilization for these diagnoses, and developed evidence-based clinical pathways. Ultimately the team developed and implemented 4 clinical pathways (streptococcus pharyngitis, URI, acute bacterial sinusitis and influenza) during the one-year period. The team leveraged the EMR to provide clinical support consistent with recommendations of the clinical pathways (best practice alerts, order sets, preference lists, express lanes), and engaged front line clinicians via in-person training and open communication regarding feedback or concerns about the pathway. Lastly, they developed individualized physician performance dashboards. For the AHRQ program, the team identified the pediatric ICU (PICU) as the unit with the highest patient acuity and highest utilization of broad-spectrum antibiotics. The unit-specific initiative included identifying unit physician champions, with whom biweekly meetings were held to perform prospective review of patients’ antimicrobial therapy and identify opportunities for improvement. With the champions, the team reviewed at least ten patients per month, after which they developed and implemented a formal process for antibiotic time-outs, in collaboration with the PICU attending physicians and PICU pharmacy clinical specialist. The pharmacist and clinical team assessed a standardized set of questions on antibiotic indications, route, and duration during patient rounds, and the pharmacist documented the assessment and decision in a progress note. All patients receiving antimicrobials for greater than 48 hours were included for assessment.
UTILIZATION DATA Given the disparate EMRs utilized by the participating hospitals, we did not attempt to pool utilization data for this project.
However, Quality Insights, through a contract funded by CMS, provided pooled outpatient utilization data for Medicare beneficiaries, using Medicare Part D claims and national drug codes to calculate the total number of antibiotic prescriptions, divided by the total member months for beneficiaries with pharmacy benefits for the same time period. Available data included the first quarter of 2016 (2016Q1) through the second quarter of 2018 (2018Q2). We calculated overall utilization, as well as utilization of broad-spectrum (defined as agents effective against both Gram positive and Gram negative bacteria), and narrow-spectrum (defined as agents effective against specific families of bacteria) antibiotics. Because the initiative began in August 2017, we compared the pre-intervention one-year period (2016Q3-2017Q2) to the intervention period (2017Q3-2018Q2), and calculated rate ratios.
RESULTS The teams reported many lessons learned as well as barriers to implementation of the project (Table 2). Examining the Medicare Part D fee for service antibiotic claims, 142,148 antibiotic prescriptions were filled during the baseline year (2016 Q3-2017 Q2), for an average of 1.19 prescriptions per member per year. This decreased slightly during the intervention year (2017 Q32018 Q2) to 132,736 prescriptions or 1.07 antibiotics per member per year. Clear seasonality was evident, with higher utilization during quarter 1 (January-March) of each year (Figure 3). Overall, outpatient antibiotic utilization decreased by 9% between the baseline and implementation years (Figure 4). In both years, broad-spectrum antibiotics made up approximately two-thirds of all antibiotics prescribed (69.7% during baseline; 69.4% during intervention). Utilization of broad-spectrum antibiotics decreased to a greater extent than did that of narrow-spectrum agents (Figure 4).
DISCUSSION The eBH Choosing Wisely antibiotic stewardship initiative has demonstrated the value of multiple individuals and teams, with multidisciplinary backgrounds and from widely varying health care systems, coming together to work on a single project. While each team’s interventions and specific goals differed slightly based on their unique clinical situation and patient populations, all teams were able to move forward toward their goal and implement new interventions to promote appropriate use of antibiotics. The “all teach, all learn” method of collaboration provides a framework for not only learning from others but also disseminating similar messaging to health care consumers. While many patients (and parents) are aware of the downsides of antibiotic use,22,23 hearing a similar message from providers across the health care continuum is essential for successful reduction of unnecessary antimicrobial use. Our results demonstrated a modest decline in outpatient antibiotic utilization among Medicare beneficiaries that was consistent with an overall downward trend. This is not unexpected given the relatively small number of providers impacted by this work over the one year duration of the project; the teams continue to work to further spread their interventions, and anticipate greater impact. Impact on other populations, including pediatrics and younger adults, is not known. The importance of antibiotic stewardship cannot be overstated. 53
Antibiotics are unique among medications in that their use, appropriate or otherwise, affects not only the individual taking the medication, but also the community around them. While life-saving when needed, extensive research has demonstrated their overuse, which can include using antibiotics for diagnoses that are either not infectious in nature, or caused by viruses; using unnecessarily broad-spectrum agents; and prescribing unnecessarily long courses of antibiotics, when shorter courses are equally effective. Such overuse contributes to worsening antibiotic resistance, thereby making true infections increasingly difficult and expensive to treat. It is the primary driver of increasing rates of C. difficile infections, both within hospitals as well as the community, and is a major cause of significant allergic reactions and other adverse drug events.4 Antimicrobial stewardship programs have been recommended for all hospitals since 2014, and since 2016 have been required by CMS as a condition of participation for hospitals and nursing homes.24 In early 2019 the Joint Commission proposed a new requirement for antimicrobial stewardship in ambulatory health care.25 To support these efforts, the CDC has published a series of documents describing the Core Elements required for effective stewardship programs.8,9 Primary among these elements is the leadership commitment necessary not only to state that this work is a priority, but also to dedicate sufficient human and other resources necessary to complete this challenging task. The eBH Choosing Wisely framework was able to garner such leadership support from each health system, and foster accountability from all the teams via designating team leads and facilitating regular meetings. Additionally, eBH was able to convene other organizations to participate in the these efforts, which not only served to facilitate the integration of their expertise and insight into team projects, but also to minimize the potential for redundant work being commissioned within our community.
REFERENCES 1. ABIM Foundation. Choosing Wisely: promoting conversations between patients and clinicians. http://www.choosingwisely.org/. Accessed January 30, 2019. 2. Society for Healthcare Epidemiology of America, Infectious Diseases Society of America, Pediatric Infectious Diseases Society. Policy Statement on Antimicrobial Stewardship.; 2012. https://www.shea-online.org/index.php/policy/ positions-statements/288-policy-statement-on-antimicrobialstewardship-by-the-society-for-healthcare-epidemiology-ofamerica-shea-the-infectious-diseases-society-of-america 3. Baggs, J., Fridkin, S. K., Pollack, L. A., Srinivasan, A., & Jernigan, J. A. (2016, November 1). Estimating national trends in inpatient antibiotic use among US hospitals from 2006 to 2012. JAMA Internal Medicine, 176(11), 1639–1648. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamainternmed.2016.5651 4. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Antibiotic Use in the United States, 2017: Progress and Opportunities. Atlanta, GA; 2017. https://www.cdc.gov/antibiotic-use/ stewardship-report/pdf/stewardship-report.pdf 5. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Outpatient Antibiotic Prescriptions - United States, 2016. https://www.cdc. gov/antibiotic-use/community/programs-measurement/statelocal-activities/outpatient-antibiotic-prescriptions-US-2016. html. Accessed February 4, 2019. 6. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Viewing outpatient antibiotic use data. https://gis.cdc.gov/grasp/PSA/AUMapView.html. Accessed January 30, 2019. 7. Fleming-Dutra, K. E., Hersh, A. L., Shapiro, D. J., Bartoces, M., Enns, E. A., File, T. M., Jr., . . . Hicks, L. A. (2016, May 3). Prevalence of inappropriate antibiotic prescriptions among US ambulatory care visits, 2010-2011. JAMA, 315(17), 1864–1873. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2016.4151
Having teams comprised of multidisciplinary health care professionals allowed the efforts to benefit from the multifaceted expertise that contributed to all teams implementing multiple 8. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Core interventions. While education of both providers and patients Elements of Hospital Antibiotic Stewardship Programs. Atlanta, regarding stewardship principles is necessary, it is also recognized GA; 2014. http://www.cdc.gov/getsmart/healthcare/ that education alone is not sufficient to create lasting changes. implementation/core-elements.html Developing the ability to track and report reliable data is crucial for long-term improvement and sustainment of antimicrobial 9. Sanchez, G. V., Fleming-Dutra, K. E., Roberts, R. M., & Hicks, L. A. (2016, November 11). Core elements of outpatient stewardship, but remains elusive and is probably the greatest antibiotic stewardship. MMWR. Recommendations and reports, barrier reported by all the teams; however, despite limited 65(6), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.rr6506a1 resources to make major changes in this arena during the oneyear time span of this project, the teams were able to make 10. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. The Core Elements progress in acquiring data. We are hopeful that additional data of Antibiotic Stewardship for Nursing Homes. Atlanta, GA; resources will be available in the near future. 2015. https://www.cdc.gov/longtermcare/pdfs/core-elementsantibiotic-stewardship.pdf The collaborative work described in this paper demonstrates the statewide progress that can be accomplished and the many efforts 11. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Percentage required to successfully implement such a multi-institution, of Hospitals Meeting all 7 Core Elements of Hospital multi-disciplinary project. The Choosing Wisely Work Group Antibiotic Stewardship Program by State, 2016. https:// has since initiated similar collaborations around imaging for www.cdc.gov/antibiotic-use/community/images/ low back pain and end-of-life care. Creating a statewide group materials/2016-Percentages-B.jpg. Accessed January 30, 2019. to focus, align and collaborate on issues such as these, which 12. Suda, K. J., Hicks, L. A., Roberts, R. M., Hunkler, R. J., & demonstrate wide practice variability, will improve the health of Danziger, L. H. (2013, March). A national evaluation of all Delawareans while promoting safety, efficiency, and access to antibiotic expenditures by healthcare setting in the United quality care. States, 2009. The Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy, 54 Delaware Journal of Public Health – May 2019
68(3), 715–718. https://doi.org/10.1093/jac/dks445 13. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Be Antibiotics Aware: Smart Use, Best Care. https://www.cdc.gov/ features/antibioticuse/index.html. Accessed February 4, 2019. 14. Tamma, P.D., Miller, M.A., Cosgrove, S.E. (2019). Rethinking how antibiotics are prescribed: Incorporating the 4 moments of antibiotic decision making into clinical practice. JAMA, 321(2), 139-140. doi:10.1001/jama.2018.19509. 15. Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality. AHRQ Safety Program for Improving Antibiotic Use. https:// safetyprogram4antibioticstewardship.org/page/AHRQ-SafetyProgram-for-Improving-Antibiotic-Use. Accessed January 30, 2019. 16. Meeker, D., Knight, T. K., Friedberg, M. W., Linder, J. A., Goldstein, N. J., Fox, C. R., . . . Doctor, J. N. (2014, March). Nudging guideline-concordant antibiotic prescribing: A randomized clinical trial. JAMA Internal Medicine, 174(3), 425–431. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamainternmed.2013.14191 17. Szymczak, J. E., Feemster, K. A., Zaoutis, T. E., & Gerber, J. S. (2014, October). Pediatrician perceptions of an outpatient antimicrobial stewardship intervention. Infection Control and Hospital Epidemiology, 35(Suppl 3), S69–S78. https://doi.org/10.1086/677826 18. McKay, R., Mah, A., Law, M. R., McGrail, K., & Patrick, D. M. (2016, June 20). Systematic review of factors associated with antibiotic prescribing for respiratory tract infections. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy, 60(7), 4106–4118. https://doi.org/10.1128/AAC.00209-16
perceived parental expectations and pediatrician antimicrobial prescribing behavior. Pediatrics, 103(4), 711–718. Retrieved from http://ovidsp.ovid.com/ovidweb. 20. Society of Infectious Diseases Pharmacists (SIDP). Antimicrobial Stewardship Certificate Programs. https://sidp. org/Stewardship-Certificate. Accessed January 30, 2019. 21. Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality. TeamSTEPPSTM Guide to Action: Creating a Safety Net for Your Healthcare Organization.; 2006. AHRQ Publication No. 06-0020-4. 22. Szymczak, J. E., Klieger, S. B., Miller, M., Fiks, A. G., & Gerber, J. S. (2018, December 3). What parents think about the risks and benefits of antibiotics for their child’s acute respiratory tract infection. Journal of the Pediatric Infectious Diseases Society, 7(4), 303–309. https://doi.org/10.1093/jpids/pix073 23. Ancillotti, M., Eriksson, S., Veldwijk, J., Nihlén Fahlquist, J., Andersson, D. I., & Godskesen, T. (2018, October 3). Public awareness and individual responsibility needed for judicious use of antibiotics: A qualitative study of public beliefs and perceptions. BMC Public Health, 18(1), 1153. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-018-6047-8 24. The Joint Commission. Approved: New Antimicrobial Stewardship Standard. 2016;36(7):1-8. https://www. jointcommission.org/assets/1/6/New_Antimicrobial_ Stewardship_Standard.pdf 25. The Joint Commission. Proposed New Requirement at MM.09.01.03 – Antimicrobial Stewardship – Ambulatory Health Care. https://www.jointcommission.org/antimicrobial_ stewardship_–_ambulatory_health_care_ahc/. Accessed February 1, 2019.
19. Mangione-Smith, R., McGlynn, E. A., Elliott, M. N., Krogstad, P., & Brook, R. H. (1999, April). The relationship between Figure 1: Health system partners participating in eBrightHealth LLC Strategic Alliance, and eBright Health Accountable Care Organization (ACO).
55
Figure 2. Antibiotic stewardship interventions in place prior to the eBrightHealth Choosing Wisely initiative (blue bars), and either continued or initiated during the project (red bars).
Legend: AHRQ, Agency for Healthcare Quality and Research; eBH, eBrightHealth LLC Strategic Alliance; CDC, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; EMR, electronic medical record.
Figure 3. Outpatient antibiotic utilization among Delaware Medicare Part D beneficiaries, 2016 quarter 1 through 2018 quarter 2, based on claims data.
Legend: eBH, eBrightHealth LLC Strategic Alliance. Green bar demonstrates duration of eBH Choosing Wisely antibiotic stewardship project. 56 Delaware Journal of Public Health â&#x20AC;&#x201C; May 2019
Figure 4. Outpatient antibiotic utilization among Delaware Medicare Part D beneficiaries, comparing eBH pre-intervention (2016 Q3-2017 Q2) to intervention (2017 Q3-2018 Q2) periods.
Legend: CI, confidence interval; eBH, eBrightHealth LLC Strategic Alliance; RR, rate ratio.
Table 1. Core Elements of Hospital and Outpatient Antibiotic Stewardship programs, proposed by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC).
Core Elements of Hospital Antibiotic Stewardship Programs8
Core Elements of Outpatient Antibiotic Stewardship9
1. Leadership Commitment: Dedicating necessary human, ďŹ nancial and information technology resources.
Commitment: Demonstrate dedication to and accountability for optimizing antibiotic prescribing and patient safety.
2. Accountability: Appointing a single leader responsible for program outcomes.
Action: Implement at least one policy or practice to improve antibiotic prescribing, assess whether it is working, and modify as needed
3. Drug Expertise: Appointing a single pharmacist leader responsible for working to improve antibiotic use.
Tracking and reporting: Monitor antibiotic prescribing practices and offer regular feedback to clinicians, or have clinicians assess their own antibiotic prescribing practices themselves.
4. Action: Implementing at least one recommended action.
Education and expertise: Provide educational resources to clinicians and patients on antibiotic prescribing, and ensure access to needed expertise on optimizing antibiotic prescribing.
5. Tracking: Monitoring antibiotic prescribing and resistance patterns 6. Reporting: Regular reporting information on antibiotic use and resistance to doctors, nurses and relevant staff. 7. Education: Educating clinicians about resistance and optimal prescribing. 57
Table 2. Lessons Learned and Barriers reported by the six Choosing Wisely Antibiotic Stewardship teams.
Lessons Learned
Barriers to Implementation
• Importance of multidisciplinary team approach, including providers, pharmacists and nurses
• Data issues:
• Critical to have clinical champions within each practice setting • Participating in national study (AHRQ project) provided additional momentum and interest • Important to identify one or two small efforts to focus on (e.g., specific drug and/or specific disease state) • Importance of communication with all necessary parties/people impacted by changes • Doing snowflake model at beginning with well thought out planning
o Access to all antibiotic prescribing data o Development of accurate data dashboards o Developing a consistent way to have oversight over development of EHR changes o AHRQ data imperfect for specific units types/ formularies o Delays in implementing EHR changes • Engaging patients and other community members – population can be difficult to reach • Physician engagement
• Need to have dedicated time allocated for calls and face-to-face meetings for all members of the team
• Competing priorities in primary care and among inpatient teams
• Need representation from different practice areas in pathway development as workflows vary by practice and by site
• Marketing delays
• Need uniform way to disseminate information to the front-line clinicians
• Needs for discretionary time by team members – challenging to schedule meetings for a large team of busy clinicians
• Need forum to obtain and respond to feedback
• Insurance prior-authorization requirements vary between different states
• Leadership support key for driving improvement throughout multiple practice settings • Analytics don't have to be complex in order to be effective • Vary methods for engaging providers, nursing, pharmacy, patients and families - different approaches may work for each
DISCLOSURES:
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS:
The analyses upon which this publication is based were performed under Contract Number HHSM-500-2014-QIN003I, funded by the Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services, an agency of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. The content of this publication does not necessarily reflect the views or policies of the Department of Health and Human Services, nor does mention of trade names, commercial products, or organizations imply endorsement by the U.S. Government. The authors assume full responsibility for the accuracy and completeness of the ideas presented.
The authors would like to acknowledge and thank the following people, without whose contributions this project would not have been possible:
All authors report no conflicts of interest related to this work.
Christiana Care Health System: Tony Bianchetta, M.D.; Mary Ann Faralli, Ed.D., M.S.N., M.B.A., R.N., C.C.R.N.-K.; Harold P. Kramer, M.D.; Helenann Mccloskey, M.S.N., R.N.
ABIM Foundation: Kelly Rand, Program Manager, Choosing Wisely® campaign Bayhealth: Eric J. Gloss, D.O., M.M.M.; Kelly Gardner, B.S.N., R.N., C.I.C.; Holly Helmick, M.S.N., R.N., C.N.O.R., C.I.C. Beebe Healthcare: Michael J. Fraundorder, PharmD; Michael Salvatore, M.D.
Nanticoke: Robert C. Ferber, M.D. Nemours/A.I. duPont Hospital for Children: Craig Shapiro, M.D.; Karen Ravin, M.D.; Sara Slovin, M.D.; Elysha Pifko, M.D.; Yamara Coutinho-Sledge, M.D.; Karina Chara; Leigh Gage, R.N.; Jennifer Cooper, R.N. 58 Delaware Journal of Public Health – May 2019
TRAUMA-INFORMED DELAWARE
EXECUTIVE ORDER 24 TRAUMA-INFORMED DELAWAREâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;S GOAL: Coordinate a sustainable, community-based trauma awareness, prevention, and early intervention system that advances resilience through: Access to quality behavioral and intergrated health care Strength-based services for youth and adults Education for providers and the community
WHAT ARE ACEs? Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs) are stressfull events that can overwhelm a childâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s ability to cope and have a lifelong negative impact on health and wellbeing.
MAY 2019 59
Low Incidence and High Profile: Tuberculosis Control in Delaware Joanna S. Suder, J.D. Delaware Department of Justice, Civil Division, Wilmington, Delaware
Abstract Tuberculosis (TB) is an infectious disease of global burden. While Delaware has low incidence of active TB compared to other locales, because of its small size these few cases tend to garner widespread attention. In this article, a study of one such case of active TB is presented. This case serves as a didactic example of the public health response to the complexities of treatment, including institutional, transient settings, and patient refusal. This consequently led to ordered directly observed therapy of the individual. The article concludes with a discussion of the law and legal implications for such cases in Delaware.
INTRODUCTION
CASE STUDY: DANIEL
According to the CDC, one-fourth of the world’s population is infected with Tuberculosis.1 The vast majority of these cases are infected with latent tuberculosis. In 5-15% of cases, latent tuberculosis will become active. In 2017 alone, there were 10 million active Tuberculosis (“TB”) cases and 1.3 million deaths.2 However, TB cases in the United States have decreased in recent years thanks to the treatment of latent infections and a decrease in TB cases worldwide. In 2017, there were 9,105 cases of active TB in the U.S, a decrease of 2.3% from 2016.3
Daniel (a pseudonym) first became known to the Delaware Division of Public Health in early spring of 2014. He was born outside the United States and had been living in Delaware for more than five years. By the end of 2014, he would be hospitalized with cavitary pulmonary tuberculosis after exposing more than 700 people to this contagious disease. When Daniel came to the Division’s attention, he had recently been incarcerated in Delaware. He had multiple prior felonies, a history of substance abuse and homelessness, and was HIV positive. During the course of his tuberculosis treatment in Delaware he would be incarcerated two more times.
Tuberculosis infection is caused by bacteria (typically Mycobacterium tuberculosis). The bacteria can be anywhere in the body but 90% of TB infection occurs in the lungs.4 A person who has TB in the lungs (pulmonary TB), can spread the bacteria through coughing or speaking. Someone close to that person can breathe in the bacteria and become sick and contagious with active TB; alternatively, that person’s immune system may be strong enough to contain the bacteria and it becomes dormant (latent TB infection). The person with the dormant bacteria is not contagious or sick, but if their immune system weakens through illness (e.g., from HIV/AIDS) or certain medications (e.g., immunosuppressive therapy), the dormant bacteria may become active and multiply causing the person to become sick with TB disease and, consequently, contagious. According to the CDC, HIV co-infection is the strong indicator that latent TB infection will progress to active TB.5 People with HIV are 20 times more likely to fall ill from TB than those who are not living with HIV.6 Because of the risk of infection, the Division of Public Health (DPH) encourages people with the latent TB infection to take antibiotics to kill the dormant form of TB to prevent disease in the future. Delaware had 15 active TB cases in 2017, a case rate of 1.5 cases for every 100,000 people, well below the national average of 2.8.6 For this reason, Delaware is considered a low incidence TB state.7 However, the limited cases of active tuberculosis in Delaware typically garner widespread media attention. In May 2018, the Delaware Division of Public Health notified the public that an active case in a long-term care facility may have exposed more than 600 individuals to TB.8 Months later, dozens of students and staff at a Sussex County elementary school were exposed to active TB.9 Neither exposure resulted in additional active cases beyond the index case but both made front-page news. In 2014, there were 22 cases of active TB state wide. One case in particular tested the limits of the law and the resources of the state of Delaware. 60 Delaware Journal of Public Health – May 2019
Daniel was diagnosed with latent tuberculosis earlier in his life but failed to complete his treatment, only completing two months of the required nine months. In the spring of 2014, he had been incarcerated, released and later hospitalized with active pulmonary tuberculosis. Upon examination, cavities (holes) were found in both lungs and he was deemed “highly contagious.” Daniel was hospitalized for over one month and was discharged to the community. At the time of his incarceration in early 2014, Daniel exposed a large prison population to tuberculosis. This exposure resulted in the need for 2,000 inmates, former inmates and staff to be tested for tuberculosis. A close contact in the prison subsequently developed active TB from this exposure.10 Daniel was placed on a nine-month regimen for treatment but was later transitioned to a 12-month regimen due to his immunocompromised status. The treatment consists of directly observed therapy (“DOT”) which involves giving the antibiotics for treating TB (isoniazid, rifampin, ethambutol and pyrazinamide) under close observation, three days a week, by a public health nurse. The nurse meets the client for his DOT at a location most convenient for the client. Any doses the client misses are added into the time line, extending the amount of time the client must receive the medication to complete his treatment. However, missing an extensive amount of doses may cause the individual to “relapse”, meaning the disease returns, and could become resistant to some of the medications previously used. A whole new regimen would be needed and the person would need to be re-treated. Daniel was periodically housed in a motel financed by the state of Delaware, being provided with meals, groceries, hotel vouchers and was compliant with his treatment even though he was re-incarcerated for short periods during the summer of 2014.
Then he was released in the late summer of 2014. The Division of Public Health Division informed Daniel that they could no longer finance his motel, and he began missing doses. DPH nurses attempted to work with Daniel, bringing him food they paid for themselves, but he continued to resist treatment and often could not be located. Daniel’s DPH case manager attempted to find a place for Daniel to stay, reaching out to shelters and programs but Daniel declined to follow through with offered appointments. Daniel traveled to other parts of the state but refused to meet with nurses from other counties. He traveled out of state and evaded attempts to be located. In the fall of 2014, Daniel had missed so many doses that the Division of Public Health took the extraordinary step of issuing an emergency order requiring treatment of Daniel. The order included language that authorized local law enforcement to locate Daniel and bring him to a health care provider to receive his medication. Having also violated his parole, Daniel was picked up by local law enforcement and taken to a prison facility on an outstanding warrant. While in prison, he did not refuse medication. One week after the emergency order, the Division held a hearing to determine if the order for treatment should continue. Daniel was represented by a court-appointed lawyer and was given the opportunity to present evidence and question witnesses. Following the hearing, the Director of the Division of Public Health found that Daniel’s noncompliance was a danger to himself and to the general public, that Daniel knew the risks of refusing treatment and that all less restrictive alternatives had been exhausted. The Director of the Division of Public Health ordered that Daniel undergo DOT until he completed his treatment.
INVOLUNTARY TREATMENT, QUARANTINE AND ISOLATION IN DELAWARE Daniel’s case is unique. He had a history of noncompliance and demonstrated a risk to the general public’s health. While he was not contagious at the time of the forced treatment order, he had missed eight of twelve doses in a month and was at imminent risk of becoming contagious again. Isolation and forced treatment are not tools that the Delaware Division of Public Health uses often, and never without great cause. Quarantine and isolation laws are state specific and Delaware’s laws are comprehensive. Before an individual can be subjected to testing, treatment, hospitalization or isolation against their will, they must be afforded due process.11 In Delaware, those due process protections are codified in Delaware law.12 Before any person can be involuntarily examined or treated, hospitalized or isolated in a community setting they must first have a hearing before the Director of the Division of Public Health. At the hearing, the person subject to the potential order has the “right to present evidence, cross-examine witnesses and to be represented by legal counsel.” If the individual cannot obtain or afford legal counsel, the Division is required to petition the Superior Court to appoint an attorney for the individual. The individual shall also be “given at least five working days prior written notification of the time and place of hearing, a copy of documentary evidence to be presented, a list of the proposed actions to be taken and the reasons for each said action; and shall be given a verbatim transcript of the hearing on request for appeal purposes.” In order for the Director to issue an order
of involuntary examination or treatment, hospitalization or isolation, they must find that: “(1) [t]hat there is a danger to the health
of the person or that the public health and welfare are substantially endangered by the person; (2) [t]hat the person has been counseled about tuberculosis, the significant threat tuberculosis poses to the public and methods to minimize the risk to the public, and, despite said counseling, indicates an intent by words or action to endanger himself or herself and/or expose the public to infection from tuberculosis; and (3) [t]hat all other reasonable means of achieving voluntary compliance with the treatment have been exhausted and no less restrictive alternative exists.” The Director must find that all three factors are met by clear and convincing evidence, meaning that is highly and substantially more likely to be true than untrue that the person has met all three factors. The order will continue until “in the opinion of the attending physician or the County Public Health Administrator, the person is cured or said person is no longer a substantial threat to himself or herself or to the general public.” The individual subject to the order may also petition the Director for “immediate release and termination of the order.” The individual must demonstrate that they are no longer “an imminent and substantial threat to himself or herself or the public's health and welfare; and will voluntarily continue with prescribed medications and treatment, if medically necessary, to reduce the risk of infection to the public.” An individual may also appeal an order directly to the Superior Court. The court reviews the hearing before the Division of Public Health but will also accept new evidence and makes a decision without deference to the Division’s previous findings. The Division of Public Health also has the authority to issue emergency orders, as they did in Daniel’s case. An emergency order is issued when: “(1) [t]he person has tuberculosis or is reasonably suspected of having tuberculosis; (2) [t]he person poses an imminent and substantial threat to that person's own self or the public health and welfare” and the person has demonstrated that an order cannot wait for a hearing under section 526. These reasons could include threats to leave the jurisdiction, that the person will not appear for a hearing or the person “will act in such a way as to recklessly disregard the person’s own health or the public’s health.” Before an order for emergency treatment can be entered, the Director of the Division of Public Health must find “the County Public Health Administrator presents clear and convincing evidence that a substantial threat to the person or the public's health and welfare exists unless the emergency treatment order is issued [and there are] no other reasonable alternative means of reducing the threat to the individual or public’s health and welfare”. The Division must also schedule a hearing under Section 526 when issuing an emergency order. The emergency order will contain a provision directing law enforcement to transport the individual for treatment or isolation. The emergency order cannot be in place for more than five business days.
RESPONSES TO COMMUNICABLE DISEASE CONTROL How to isolate, or quarantine, a person in their home or a community setting is a question that many public health professionals struggle with; and when an individual is ordered to be isolated in the home or another community setting the logistics are daunting. States struggle with balancing the public’s health with an appropriate response that protects individual liberties. Certainly, no public health lawyer will forget the image of nurse Kaci Hickox going for a bike ride while followed by 61
Maine state police after her return from treating Ebola patients in West Africa.13 Or her subsequent lawsuit against the state of New Jersey.14 Recently, a couple in Wisconsin were criminally charged after violating their measles quarantine orders.15 Both cases prompt discussion on how states should react to potential public hazards while also ensuring that individual liberties are protected to the greatest extent possible. All states should have plans in place on how to respond with quarantine, isolation and involuntary treatment. These plans should comply with applicable statutes but should also reflect best practices for the treatment and control of communicable diseases. In the case of Daniel, the process went as smoothly as possible. Because of Daniels’ outstanding criminal charges, he was treated while incarcerated. His hearing was conducted at the prison where he was incarcerated and he was given all the resources he and his attorney needed to prepare. While Daniel did not appeal the order, he had the right to do so. Daniel acknowledged the barriers to his compliance were social, informing the Division’s responses for future patients with similar needs. The last time the Division of Public Health forcibly examined, treated, hospitalized or isolated someone was in 2014. Involuntary treatment, examination or isolation is not something that any government agency takes lightly. The legal requirements placed upon the government when it seeks to limit someone’s freedom are substantial, and for good reason. For weeks, the process can tie up staff, officials and resources. As in the case of New Jersey, lawsuits can last for years. To avoid the extraordinary step of involuntary treatment or isolation, the Division places emphasis on education and ease of treatment. In 2017, the Division initiated video directly observed therapy (VDOT) which allows individuals to virtually connect with their public health nurses to ensure treatment compliance. By using the method of VDOT, the individual acquires a confidential app for their phone and can video themselves taking their medications at a time and location which is convenient for them and it is sent to their nurse. VDOT participants demonstrate a higher median fraction of expected doses observed than traditional DOT participants and would recommend VDOT over DOT.16 A noncompliant patient is counseled by multiple individuals to encourage compliance with treatment. It is only when this counseling and education fails that the Division is forced to begin involuntary treatment, hospitalization or isolation proceedings. Thankfully, the Division has not needed to subject an individual to involuntary treatment, hospitalization or isolation in the past five years. As the incidence of TB cases in Delaware continues to decrease there is hope that the Division may never need to subject an individual to involuntary treatment, hospitalization or isolation again. However, if they do, the law and Daniel’s case will guide the administration on how to proceed in a just and respectful manner. Disclaimer: The views expressed herein do not necessarily reflect the views of the Delaware Department of Justice or the Delaware Division of Public Health.
REFERENCES 1. CDC. (2018). Tuberculosis – Data and Specifics. cdc.gov. https://www.cdc.gov/tb/statistics/default.htm
2. WHO. (2018). Tuberculosis. https://www.who.int/en/newsroom/fact-sheets/detail/tuberculosis 3. CDC. (2017). Trends in Tuberculosis – 2017. https://www.cdc. gov/tb/publications/factsheets/statistics/tbtrends.htm 4. Lawn, S.D., Zumla, A.I. (2011). Tuberculosis. The Lancet, 378(9785), 57-72. https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/ article/PIIS0140-6736(10)62173-3/fulltext 5. CDC. (2016). TB and HIV coinfection. https://www.cdc.gov/tb/topic/basics/tbhivcoinfection.htm 6. WHO. (2018). HIV-associated tuberculosis. https://www.who.int/tb/areas-of-work/tb-hiv/tbhiv_factsheet. pdf?ua=1 7. DHSS. (2018). Tuberculosis elimination program surveillance data. https://www.dhss.delaware.gov/dhss/dph/epi/tbdata2002. html 8. Newman, M. (2018, May). Hundreds may have been exposed to tuberculosis in Brandywine Hundred care facility. News Journal. https://www.delawareonline.com/story/news/ health/2018/05/25/state-hundreds-may-have-been-expose-tbwilmington-care-facility/644066002/ 9. Associated Press. (2018). Dozens possibly exposed to tuberculosis at Delaware school. WHYY. https://whyy.org/ articles/dozens-possibly-exposed-to-tuberculosis-at-delawareschool/ 10. Walker, K.O. (2017). DHSS Press Release: Division of Public Health and Department of Correction continue TB response. https://www.dhss.delaware.gov/dhss/pressreleases/2017/ tbresponse_05252017.html 11. Chapman, N. S., & Yoshino, K. (2019). The fourteenth amendment due process clause. https://constitutioncenter. org/interactive-constitution/amendments/amendmentxiv/common-interpretation-due-process-clause-of-thefourteenth-amendment/clause/12 12. Delaware Code. Title 16. Chapter 5. http://delcode.delaware. gov/title16/c005/sc02/index.shtml 13. Sanburn, J. (2014). Nurse’s bike ride defying Ebola quarantine could set legal precedent. Time. http://time.com/3548847/ kaci-hickox-ebola-nurse-quarantine-bike-ride/ 14. Santora, M. (2017). New Jersey accepts rights for people in quarantine to end Ebola suit. New York Times. https://www. nytimes.com/2017/07/27/nyregion/new-jersey-accepts-rightsfor-people-in-quarantine-to-end-ebola-suit.html 15. Allen, K. (2019). Wisconsin man exposed to measles violated quarantine to go to the gym, prosecutors say. ABC News. https://abcnews.go.com/US/wisconsin-man-exposed-measlesviolated-quarantine-gym-prosecutors/story?id=61520885 16. Garfein, R. S., Liu, L., Cuevas-Mota, J., Collins, K., Muñoz, F., Catanzaro, D. G., . . . Raab, F. (2018, October). Tuberculosis treatment monitoring by video directly observed therapy in 5 health districts, California, USA. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 24(10), 1806–1815. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid2410.180459
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Four Decades of Epidemiologic Science on HIV Infection and Disease, and Its Impact on Public Health Practice and Policy for Sexual and Gender Minority Persons Nguyen K Tran1 and Seth L Welles1 Department of Epidemiology & Biostatistics, Drexel University Dornsife School of Public Health, Philadelphia, PA
1
Abstract Even at the cusp of the second decade of the new millennia, HIV continues to be a significant public health challenge for sexual and gender minorities (SGM). Men who have sex with men and transgender women, in particular, continue to report higher rates of HIV incidence compared to their heterosexual counterparts, while facing significant barriers to comprehensive sexual healthcare. In Delaware, HIV infection impacts a substantial number of individuals with approximately 14.5 incident cases per 100,000. This ranks Delaware as the 14th highest for HIV incidence among U.S. states. However, the largest healthcare provider in Delaware, Christiana Care Health System, has created many health initiatives to support the health needs of SGM and those living with HIV. The current sustained rate of HIV infection indicates the need for enhanced epidemiologic work to identify HIV cases in subgroups of diverse sexuality and gender identity, collaboration within and across research institution and community organizations, as well as engagement in creative solutions that target the multiple levels of factors contributing to HIV incidence. In addition, it is imperative that local agencies and health organizations continue to support these communities of SGM individuals during the current sociopolitical climate of the national U.S. government.
INTRODUCTION Disparities of HIV infection within and across populations in the United States have been evident since the earliest days of the HIV epidemic. Sociodemographic determinants of infection, including age, gender, race, ethnicity, and exposure to poverty, as well as sexuality, injection drug use and commercial sex work and other proxies for individual risk factors have modulated the risk of HIV infection, morbidity, and mortality.1–5 Additionally, disclosure of HIV risk, and willingness to access HIV testing and counseling, and treatment and/or clinical care have been impacted by sociopolitical conservative ideologies that have stigmatized and marginalized sexual and gender minorities (SGM) and other high-risk populations, including persons who inject drugs (PWID). These high-risk populations continue to be at greatest risk for infection due to individual-level (e.g., condomless anal intercourse or sharing of syringes and other injecting paraphernalia) and population-level (e.g., limited access to prevention services and structural stigma related to same-sex orientation or injection drug use) risks.1–4 Since the early 1980s, epidemiologic research has informed our understanding of HIV prevention strategies and treatment. Epidemiologists have been pivotal in the development of surveillance systems that have tracked HIV infection in highrisk subpopulations,6 established national standards for HIV diagnosis, treatment, and prevention,7 visualized geographic distributions of infection using various mapping techniques,8 and employed molecular epidemiologic techniques to elucidate HIV transmission in sexual networks.9 All of these approaches strategically inform the use of limited HIV prevention resources. 64 Delaware Journal of Public Health – May 2019
Finally, demonstration of the efficacy of antiretroviral treatment as prevention, and more recently, pre-exposure antiretroviral prophylaxis has emerged a critical tool for HIV prevention.10,11 In the present commentary, not only do we discuss how epidemiology as a scientific discipline has informed public health practices and policies targeting SGM, but we suggest potential epidemiologic approaches to address unmet prevention challenges that could reduce the HIV infection disparities among highly stigmatized and marginalized communities.
EPIDEMIOLOGY OF HIV IN THE UNITED STATES WITH A FOCUS ON DELAWARE INITIAL DESCRIPTION OF FIRST CASE SERIES OF COMMUNITY-ACQUIRED IMMUNE SUPPRESSION HIV was first recognized in the United States during the early 1980s when five cases of Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia12 were reported to the Center for Disease Control and Prevent (CDC). The initial report raised concerns because all five cases were previously healthy, gay men in Los Angeles that developed a rare opportunistic infection. Shortly after the initial report, additional cases of an unknown disease occurring in gay men from New York described the development of Kaposi sarcoma as well as Pneumocystis pneumonia.13 Researchers had posited the potential pathology and one of the earliest case series documented reductions of T-4 cells and suggested potential cell mediated immune dysfunction as a mechanism.14 In addition to early recognition the pathogenesis, investigators hypothesized that HIV transmission may have been related to the “homosexual lifestyle.”13 This potentially stigmatizing inference that these
opportunistic infections were due to “homosexual lifestyle”, leading to the initial labeling of Gay-Related Immune Deficiency (GRID) to designate HIV-associated immune dysfunction, has remained prevalent in social discourse—even as we are on the cusp of the second decade of the new millennium. Not surprisingly, researchers have reported many adverse consequences due to HIV-related stigma, including lower access to and engagement in antiretroviral therapy.15,16
RECENT ESTIMATES OF HIV INFECTION PREVALENCE Since the initial case findings, there are approximately 1.1 million people (ages 13 or older) living with HIV in the United States, including an estimated amount of 162,549 (14%) people that were unaware of their infection in 2015.17,18 The prevalence of those living with HIV has substantially increased due to increased surveillance of new infections, as well as the development of highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART). Although the magnitude of the United States epidemic is less severe than other regions of the world such as Sub-Saharan Africa, there remains subpopulations of individuals that are disproportionately affected by HIV infection. These critical health disparities have been well documented in previous studies: Black and Latino individuals comprise only 13% and 17% of the United States population,19 yet account for 44% and 26% of persons living with HIV, respectively.17 Similarly, gay, bisexual, and men who have sex with men (MSM) represent a very small percentage of the population (~2%), yet continue to be the most affected group, representing approximately 56% of prevalent HIV cases.17,20 In 2016, the CDC estimated that one in two black MSM and one in four Latino MSM will be diagnosed with HIV over their lifetime.21 In Delaware, surveillance data demonstrates a similar trend to the United States. The estimated number of people living with HIV in 2015 was 3,449 (365 per 100,000 population), with black individuals accounting for 60% (n = 2,075) of those with HIV.22 Racial disparities in HIV infection also persist in Delaware as the prevalence of black men and women living with HIV are approximately 1.5 times and 3 times the rates observed for white men and women in 2015, respectively.22 As is observed nationally, MSM remain one of the groups most impacted by HIV: of total HIV infections, 33% were as attributed to MSM highrisk behavior despite comprising about 1% (n = 13,049) of the population in Delaware (prevalence: 14.7%).20,22 Moreover, black MSM accounted for the largest proportion of those with HIV infection from 2011 to 2014. Since 2015, surveillance data suggest among HIV infections attributable to MSM, 46% were among white and 42% were among black men.22
NEW INFECTIONS: INCIDENCE HIV incidence estimates are critical as they provide insights concerning HIV transmission trends from which public health professionals can appropriately target prevention efforts and resources. Through the CDC’s HIV Surveillance system, 2016 HIV incidence was estimated to be as approximately 40,000 new infections annually in the United States.17,18 Populations with the highest proportion of incident cases included adolescents 13–24 (n = 8,593; 22%) and young adults 25–35 (n = 13,592; 34%) years of age, black adults or adolescents (n = 17,269; 43%), and MSM (n = 26,844; 67%). The highest number of new infections among
MSM was observed among young Black MSM 13–24 years old (n = 3,994; 15%).17 Among states, Delaware was ranked 14th highest for HIV incidence with a rate of 14.5 per 100,000.17 Accordingly, the lifetime risk for HIV diagnosis among an individual living in Delaware was estimated to be 1 in 96.21 Epidemiologic data also suggest that female sex workers and incarcerated individuals have a heightened risk for HIV; factors associated with increased infection among these risk groups may include alcohol and drug use, lower healthcare access, stigma, and poverty.23,24 One of the most critical challenges in providing resources for these groups is the denigration of sex work and incarceration, which potentially limits population-based studies to estimate counts of HIV among sex workers and those in the criminal justice system.23,24 Without sufficient data, it is difficult to ascertain the burden of HIV and factors associated with infection as well as develop tailored programs for HIV prevention. While HIV incidence continues to increase in virtually all of these high-risk populations, new infections among persons who inject drugs have declined in recent years, most likely due to the implementation of harm reduction and syringe exchange programs.17 Despite this, high numbers of new HIV infections have unfortunately remained stable without evidence of decrease, highlighting the need for enhanced epidemiologic works to understand potential causes of sustained infection (including the characteristics and impact of HIV transmission networks)—all of which can guide the development of strategies to interrupt potential new infections.
TRANSMISSION ROUTES Routes of HIV transmission include condomless intercourse, injection drug use, blood transfusion, and mother-to-child transmission during pregnancy, birth, or post-partum breastfeeding. In the United States, HIV transmission due to condomless anal intercourse is the primary mode of infection,25 with risk of HIV infection highest for those engaging in receptive anal intercourse due to microtears in rectal epithelium that can facilitate transmission.26 Compared to earlier stages of the epidemic, blood transfusion is longer a substantial risk factor for HIV due to rigorous testing of the blood supply in the United States.25 In addition, surveillance data indicate that perinatal acquired infections have decreased annually in the United States, with approximately 100 new HIV infections in 201617 despite challenges in data collection for vertical transmission.27,28 However, evidence suggests that avoidance of breastfeeding and elective cesarean section among HIV positive women may be effective in reducing the risk of vertical transmission, with recommendations suggesting complete avoidance of breastfeeding even if the HIV infected mother is adherent to antiretrovirals.29,30
HIV-RELATED MORBIDITY AND MORTALITY The advent of HAART has greatly improved the survival among persons living with HIV. Current estimates suggest that expected life expectancy for a 20-year-old HIV-infected individual receiving antiretrovirals is approximately 70 years.31 With current guidelines recommending antiretrovirals for all HIV-infected persons regardless of CD4 count,32 chronic diseases will most likely become a growing concern as more patients are engaged in care and consequently living longer. In 65
addition, other bio-medical innovations such has treatment as prevention (TasP: taking antiretrovirals to reduce HIV viral load to an undetectable level) and pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP, i.e., taking antiretrovirals to prevent HIV infection) will likely beneficially impact HIV transmission. However, prevention of infection by PrEP use may be reduced by increased rates of high-risk behaviors (risk-compensatory behaviors) resulting from perceived lower risk for infection due to pre-exposure prophylaxis.33 Additionally, questions remain concerning the long-term side effects of pre-exposure prophylaxis, including bone fragility, kidney disease, and gastrointestinal disorders.34
HIV INFECTION AMONG SEXUAL AND GENDER MINORITIES DEFINING SEXUAL AND GENDER MINORITY POPULATIONS It is important to understand that sexual orientation and gender identity are distinctive entities: sexual orientation denotes to whom a person feels romantic or sexual attraction towards35,36 whereas gender identity is a person’s innermost sense of self, which may not correspond to that their assigned sex at birth.37 The term “sexual minorities” typically refers to individuals who identify as gay, lesbian, bisexual, or any other non-heterosexual orientation, whereas the term “gender minorities” refers to individuals who have gender identities that are not associated with their birth sex. Increasingly, there is recognition that selfidentification of gender can be non-binary, with some individuals experiencing a gender identity that is outside the categories of man or woman.38 Taken together, sexual and gender minorities may include lesbian, gay, bisexual, queer, transgender, gender non-binary or non-conforming, gender fluid, intersex, and asexual individuals. However, HIV transmission does not occur as a result of one’s sexual orientation; rather, risk is conferred by sexual behaviors that facilitates infection. For the purpose of our commentary, we will focus on homosexually-active men and male-to-female transgender persons, since these individuals are more likely to engage in higher-risk sexual behaviors.
MEN WHO HAVE SEX WITH MEN AND TRANSGENDER WOMEN FACE UNIQUE CHALLENGES AND BARRIERS TO MEDICAL/HIV TREATMENT MSM and transgender women (TGW) traditionally have faced significant barriers to health care, resulting in decreased access and utilization of services, and particularly preventative care services that may have downstream effects on HIV infection.39,40 One method of conceptualizing this cascade is through the HIV care continuum—a model for measuring HIV care engagement, including screening and diagnosis, linkage to care, retention in care, prescription of antiretrovirals, and viral suppression (Figure 1).41 Overall, estimates suggest a high proportion of those HIV infected are diagnosed, however, only 50% of those diagnosed are retained in care.41 Of those initially diagnosed, younger individuals, women, as well as racial/ethnic minorities tend to
have lower HIV care engagement.42 In addition, HIV infected individuals that are unaware of their infection status represent a great challenge to slowing the epidemic as the risk of transmission is greatest among untreated individuals who may have higher viral loads. Since MSM and TGW have the highest prevalence and risk for HIV among all risk groups, identifying gaps in their HIV care continuum is vital for resource allocation and targeted intervention strategies. Lack of health insurance has been a major barrier for HIV care engagement among MSM and TGW, particularly those infected with HIV. One major resource for providing HIV care among low-income or uninsured persons living with HIV is the Ryan White HIV/AIDS program, which allocates funding to state and local governments, as well as community-based organizations to deliver essential primary care and HIV treatment. Moreover, the enactment of the Affordable Care Act and expansion of marriage rights have served to expand health care insurance coverage; many MSM and TGW now qualify for coverage through employers or spousal insurance policies, Medicaid, Medicare, or the Office of Veterans Affairs.43 Despite these recent healthcare access advances, MSM and TGW continue to report more cost-related barriers to care and unmet needs than heterosexual peers40,44 in particular, transgender individuals have specific challenges in accessing appropriate healthcare for sexual health and gender reassignment. In 2016, attempts to expand Medicare and Medicaid coverage to include gender transitionrelated costs were met with opposition, and current regulations concerning transition-related care and issues are deferred to states’ discretion.45 In Delaware, costs related to gender transition are not covered under Medicare or Medicaid; however, private insurance are prohibited from discriminating against transgender individuals.45 Beyond insurance obstacles, MSM and TGW often struggle with finding medical providers who have training and experience working with SGM populations and often face discrimination from health care providers.40,46,47 In Delaware, numerous healthcare and community-based organizations have made concerted efforts to provide culturally competent healthcare for MSM and TGW. For example, the largest healthcare provider in Delaware, Christiana Care Health System, has established comprehensive health initiatives specifically for MSM and TGW as well as those living with HIV.48 As gender identity is increasingly understood to exist along a spectrum, with some individuals not identifying exclusively as man or women—the lack of data about non-binary gender minorities presents another obstacle to evidence-based care.49 Creating an inclusive, culturally responsive, and welcoming clinical environment is an important first step in providing optimal clinical care services for MSM and TGW and for reducing HIV acquisition and transmission risk within these communities. This process can involve training in cultural awareness and diversity, along with educating clinical staff about the unique health needs of SGM populations. A prime example of culturally responsive care is Christiana Care’s provider
Figure 1. HIV care continuum in the United States. Abbreviation: ART, antiretroviral therapy
66 Delaware Journal of Public Health – May 2019
referral listing for MSM and TGW, which includes both primary care providers and specialists that are trained to handle healthcare issues related to same-sex and transgender health.48
HOW DOES EPIDEMIOLOGY ADDRESS THE HIV EPIDEMIC AMONG MSM AND TGW The epidemiology of HIV among MSM and TGW in the United States has evolved over the past four decades. Assessments of infection patterns traditionally relied on HIV surveillance data to document the burden of the epidemic. The United States National HIV Surveillance system has characterized the epidemic since the initial cases in 1981.12,13 Initially used to count and describe cases of HIV/AIDS, the surveillance system has grown as the evidence and our understanding of the disease unfolded. In addition, syndromic surveillance (i.e., methods that rely on patterns of behavior and symptoms to detect HIV infection prior to a confirmed diagnosis) played a critical role in capturing information about “hidden populations” such as MSM and TGW who are at a greater risk for infection. For example, the National HIV Behavioral Surveillance system collects data of individuals who were marginalized and had the highest HIV incidence (e.g., MSM and PWID).50 These surveillance systems allowed for the identification of high-risk groups, which can inform targeted interventions and resource allocation. As persons infected with HIV began to live longer due to earlier diagnoses and linkage to antiretroviral therapy, these national surveillance programs have evolved to capture a more complete spectrum of HIVrelated exposures and outcomes; including behavioral, molecular (e.g., genetic data that is used to monitor HIV trends and drug resistance), and HIV-related morbidity data.51 Other traditional epidemiologic methods such as case-control and longitudinal cohort studies have been useful in understanding the underlying behavioral mechanism of HIV transmission among MSM and TGW. Thus, our understanding of HIV infection traditionally revolves around behavioral risk factors such as condomless anal intercourse.52,53 However, there is a growing body of evidence examining how sexual networks and the social determinants of health impact HIV infection among MSM and TGW.54–57 For example, TGW face higher levels of social marginalization, resulting from the underlying transphobia, which contribute to their vulnerability for infection. Stigma related to sexuality has also been reported to lower healthcare access, increased levels physical and sexual trauma, as well as higher rates of other sexually transmitted infections (i.e., chlamydia, gonorrhea, and syphilis).15,39,58,59 Therefore, engaging in rigorous epidemiologic methods allows a thorough assessment of the potential gaps in healthcare and HIV prevention services for MSM and TGW and determine appropriate points in the HIV continuum to intervene.
UNMET NEEDS AND CHALLENGES RELATED TO THE CURRENT EPIDEMIC Recent work has pointed the major gaps in the response to the epidemic in relation to sexual diversity60; however, translation of such work into programming have been slow. In addition, various key methodological issues remain a major concern for association studies.60,61 We, therefore, highlight current challenges in studies assessing HIV risk among SGM and future directions in which epidemiologic methods can be used to address these issues.
One of the major methodological challenges relates to the changing context and needs of SGM individuals such as accurately capturing the diversity of gender identity and sexual orientation among SGM across cultures and lifespan.60 Current studies rely on data collection instruments that may have inappropriate use of language or reporting intervals for capturing low- and high-risk behaviors. In various subpopulations of racial, ethnic, and religious SGM, sexual activity among men is not commonly discussed and referred to indirectly.60 The term “sex” may be reserved to describe activities that potentially lead to reproduction, and “sex with other men” may not elicit responses that include sex with transgender individuals.60 This could lead to misclassification of the exposure and potentially bias HIV risk estimates. Current analytical techniques such as sensitivity analysis or Bayesian analysis are quite robust in assessing and adjusting for such biases; however, such methods remain underutilized in studies estimating HIV risk among MSM and other SGM populations.61 In addition, bias in sampling is often a problem because samples are often small and derived using non-probability sampling methods.62 SGM samples are rarely ever representative of the population and more prone to selection bias.62–64 Incorporating various advancements in epidemiologic techniques for sampling hard-to-reach populations will be vital to produce accurate HIV risk estimates and determine mechanisms in which prevention strategies can intervene.65,66 There are also several limitations with the use of surveillance data when assessing the magnitude of the HIV epidemic, particularly for SGM who are racial/ethnic minorities. Individuals captured through surveillance only include those that have been diagnosed and reported to a surveillance system. For example, CDC estimates that NHSS data are representative of 80% of all HIV cases in the United States.67 Establishing cohorts that follow high risk groups such as young, Black MSM may allow researchers to better characterize risk behaviors, social and sexual networks, as well as allow for more rapid diagnosis of incident infections and thus preventing ongoing transmission.68 Overall, there is a need to develop data collection instruments with increased sensitivity and specificity. One potential avenue is for national surveys to use language that can accurately assess sexual orientation and behaviors, as well as be familiar and inclusive of transgender individuals. In addition, better strategies to engage hard-to-reach SGM such as those geographically isolated, non-gay identified men, and racial/ethnic minorities are needed to enumerate HIV cases as well as provide targeted and appropriate interventions. Part of this work will require the development of methods in the context of the prison system as well as clients and sex partners of sex workers. Therefore, epidemiologic methods are crucial in accurately informing responses to the HIV epidemic.
CONCLUSION In conclusion, an epidemiologic perspective on public health practice and policy can be effective for identifying gaps in HIV medical care and social services among SGM. In addition to determining prevalence and factors associated to disease end-points, epidemiologic methods can be used to determine components associated with intermediate outcomes, for example medical care retention in the HIV care continuum. Results from these assessments can be used to direct future directions 67
for research and inform intervention strategies and policies. However, entities engaging in HIV research and practice often take place in their respective silos. Without collaboration across disciplines, HIV control and prevention for SGM will not be feasible. From an epidemiologic viewpoint, there is a need for providers and policy makers to: 1) improve their understanding of the factors that contribute to HIV infection among sexually and racially diverse communities, 2) recognize the existence of nonbinary individuals and provide culturally sensitive and tailored healthcare, 3) collaborate across disciplines and organizations to improve delivery of medical services, and 4) engage in creative solutions that tackles the multiple levels of factors (individual, interpersonal, and structural) that influence HIV transmission and retention in HIV care. In Delaware, various healthcare and community-based organization have begun their efforts to improve medical and prevention services for SGM, such as Christiana Care’s SGM health initiatives. Maintenance of prevention strategies will require capable leadership and longterm investment from key stakeholders throughout Delaware to ensure the health equity of individuals that long been marginalized.
REFERENCES 1. Robertson, J. R., Bucknall, A. B., Welsby, P. D., Roberts, J. J., Inglis, J. M., Peutherer, J. F., & Brettle, R. P. (1986, February 22). Epidemic of AIDS related virus (HTLV-III/LAV) infection among intravenous drug abusers. Br Med J (Clin Res Ed), 292(6519), 527–529. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.292.6519.527 2. Gentilini, M., & Chieze, F. (1990, November). [Socioeconomic aspects of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection in developing countries]. Bulletin de l’Académie nationale de medecine, 174(8), 1209–1219. 3. Rietmeijer, C. A., Wolitski, R. J., Fishbein, M., Corby, N. H., & Cohn, D. L. (1998, August). Sex hustling, injection drug use, and non-gay identification by men who have sex with men. Associations with high-risk sexual behaviors and condom use. Sexually Transmitted Diseases, 25(7), 353–360. https://doi. org/10.1097/00007435-199808000-00006 4. WHO urges moves to minimize AIDS in prisons. (1987). Bulletin of the International Union Against Tuberculosis and Lung Disease, 62, 60. 5. Short, R. (1988, May 12). Prison: No bars to AIDS. The Health Service Journal, 98(5100), 541. 6. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2011). High-Impact HIV Prevention: CDC’s Approach to Reducing HIV Infections in the United States. Retrieved from https://www.cdc.gov/hiv/pdf/ policies_NHPC_Booklet.pdf. Accessed January 12, 2019. 7. Bradley, H., Hall, H. I., Wolitski, R. J., Van Handel, M. M., Stone, A. E., LaFlam, M., . . . Valleroy, L. A. (2014, November 28). Vital Signs: HIV diagnosis, care, and treatment among persons living with HIV—United States, 2011. MMWR. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 63(47), 1113–1117. 8. Shepard, C. W., Gortakowski, H. W., Nasrallah, H., Cutler, B. H., & Begier, E. M. (2011, September-October). Using GIS-based density maps of HIV surveillance data to identify previously unrecognized geographic foci of HIV burden in an urban epidemic. Public Health Rep, 126(5), 741–749. https://doi. org/10.1177/003335491112600517 68 Delaware Journal of Public Health – May 2019
9. Grabowski, M. K., & Redd, A. D. (2014, March). Molecular tools for studying HIV transmission in sexual networks. Current Opinion in HIV and AIDS, 9(2), 126–133. https://doi. org/10.1097/COH.0000000000000040 10. Grant, R. M., Lama, J. R., Anderson, P. L., McMahan, V., Liu, A. Y., Vargas, L., . . . Glidden, D. V., & the iPrEx Study Team. (2010, December 30). Preexposure chemoprophylaxis for HIV prevention in men who have sex with men. The New England Journal of Medicine, 363(27), 2587–2599. https://doi. org/10.1056/NEJMoa1011205 11. Cohen, M. S., Chen, Y. Q., McCauley, M., Gamble, T., Hosseinipour, M. C., Kumarasamy, N., . . . Fleming, T. R., & the HPTN 052 Study Team. (2011, August 11). Prevention of HIV-1 infection with early antiretroviral therapy. The New England Journal of Medicine, 365(6), 493–505. https://doi.org/10.1056/ NEJMoa1105243 12. Centers for Disease Control (CDC). (1981, June 5). Pneumocystis pneumonia—Los Angeles. MMWR. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 30(21), 250–252. 13. Centers for Disease Control (CDC). (1981, July 3). Kaposi’s sarcoma and Pneumocystis pneumonia among homosexual men—New York City and California. MMWR. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 30(25), 305–308. 14. Sonnabend, J., Witkin, S. S., & Purtilo, D. T. (1983, May 6). Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome, opportunistic infections, and malignancies in male homosexuals. A hypothesis of etiologic factors in pathogenesis. JAMA, 249(17), 2370–2374. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.1983.03330410056028 15. Pachankis, J. E., Hatzenbuehler, M. L., Hickson, F., Weatherburn, P., Berg, R. C., Marcus, U., & Schmidt, A. J. (2015, June 19). Hidden from health: Structural stigma, sexual orientation concealment, and HIV across 38 countries in the European MSM Internet Survey. AIDS (London, England), 29(10), 1239–1246. https://doi.org/10.1097/ QAD.0000000000000724 16. Oldenburg, C. E., Perez-Brumer, A. G., Hatzenbuehler, M. L., Krakower, D., Novak, D. S., Mimiaga, M. J., & Mayer, K. H. (2015, April 24). State-level structural sexual stigma and HIV prevention in a national online sample of HIV-uninfected MSM in the United States. AIDS (London, England), 29(7), 837–845. https://doi.org/10.1097/QAD.0000000000000622 17. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2017). HIV Surveillance Report, 2016; vol. 28. Retrieved from https:// www.cdc.gov/hiv/pdf/library/reports/surveillance/cdc-hivsurveillance-report-2016-vol-28.pdf. Accessed January 12, 2019. 18. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2018). Estimated HIV incidence and prevalence in the United States, 2010–2015. HIV Surveillance Supplemental Report 2018;23(No. 1). Retrieved from http://www.cdc.gov/ hiv/library/reports/hivsurveillance.html. Accessed March 5, 2019. 19. U.S. Census Bureau. (2013). USA Quick Facts from the US Census Bureau. Retrieved from https://www.census.gov/ quickfacts/fact/table/US/PST045218. Accessed January 12, 2019. 20. Grey, J. A., Bernstein, K. T., Sullivan, P. S., Purcell, D. W., Chesson, H. W., Gift, T. L., & Rosenberg, E. S. (2016, April 21). Estimating the population sizes of men who have sex with
men in US states and counties using data from the American community survey. JMIR Public Health and Surveillance, 2(1), e14. https://doi.org/10.2196/publichealth.5365 21. Center for Disease Control and Prevention. (2016). Lifetime risk of HIV Diagnosis: Half of black gay men and a quarter of Latino gay men projected to be diagnosed within their lifetime. Retrieved from https://www.cdc.gov/nchhstp/newsroom/2016/croi-pressrelease-risk.html. Accessed March 5, 2019. 22. Delaware Health and Social Services, Division of Public Health. (2016). 2016 Delaware HIV Surveillance Report. Retrieved from https://www.dhss.delaware.gov/dhss/dph/epi/ files/2016hivepiprofile.pdf. Accessed January 12, 2019. 23. Westergaard, R. P., Spaulding, A. C., & Flanigan, T. P. (2013, February). HIV among persons incarcerated in the USA: A review of evolving concepts in testing, treatment, and linkage to community care. Current Opinion in Infectious Diseases, 26(1), 10–16. https://doi.org/10.1097/QCO.0b013e32835c1dd0 24. Paz-Bailey, G., Noble, M., Salo, K., & Tregear, S. J. (2016, October). Prevalence of HIV among U.S. female sex workers: Systematic review and meta-analysis. AIDS and Behavior, 20(10), 2318–2331. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10461-016-1332-y 25. Kilmarx, P. H. (2009, July). Global epidemiology of HIV. Current Opinion in HIV and AIDS, 4(4), 240–246. https://doi. org/10.1097/COH.0b013e32832c06db 26. Tebit, D. M., Ndembi, N., Weinberg, A., & Quiñones-Mateu, M. E. (2012, January 1). Mucosal transmission of human immunodeficiency virus. Current HIV Research, 10(1), 3–8. https://doi.org/10.2174/157016212799304689 27. Kreiss, J. (1997, June). Breastfeeding and vertical transmission of HIV-1. Acta paediatrica (Oslo, Norway - 1992). Supplement, 86, 113–117. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1651-2227.1997.tb18332.x 28. Little, K. M., Taylor, A. W., Borkowf, C. B., Mendoza, M. C., Lampe, M. A., Weidle, P. J., & Nesheim, S. R. (2017, January). Perinatal antiretroviral exposure and prevented mother-tochild HIV infections in the era of antiretroviral prophylaxis in the United States, 1994-2010. The Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal, 36(1), 66–71. https://doi.org/10.1097/ INF.0000000000001355 29. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. (2017) Panel on Treatment of Pregnant Women with HIV Infection and Prevention of Perinatal Transmission. Recommendations for Use of Antiretroviral Drugs in Transmission in the United States. Retrieved from http://aidsinfo.nih.gov/contentfiles/ lvguidelines/PerinatalGL.pdf. A. Accessed January 12, 2019. 30. Mofenson, L. M. (2010, May 15). Prevention in neglected subpopulations: Prevention of mother-to-child transmission of HIV infection. Clin Infect Dis, 50(Suppl 3), S130–S148. https:// doi.org/10.1086/651484 31. Samji, H., Cescon, A., Hogg, R. S., Modur, S. P., Althoff, K. N., Buchacz, K., . . . Gange, S. J., & the North American AIDS Cohort Collaboration on Research and Design (NA-ACCORD) of IeDEA. (2013, December 18). Closing the gap: Increases in life expectancy among treated HIV-positive individuals in the United States and Canada. PLoS One, 8(12), e81355. https://doi. org/10.1371/journal.pone.0081355 32. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. (2018). Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents.
Guidelines for the Use of Antiretroviral Agents in Adults and Adolescents with HIV. Department of Health and Human Services. Retrieved from http://www.aidsinfo.nih.gov/ ContentFiles/AdultandAdolescentGL.pdf. Accessed January 12, 2019. 33. Blumenthal, J., and Haubrich, R. H. (2014, November 1). Will risk compensation accompany pre-exposure prophylaxis for HIV? The virtual mentor, 16(11), 909–915. https://doi. org/10.1001/virtualmentor.2014.16.11.stas1-1411 34. Tetteh, R. A., Yankey, B. A., Nartey, E. T., Lartey, M., Leufkens, H. G., & Dodoo, A. N. (2017, April). Pre-exposure prophylaxis for HIV prevention: Safety concerns. Drug Safety, 40(4), 273–283. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40264-017-0505-6 35. Morgan, E. M. (2013). Contemporary issues in sexual orientation and identity development in emerging adulthood. Emerging Adulthood, 1(1), 52–66. https://doi. org/10.1177/2167696812469187 36. American Psychological Association. (2012, January). Guidelines for psychological practice with lesbian, gay, and bisexual clients. The American Psychologist, 67(1), 10–42. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0024659 37. American Psychological Association. (2015, December). Guidelines for psychological practice with transgender and gender nonconforming people. The American Psychologist, 70(9), 832–864. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0039906 38. Richards, C., Bouman, W. P., Seal, L., Barker, M.J., Nieder, T. O., & T’Sjoen, G. (2016) Non-binary or genderqueer genders, International Review of Psychiatry, 28(1), 95-102. 39. Heck, J. E., Sell, R. L., & Gorin, S. S. (2006, June). Health care access among individuals involved in same-sex relationships. American Journal of Public Health, 96(6), 1111–1118. https:// doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2005.062661 40. Skopec, L., & Long, S. K. (2015, October). Lesbian, gay, and bisexual adults making gains in health insurance and access to care. Health Affairs (Project Hope), 34(10), 1769–1773. https:// doi.org/10.1377/hlthaff.2015.0826 41. Mugavero, M. J., Amico, K. R., Horn, T., & Thompson, M. A. (2013, October). The state of engagement in HIV care in the United States: From cascade to continuum to control. Clin Infect Dis, 57(8), 1164–1171. https://doi.org/10.1093/cid/cit420 42. Gardner, E. M., McLees, M. P., Steiner, J. F., Del Rio, C., & Burman, W. J. (2011, March 15). The spectrum of engagement in HIV care and its relevance to test-and-treat strategies for prevention of HIV infection. Clin Infect Dis, 52(6), 793–800. https://doi.org/10.1093/cid/ciq243 43. Durso, L. E., Baker, L., & Cray, A. (2013). LGBT Communities and the Affordable Care Act: Findings from a National Survey. Center for American Progress. 44. Buchmueller, T., & Carpenter, C. S. (2010, March). Disparities in health insurance coverage, access, and outcomes for individuals in same-sex versus different-sex relationships, 2000-2007. American Journal of Public Health, 100(3), 489–495. https://doi. org/10.2105/AJPH.2009.160804 45. Baker, K. E. (2017, May 11). The future of transgender coverage. The New England Journal of Medicine, 376(19), 1801–1804. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMp1702427 69
46. Grant, J. M., Mottet, L. A., Tanis, J., Harrison, J., Herman, J. L., & Keisling, M. (2011). Injustice at every turn: a report of the National Transgender Survey. Washington: National Center for Transgender Equality and National Gay and Lesbian Task Force. 47. Chester, S. D., Ehrenfeld, J. M., & Eckstrand, K. L. (2014, December). Results of an institutional LGBT climate survey at an academic medical center. LGBT Health, 1(4), 327–330. https://doi.org/10.1089/lgbt.2013.0055 48. Christiana Care Health System. Retrieved from: https:// christianacare.org/services/lgbtqhealth/. Accessed February 28, 2019. 49. Fenway Health. (2015). The Medical Care of Transgender Persons. Retrieved from https://www.lgbthealtheducation. org/wp-content/uploads/COM-2245-The-Medical-Care-ofTransgender-Persons.pdf. Accessed January 17, 2019 50. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2015). National HIV Behavioral Surveillance System Round 4: Model Surveillance Protocol. Available from: Gabriela Paz Bailey (gpazbailey@cdc.gov). 51. Selik, R.M., Mkotoff, E.D., Branson, B., Owen, S.M., Whitmore, S. & Hall I.H. (2014). Revised surveillance case definition for HIV infection--United States. MMWR. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 11;63(RR-03), 1–10. 52. Crepaz, N., Marks, G., Liau, A., Mullins, M. M., Aupont, L. W., Marshall, K. J., . . . Wolitski, R. J., & the HIV/AIDS Prevention Research Synthesis (PRS) Team. (2009, August 24). Prevalence of unprotected anal intercourse among HIVdiagnosed MSM in the United States: A meta-analysis. AIDS (London, England), 23(13), 1617–1629. https://doi.org/10.1097/ QAD.0b013e32832effae 53. Scott, H. M., Vittinghoff, E., Irvin, R., Sachdev, D., Liu, A., Gurwith, M., & Buchbinder, S. P. (2014, January 1). Age, race/ ethnicity, and behavioral risk factors associated with per contact risk of HIV infection among men who have sex with men in the United States. Journal of acquired immune deficiency syndromes (1999), 65(1), 115–121. https://doi.org/10.1097/ QAI.0b013e3182a98bae 54. Sullivan, P. S., Peterson, J., Rosenberg, E. S., Kelley, C. F., Cooper, H., Vaughan, A., . . . Sanchez, T. H. (2014, March 7). Understanding racial HIV/STI disparities in black and white men who have sex with men: A multilevel approach. PLoS One, 9(3), e90514. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0090514 55. Ransome, Y., Kawachi, I., Braunstein, S., & Nash, D. (2016, November). Structural inequalities drive late HIV diagnosis: The role of black racial concentration, income inequality, socioeconomic deprivation, and HIV testing. Health & Place, 42, 148–158. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.healthplace.2016.09.004 56. Hickson, D. A., Mena, L. A., Wilton, L., Tieu, H. V., Koblin, B. A., Cummings, V., . . . Mayer, K. H. (2017, May 1). Sexual networks, dyadic characteristics, and HIV acquisition and transmission behaviors among Black men who have sex with men in 6 US cities. American Journal of Epidemiology, 185(9), 786–800. https://doi.org/10.1093/aje/kww144 57. Bauermeister, J. A., Connochie, D., Eaton, L., Demers, M., & Stephenson, R. (2017, May -June). Geospatial indicators of space and place: A review of multilevel studies of HIV 70 Delaware Journal of Public Health – May 2019
prevention and care outcomes among young men who have sex with men in the United States. Journal of Sex Research, 54(4-5), 446–464. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2016.1271862 58. Galvin, S. R., & Cohen, M. S. (2004, January). The role of sexually transmitted diseases in HIV transmission. Nature Reviews. Microbiology, 2(1), 33–42. https://doi.org/10.1038/ nrmicro794 59. Finneran, C., & Stephenson, R. (2013, April). Intimate partner violence among men who have sex with men: A systematic review. Trauma, Violence & Abuse, 14(2), 168–185. https://doi. org/10.1177/1524838012470034 60. Cáceres, C. F., Aggleton, P., & Galea, J. T. (2008). Sexual diversity, social inclusion and HIV/AIDS. AIDS, 22 Suppl 2(Suppl 2), S45–S55. 61. Tran, N. K., Goldstein, N. D., & Welles, S. L. (2018, August 9). Bias adjustment techniques are underutilized in HIV sexual risk estimation: A systematic review. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 15(8), 1696. https:// doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15081696 62. Brennan, D. J., Bauer, G. R., Bradley, K., & Tran, O. V. (2017). Methods used and topics addressed in quantitative health research on gay, bisexual and other men who have sex with men: A systematic review of the literature. Journal of Homosexuality, 64(11), 1519–1538. https://doi.org/10.1080/0091 8369.2016.1247537 63. Zablotska, I. B., Frankland, A., Holt, M., de Wit, J., Brown, G., Maycock, B., . . . Prestage, G. (2014, November 19). Methodological challenges in collecting social and behavioural data regarding the HIV epidemic among gay and other men who have sex with men in Australia. PLoS One, 9(11), e113167. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0113167 64. Gama, A., Martins, M. O., & Dias, S. (2017, May 17). HIV research with men who have sex with men (MSM): Advantages and challenges of different methods for most appropriately targeting a key population. AIMS Public Health, 4(3), 221–239. https://doi.org/10.3934/publichealth.2017.3.221 65. Magnani, R., Sabin, K., Saidel, T., & Heckathorn, D. (2005, May). Review of sampling hard-to-reach and hidden populations for HIV surveillance. AIDS (London, England), 19(Suppl 2), S67–S72. https://doi.org/10.1097/01. aids.0000172879.20628.e1 66. Meyer, I. H., & Wilson, P. A. (2009). Sampling in surveys of lesbian, gay, and bisexual populations. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 56(1), 23–31. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0014587 67. Hall, H. I., Song, R., Gerstle, J. E., III, & Lee, L. M., & the HIV/ AIDS Reporting System Evaluation Group. (2006, August 15). Assessing the completeness of reporting of human immunodeficiency virus diagnoses in 2002-2003: Capturerecapture methods. American Journal of Epidemiology, 164(4), 391–397. https://doi.org/10.1093/aje/kwj216 68. German, D., Brady, K., Kuo, I., Opoku, J., Flynn, C., Patrick, R., … Mid-Atlantic CFAR Consortium (2017). Characteristics of Black Men Who Have Sex With Men in Baltimore, Philadelphia, and Washington, D.C.: Geographic Diversity in SocioDemographics and HIV Transmission Risk. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes, 75 Suppl 3(Suppl 3), S296–S308.
Highlights from the 89th Annual Meeting & Awards Ceremony
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72 Delaware Journal of Public Health â&#x20AC;&#x201C; May 2019
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Access to HIV Medication in the Community Versus a Nursing Home for the Medicare Eligible HIV population Brianne L. Olivieri-Mui, M.P.H. Bouve College of Health Sciences, Department of Health Sciences, Northeastern University
Abstract Access to appropriate antiretroviral therapy (ART) is key to people living with HIV/AIDS (PLWH) living a near normal life time, which has resulted in increasing numbers of PLWH requiring nursing home care for age-related reasons. However, one study found that 21% of Medicare eligible PLWH in US nursing homes between 2011 and 2013 were not dispensed ART through the nursing home pharmacy. Cost-sharing assistance programs exist to facilitate access to medications for low-income community dwelling older adults, but these programs do not necessarily extend to people admitted to a nursing home, which may cause interruptions in access to ART for PLWH in this setting. Policies may need to be updated to reduce drug-related financial burden to PLWH and nursing homes in order to maintain continued access to ART in the nursing home setting. Access to appropriate antiretroviral therapy (ART) is key to people living with HIV/AIDS (PLWH) living a near normal life time, which has resulted in increasing numbers of PLWH requiring nursing home care for age-related reasons. However, one study found that 21% of Medicare eligible PLWH in US nursing homes between 2011 and 2013 were not dispensed ART through the nursing home pharmacy 1. Admission to a nursing home may interrupt already existing coverage for ART and/or present medication-related financial burden to Medicare eligible PLWH or the nursing home to which they are admitted. This article explores current statistics regarding Medicare eligibility for PLWH – including Medicare Part D drug coverage – followed by a review of assistance programs PLWH may be accessing to help cover out-of-pocket drug costs in the community. A discussion of a lack of similar programs in the nursing home setting highlights that there may be a need for new policies to mitigate cost sharing in the nursing home settings. Finally, suggestions of policies that could augment access to ART in the nursing home setting are presented. It is the aim of this article to inform consumers and nursing home stakeholders of the potential challenges related to ART access and associated financial repercussions that may take place as older, Medicare-eligible PLWH transition from community to nursing home residences.
PLWH ON MEDICARE Medicare is a federally administered health insurance program, and the largest source of federal money for HIV health care.2 There are three ways to become eligible for Medicare: age 65 or older, qualifying for disability status, and having end stage renal disease or Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS). A diagnosis of advanced HIV disease or AIDS is considered a disability. Disability status plus 24 months of Social Security Disability Insurance (SSDI) or Social Security Income (SSI) qualifies people less than 65 years old for Medicare, including PLWH. Currently, more than half of PLWH (56%) are insured by Medicare, of whom approximately 80% are disability-eligible; the rest are either Medicare eligible by age or end stage renal disease/ALS diagnosis.2 Furthermore, 69% of Medicare eligible PLWH are dually eligible for Medicaid, a government insurance program for qualified lowincome individuals, which is independently administered by each state.2,3 Eligibility for Medicare is evolving for PLWH because longer life expectancy due to advances in treatment means PLWH are transitioning from being strictly disability-eligible for Medicare, to being age-eligible. One study showed that 15% of California’s Medicare population of PLWH transitioned from disability to 74 Delaware Journal of Public Health – May 2019
age-eligibility between 2007 and 2010.4 It has also been reported that the number of PLWH age-eligible for Medicare doubled between 2000 and 2013; that number is expected to continue to grow as treatment advances and the population of PLWH continues to reach older ages.5 Additionally, 17% of incident HIV occurs among people aged 50 or older. Assuming ideal HIV care post diagnosis, this group will most likely age into Medicare eligibility rather than transition through disability eligibility.6 The CDC estimates that 70% of PLWH will be over age 50 by 2020.6
PRESCRIPTIONS FOR PLWH One of the biggest financial challenges in caring for the Medicare population of PLWH is covering costs for HIV medications vital to survival. Medicare Part D is the primary source of coverage for HIV medications. However, HIV medications often have high cost-sharing and PLWH disproportionately lack financial supports.7,8 Cost-sharing relief programs exist for community dwelling older adults, some of which are specifically for PLWH. These programs are of particular interest to long-term survivors (PLWH diagnosed prior to the 1996 introduction of HAART9), who have often been exposed to several ART regimens over time, become treatment resistant and are forced to use newer more expensive drugs.10
PART D FOR PLWH Medicare Part D was introduced in 2006 and is part of Medicare. This means that, unlike Medicaid, the requirements for the program are the same regardless of an individual’s state of residence. Medicare beneficiaries must sign up for a Part D plan administered by a third party insurer, prove they have equivalent drug coverage and are eligible to decline Part D, or face penalties for late enrollment in the event they do not sign up during open enrollment. Part D plans differ in what drugs are covered and how much of the cost of that medication is covered making, it imperative that PLWH choose a Part D plan carefully to minimize out-of-pocket costs. Dual eligible individuals – eligible for Medicare and Medicaid – are automatically enrolled in baseline low-cost Part D plans, but can change their Part D plan during open enrollment. Part D is mandated to cover at least 2 drugs in each of 6 protected drug classes, including antiretrovirals and HIV related pharmacotherapies. The amount of coverage for each antiretroviral can vary by Part D provider. In turn, medications may be covered, but as tier 3 or 4 or specialty drugs with high cost-sharing. It is also possible that certain drugs have restricted access through utilization management processes. Utilization management is a way of limiting access to certain medications to control costs and may include, but is not limited to, step therapy and prior authorization. Though HIV medications are not currently subject to prior authorization, there is legislation proposed in the Bipartisan Budge Act of 2018 to give Part D insurers more ability in fiscal year 2019 to implement such processes for drugs in protected classes, including antiretrovirals.11 Clearly there are several variables governing the cost assumed by PLWH related to their HIV medications: the regimen prescribed, insurance coverage, or eligibility for cost-sharing assistance programs, to name a few. Increases in out-of-pocket costs may be a barrier to accessing ART. However, when out-of-pocket ART costs increased with the introduction of Part D in 2006, HIV medication adherence among Medicare eligible PLWH did not seem to be impacted.3 One likely explanation is that PLWH were taking advantage of medication cost-sharing assistance programs. Assistance programs ensure continued access to ART despite costsharing that PLWH may not otherwise be able to afford.
EXAMPLES OF PRESCRIPTION COSTSHARING AND COVERAGE ASSISTANCE MEDICAID AND EXTRA HELP DRUG COVERAGE Where Medicare is the source of the greatest federal funding for PLWH, Medicaid – the joint state and federal low-income insurance – is the largest source of health coverage for PLWH. All states voluntarily offer Medicaid outpatient drug coverage.12 Drug coverage is provided through Medicare Part D and pricing determined by each state’s unique Medicaid formulary.13 Regardless of state of residence, Medicaid eligible people are automatically qualified for an additional federal program, Extra Help, also known as the Part D Low-income Subsidy. This program can provide full or partial cost-sharing assistance, depending on income.
Extra Help offers alternative copayments (full program) and/ or a 15% coinsurance (partial program). In addition to reducing prescription costs, this program can also pay for Part D premiums up to an amount determined by each state ($29.98 in Delaware) and remove Part D late enrollment penalties.14 Extra Help enrollees are still responsible for prescription copayments, however will pay the lower of the two copayments/ coinsurance between Extra Help or Part D, until they reach the Part D coverage gap. Once in the coverage gap, individuals are responsible for full drug costs according to Part D coverage. Once the out-of-pocket maximum has been reached, full Extra Help coverage eliminates drug costs, and partial coverage reduces copayments to equal those offered to full Extra Help enrollees prior to the coverage gap.15 If a person does not qualify for Medicaid based on income, but has healthcare costs including prescriptions which deplete their monthly income to the point where they would otherwise qualify, there exist Medicaid Medically Needy Programs in select states. Delaware does not have a Medically Needy Program.16 Many of the people in this program are living in nursing homes, and by depleting assets through cost of medical care become eligible for Medicaid and subsequently Extra Help.16 Other programs, including Programs of All-Inclusive Care for the Elderly (PACE), Medicare Advantage Special Needs Plans, and Medicare Savings Plans provide varying degrees of healthcare cost-sharing assistance, specifically for Medicare Part A and B premiums. However, all rely on Part D and Extra Help eligibility to determine drug coverage and copayment amounts as outlined above. Qualifying for Extra Help in 2019 requires an individual’s income to be at or below 114% of the federal poverty level, or $14,390 annually.17 Additionally, enrollment in either Extra Help or Medicaid requires annual re-application.
AIDS DRUG ASSISTANCE PROGRAM (ADAP) Specific to PLWH, the Ryan White Comprehensive AIDS Resources Emergency (CARE) Act of 1990 has several parts that, combined, provide access to HIV/AIDS related primary medical care and support services across the United States and related territories. Part B of the Ryan White CARE Act includes funding for the AIDS Drug Assistance Program (ADAP), which is provided to all states and territories based on a calculation weighted by reported cases of PLWH/AIDS in the designated area.18 Though ADAP funds can be used to purchase health insurance and provide services for improved access and adherence to HIV medications, it is most known for acting as a payer of last resort, helping to provide FDA approved HIV medications to low-income PLWH lacking adequate drug coverage. Each ADAP is independently operated by the state or territory. More than 500,000 PLWH are served by ADAPs and the majority have some insurance, but need ADAP funds to off-set out-of-pocket costs such as copayments.19 Specific eligibility criteria are determined by each state or territory and must be only for those that prove, every 6 months, both residency in the designated catchment area and financial and medical need. Financial need is often defined as a percent of the Federal Poverty Level and medical need is based on the presence of a HIV diagnosis. Each ADAP covers at least one drug from each category of HIV medications and independently governs distribution of the covered medications to community dwelling PLWH.20 75
340B DRUG PRICING PROGRAM One of the reasons ADAPs are able to provide low cost medications is due to their eligibility for the 340B Drug Pricing Program.19 This program was initiated in 1992 to bolster hospitals and clinics serving low income clients. Pharmaceutical manufacturers that participate in Medicaid must offer 340B eligible clinical sites prescription drugs at a cost lower than the Medicaid reimbursement rate. Cost of acquiring medications for the facility is thus much lower than it would be if the facility was not 340B eligible. The money that the clinical sites save was meant to be returned to the healthcare system in order to alleviate some of the debt incurred by serving low-income clients that otherwise could not afford healthcare. The discounted medications are reserved for outpatients that are regular clients of the eligible facility.19,21 Notably, ADAPs only provide medications and not healthcare, but are exempt from this requirement. Unfortunately, the unintended consequence of 340B drug pricing is that the money the facility saves on the cost of acquiring drugs does not always translate into reduced copayments for people seeking care at a 340B clinical site.21
MANUFACTURER COST-SHARING AND PATIENT ASSISTANCE PROGRAMS Many drug manufacturers offer cost-sharing assistance or patient assistance programs to under insured or uninsured individuals for their HIV medications. Cost-sharing assistance programs offer financial assistance with copayments, coinsurance, and deductibles. Eligible individuals have commercial insurance, but are unable to cover the cost-sharing for HIV medications. These programs are not available to anyone receiving medication coverage through government programs such as Part D, which would often serve the population aged 65 and older. Each cost-sharing assistance program is unique to the company and provides cost-sharing assistance up to specified monthly or annual amounts.22,23 Patient assistance programs are also offered through drug manufacturers and are targeted at helping the uninsured, people who do not qualify for insurance such as Medicaid, Medicare, or ADAP or are eligible, but on an ADAP waiting list. There is a universal application for these types of drug cost assistance programs that can be submitted to each individual program of interest. There are also several resources available to navigate the wide variety of patient assistant programs, such as RxAssist22 or HarborPath, which specifically operates the ADAP waitlist patient assistance program.23 Like cost-sharing assistance programs, patient assistance programs are unique to the companies offering them and may not apply to people with Part D drug coverage.22,24
PRESCRIPTIONS IN THE NURSING HOME SETTING Between 2011 and 2013 there were approximately 7,500 Medicare eligible PLWH residing in nearly half of US nursing homes, 93% of whom were dually eligible for Medicaid.1 During the first 90 days of a nursing home stay after a qualified hospital stay, healthcare, including prescriptions, are covered by Medicare Part A. When the Part A covered care is for a person with an AIDS diagnosis, facilities are eligible for an AIDS adjustment, a 128% add-on to their usual reimbursement, to better cover 76 Delaware Journal of Public Health â&#x20AC;&#x201C; May 2019
the costs associated with caring for a PLWH.25 After the 90 days expire, prescription coverage for most Medicare eligible PLWH in US nursing homes is through Medicare Part D or equivalent coverage (e.g. Retiree Drug Subsidy related plan, henceforth collectively referred to as Part D), and depends on the nursing home pharmacy contracting with the residentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; specific Part D plan. If the pharmacy does not contract with the Part D provider, the individual has the opportunity to change Part D providers. Changing Part D providers is allowable upon admission to the nursing home, once a month while in residence, and once within two months after discharge from the nursing home. Copayments, deductibles and premiums remain the responsibility of the nursing home resident unless they are also eligible for Medicaid (dual eligibility). Cost-sharing for Part D covered drugs for qualified dual eligible individuals residing in a nursing home for 30 or more days should be fully subsidized. For other medications, the Extra Help program still applies while residing in a nursing home, however other cost-sharing assistance programs do not.26 The manufacturer cost-sharing assistance and patient assistant programs are only available for community dwelling individuals and Ryan White legislation views residence in a nursing home as inpatient status. Inpatient status precludes use of ADAP funds. If the Part D provider does not cover a drug or the out-of-pocket for the drug is beyond the ability of an individual to pay, there is also an exceptions process where individuals can petition the Part D plan to cover or lower the cost of the drug needed. During this process a Part D plan is required to provide an emergency 31 day supply of the medication.27 In the event that a nursing home resident can not get drugs covered by their plan provider, nursing homes should still provide the needed medication, but are allowed to bill residents separately for dispensing the prescription.26 In each of these instances the patient becomes responsible for higher out-of-pocket costs than they would have incurred outside the nursing home due to a lack of available cost-sharing assistance programs. PLWH are often mitigating out-of-pocket drug costs through programs like those mentioned above. This ensures their continued access to ART and viral suppression. In the event of admission to a nursing home, there is potential for interrupted access to these necessary medications due to reduced availability of assistance programs. For example, if a person relies on ADAP for access to ART medications and is then admitted to a nursing home, they must find new means by which to cover HIV medications. Additionally, CMS has acknowledged and attempted to address the issue of dual eligible individuals admitted to a nursing home incorrectly being billed with copays that they otherwise would not have to pay in the community setting.28 If PLWH are accessing assistance programs to cover out-of-pocket costs related to HIV medications prior to admission to a nursing home, there is no reason to believe the financial need would change upon admission. With less cost-sharing assistance available to nursing home inpatients, nursing homes may be at risk for incurring debt related to unpaid medication costs. In the event that nursing homes provide HIV medications in a timely manner after someone is admitted, avoiding gaps in medication, they may dispense the drug before checking if the drug is covered by a residentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; Part D coverage. If PLWH are unable to afford the subsequent bills,
the facility must absorb the costs related to the medications. Evidence suggests there may also be instances of Part D plans do not cover an emergency drug supply and placing a cost burden on the nursing home. One report mentioned this type of debt represents one percent of a long-term care pharmacy’s revenue.29 This is particularly a problem given the high cost of acquiring and dispensing HIV drugs.29 The risk of high cost burden related to HIV medication dispensing may incentivize nursing homes to refuse admission to PLWH. A relative dearth of information regarding costs incurred by nursing homes related to unpaid HIV medication cost-sharing by residents presents an opportunity for future research.
OPTIONS FOR REDUCING HIV DRUG COSTS TO NURSING HOMES AND RESIDENTS If it is, in fact, the case that nursing homes are at undue risk for HIV medication related debt, one solution may be to extend the 340B Drug Pricing Program to include nursing homes and their respective pharmacies. Currently nursing homes do not qualify for this program, despite their disproportionately low-income patient population, for two reasons: (1) nursing home residents are considered inpatients and (2) the majority of nursing homes are for-profit institutions.30 Exceptions to the rule have been made in the past, such as allowing ADAPs to acquire drugs through 340B, despite the fact that they do not provide healthcare services. ADAPs assist in drug coverage by design and nursing homes do not. Nursing homes dispense drugs by design and their for-profit status makes them averse to financial risk, including that related to acquiring and dispensing drugs. To that end, one hesitation to expand the 340B program to include nursing homes may stem from their often for-profit status: money saved on medications may be perceived as revenue rather than as a means for lowcost or fully subsidized ART dispensing in this setting. Another concern may be that expanding 340B eligibility could encourage drug manufacturers to increase drug prices more quickly, in an effort to save profits, particularly in the case of HIV medications which are generally high cost and rising.10,21 Monitoring how 340B savings are returned to the healthcare system could squelch some of these concerns, but there are currently no agencies responsible for monitoring what 340B eligible facilities do with saved money.21 Nursing homes are unique in that there already exists a mandated system of reporting nursing home quality to the government. Including 340B revenue assessments in the existing quality evaluation structure may be one option to address the lack of oversight and assuage anxieties related to expanding the legislation to such for-profit institutions. Another option to diffuse medication-related costs incurred by a nursing home is to expand ADAP. Allowing similar coverage of copayments and cost-sharing for individuals residing in nursing homes as are offered to outpatients would minimize potential interruptions in care for the more than half a million individuals that currently rely on ADAPs for HIV medications.
CONSIDERATIONS FOR DELAWARE As of 2015, Delaware has a population of 944,076, of which 3,230 are living with HIV and 18.1% are aged 65 or older.31,32
As of 2013, Delaware contains less than 7% of the population of PLWH residing in nursing homes, but still has more PLWH in nursing homes than 19 states and the District of Columbia.1 Most PLWH reside in the south, the census region in which Delaware is included.33 Southern nursing homes care for more PLWH than nursing homes in any other census region, making it particularly imperative for southern states to assess policies related to ART access in nursing homes.1 PLWH in Delaware currently utilize many of those cost-sharing assistance programs described above, as well as the Delaware Prescription Assistance Program (DPAP).34 Specifically, DPAP is funded by a tobacco settlement and reduces copays to $5 or 25% of a drug’s cost for people ineligible for Medicaid or lacking health insurance. Also, Delaware received $6.1 million dollars in Ryan White funds in fiscal year 2016.31 The primary payer for nursing home care, Medicaid, is called Diamond State Health Plan in the state of Delaware. It paid for 61.2% of nursing home care in 2017 and an individual’s income can be no more than $1,927.50 per month in order to qualify.35 Furthermore, it can be inferred that if 84.9% of admissions to any nursing home in Delaware in 2017 were 65 years or older and Medicaid paid for more than half of nursing home care, many people in Delaware nursing homes were dual eligible for Medicare and Medicaid.36 Medicaid eligibility is an automatic qualifier for the federal Extra Help program, which, along with ADAP and pharmaceutical company cost assistance programs, can help PLWH access ART. However, as described earlier, many of these programs no longer apply once admitted to one of the 46 Delaware nursing homes that were at nearly 90% occupancy in 2017.36
CONCLUSION Cost-sharing assistance programs exist to facilitate access to medications for low-income community dwelling older adults, some of which are specific to PLWH. However, these programs do not extend to people admitted to a nursing home, which may cause interruptions in access to ART for PLWH in this setting. Utilizing existing infrastructure to expand or amend drug cost reduction programs might provide one solution to this issue. Otherwise, current policies may be incentivizing nursing homes to refuse PLWH admission on the grounds of high drug-related financial risk. It is an ideal time, while the population of PLWH in nursing homes is still relatively small, to proactively consider how we maintain seamless access to ART without undue financial burden to PLWH or nursing homes.
REFERENCES 1. Olivieri-Mui, B., McGuire, J., Cahill, S., Griffith, J., & Briesacher, B. (2019, January-February). People living with HIV in U.S. nursing homes in the fourth decade of the dpidemic. J Assoc Nurses AIDS Care, 30(1), 20–34. PubMed https://doi. org/10.1097/JNC.0000000000000033 2. The Henry J Kaiser Foundation. Medicare and HIV. Menlo Park, CA2016. 3. Belenky, N., Pence, B. W., Cole, S. R., Dusetzina, S. B., Edmonds, A., Oberlander, J., . . . Adimora, A. A. (2018, January). Associations between medicare part D and out-ofpocket spending, HIV viral load, adherence, and ADAP use in dual eligibles with HIV. Medical Care, 56(1), 47–53. PubMed https://doi.org/10.1097/MLR.0000000000000843 77
4. Comulada, W. S., Desmond, K. A., Gildner, J. L., & Leibowitz, A. A. (2017, February). Transitioning from medicaid disability coverage to long-term medicare coverage: The case of people living with HIV/AIDS in california. AIDS Educ Prev, 29(1), 49–61. PubMed https://doi.org/10.1521/aeap.2017.29.1.49 5. Hellinger, F. J. (2016, June). Hospital use by persons with HIV in the 21st century: A 5-state study. Medical Care, 54(6), 639– 644. PubMed https://doi.org/10.1097/MLR.0000000000000526 6. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. HIV among people aged 50 and over. 2016. 7. Guaraldi, G., Falutz, J., Mussi, C., & Silva, A. R. Managing the older adult patient with HIV: Cham: Adis; 2016. 8. Rodriguez-Penney, A. T., Iudicello, J. E., Riggs, P. K., Doyle, K., Ellis, R. J., Letendre, S. L., . . . Woods, S. P., & the HIV Neurobehavioral Research Program HNRP Group. (2013, January). Co-morbidities in persons infected with HIV: Increased burden with older age and negative effects on healthrelated quality of life. AIDS Patient Care and STDs, 27(1), 5–16. PubMed https://doi.org/10.1089/apc.2012.0329 9. Krentz, H. B., & John Gill, M. (2018, November). Long-term HIV/AIDS survivors: Patients living with HIV infection retained in care for over 20 years. What have we learned? International Journal of STD & AIDS, 29(11), 1098–1105. PubMed https://doi.org/10.1177/0956462418778705 10. Stein, S. Aging HIV Population Confronts High Drug Costs, Taxes Medicare. Bloomberg Law. 2018. 11. Cubanski, J. Summary of Recent and Proposed Changes to Medicare Prescription Drug Coverage and Reimbursement. The Henry J Kaiser Family Foundation; 2018. 12. Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services. Medicaid: Prescription Drugs. 2019; Available from: https://www. medicaid.gov/medicaid/prescription-drugs/index.html 13. Interactive, M. Medicaid and Medicare Part D overview. Medicare Rights Center; 2019; Available from: https://www. medicareinteractive.org/get-answers/cost-saving-programsfor-people-with-medicare/medicare-and-medicaid/medicaidand-medicare-part-d-overview 14. Interactive, M. Extra Help basics. Medicare Rights Center; 2019; Available from: https://www.medicareinteractive.org/ get-answers/cost-saving-programs-for-people-with-medicare/ the-extra-helplow-income-subsidy-lis-program/extra-helpbasics 15. Interactive, M. Drug costs under Extra Help. Medicare Rights Center; 2019; Available from: https://www. medicareinteractive.org/get-answers/cost-saving-programsfor-people-with-medicare/the-extra-helplow-income-subsidylis-program/drug-costs-under-extra-help 16. The Henry J Kaiser Foundation. Medicaid Eligibility through the Medically Needy Pathway. Kaiser Family Foundation; 2019; Available from: https://www.kff.org/other/stateindicator/medicaid-eligibility-through-the-medically-needypathway/?currentTimeframe=0&sortModel=%7B%22colId%2 2:%22Location%22,%22sort%22:%22asc%22%7D 17.Social Security Administration. Understanding the Extra Help With Your Medicare Prescription Drug Plan. In: Administration SS, editor.2018. 78 Delaware Journal of Public Health – May 2019
18.HIV/AIDS Bureau of the Health Resources and Services Administration. About the Ryan White HIV/AIDS Program. Health Resources & Services Administration; 2019; Available from: https://hab.hrsa.gov/about-ryan-white-hivaids-program/ about-ryan-white-hivaids-program 19. Crowley JS, Bland SE. Long-Acting HIV Treatment and Prevention are Coming: Preparing for Potential Game Changers: The Foundation for AIDS Research2018. 20. Ryan White HIV/AIDS Program Services: Eligible Individuals & Allowable Uses of Funds (2016). 21.Conti, R. M., & Bach, P. B. (2013, May 15). Cost consequences of the 340B drug discount program. JAMA, 309(19), 1995– 1996. PubMed https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2013.4156 22. POZ. HIV Drug Assistance Programs. CDM Publishing, LLC; 2018; Available from: https://www.poz.com/basics/hiv-basics/ drug-assistance-programs 23. National Association of State and Territorial AIDS Directors. Pharmaceutical Company Patient Assistance Programs and Cost-sharing Assistance Programs: HIV. Washington DC2018. 24. Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services. HPMS Q & A - Patient Assistance Programs. In: Choices CfB, editor.: Department of Health and Human Services; 2006. 25. Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services. Skilled Nursing Facility Prospective Payment System Legislative History2013. 26. Office of the Inspector General. Availability of Medicare Part D Drugs to Dual-Eligible Nursing Home Residents. In: Services DoHaH, editor. Washington DC2008. 27. Interactive, M. Part D coverage in nursing homes. Medicare Rights Center; 2019; Available from: https://www. medicareinteractive.org/get-answers/medicare-prescriptiondrug-coverage-part-d/medicare-part-d-coverage/part-dcoverage-in-nursing-homes 28. Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services. Access to Care Issues Among Qualified Medicare Beneficiaries (QMB). 2015. 29. Avalere Health LLC. Long-Term Care Pharmacy: the Evolving Marketplace and Emerging Policy Issues2015. 30. 340BHealth. Overview of the 340B Drug Pricing Program. 2019; Available from: https://www.340bhealth.org/ members/340b-program/overview/ 31. AIDSVu. Local Data: Delaware. 2019; Available from: https://aidsvu.org/state/delaware/ 32. United States Census Bureau. QuickFacts: Delaware. 2018; Available from: https://www.census.gov/quickfacts/fact/map/de/AGE775217 33. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. HIV and AIDS in the United States by Geographic Distribution. [May 11, 2015]; Available from: http://www.cdc.gov/hiv/statistics/overview/ geographicdistribution.html 34. Delaware Department of Insurance. Financial Assistance for Seniors & People with Medicare. In: Bureau DMA, editor.2017. 35. American Council on Aging. Medicaid (Diamond State Health Plan) Eligibility for Long Term Care: Income & ASset Limits. 2019; Available from: https://www. medicaidplanningassistance.org/medicaid-eligibility-delaware 36. Delaware Health Care Commission. Delaware Nursing Home Utilization Statistics. Dover, DE2018.
SAVE THE DATE October 3, 2019 7:30 AM to 12:30 PM
John Scholz Stroke Education Conference John H. Ammon Medical Education Center Christiana Hospital Registration opening July 2019 79
COMMUNICABLE DISEASE – LEXICON OF TERMS Antimicrobial stewardship
Oncogenic
A system-wide effort to educate prescribers of antimicrobials (antibiotics) to follow evidence-based prescribing, in order to stem overuse of antibiotics (which can lead to antibiotic resistance).
Cancer causing.
Antiretroviral
Pathology
A medication that works against retroviruses (i.e. HIV)
Bayesian Analysis a statistical procedure which tries to estimate an underlying distribution based on the observed distribution (e.g. based on a study population’s observed incidence, what would the incidence in the entire population be?)
Broad Spectrum Antibiotics Agents effective against both Gram positive and Gram negative bacteria.
Cavitary Pulmonary Tuberculosis When the disease is advanced enough to carve out necrotic areas (cavities) in the lung.
Hepatology The study of the liver, biliary tree, the gall bladder, and the pancreas.
Herd Immunity The resistance to the spread of a contagious disease within a population that results if a sufficiently high proportion of individuals are immune to the disease, especially through vaccination.
Immunization The process whereby a person is made immune or resistant to an infectious disease, typically by the administration of a vaccine.
Narrow Spectrum Antibiotics
Oropharyngeal Relating to the mouth and top of the throat.
The study of the causes and effects of diseases, especially the branch of medicine that deals with the laboratory examination of body tissue for diagnostic or forensic purposes.
Pathogenesis How a disease develops.
Recidivate To go back to bad behavior. The recidivism rate is the tendency of a convicted criminal to re-offend.
Respiratory Papillomatosis A rare condition in which benign (non-cancerous) tumors form along the air passageways (mouth, throat, trachea, etc).
Retrovirus Any of a group of RNA viruses which insert a DNA copy of their genome into the host cell in order to replicate, e.g. HIV.
Seroprevalence The level of a pathogen in a population (usually measured by blood tests)
Sustained Virologic Response (SVR) No hepatitis C virus (HCV) can be found in blood in the 24 weeks after completing a course of hepatitis C treatment. SVR very likely means that a patient has been cured.
Tuberculosis An infectious bacterial disease characterized by the growth of nodules (tubercles) in the tissues, especially the lungs.
Agents effective against specific families of bacteria.
Vertical Transmission
Necroinflammatory
The passage of a disease causing agent from mother to baby, in the period immediately before and after birth.
A process which results in both necrosis (dead tissue) and inflammation, especially in the liver.
80 Delaware Journal of Public Health – May 2019
COMMUNICABLE DISEASE â&#x20AC;&#x201C; RESOURCES Communicable Disease Statistics
National Centers for Infectious Disease (CDC)
This spreadsheet, from the County Health Rankings website, provides state and county level communicable disease data. http://www.countyhealthrankings.org/using-the-rankings-data/finding-more-data/delaware
Includes the National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases (NCEZID), the National Center for HIV/AIDS, Viral Hepatitis, STD, and TB Prevention (NCHHSTP), and the National Center for Immunization and Respiratory Diseases (NCIRD). https://www.cdc.gov/ddid/centers.html
Immunization Action Coalition The Immunization Action Coalition (IAC) works to increase immunization rates and prevent disease by creating and distributing educational materials for healthcare professionals and the public that enhance the delivery of safe and effective immunization services. http://www.immunize.org
OďŹ&#x192;ce of Infectious Disease Epidemiology All Delaware physicians, laboratories, and other health care providers are required by law to report certain communicable diseases. Both lab-confirmed and clinical diagnoses are reportable. https://dhss.delaware.gov/dhss/dph/dpc/rptdisease. html
Immunization Coalition of Delaware
Vaccines and Immunizations (CDC)
This website provides information to the public and health care providers about vaccine-preventable diseases and immunizations. http://www.immunizedelaware.org/
The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention main website for information about vaccines and immunization. https://www.cdc.gov/vaccines/index.html
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Index of Advertisers APHA’s 2019 Annual Meeting and Expo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 American Public Health Association The DPH Bulletin Special Issue May 2019 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 Division of Public Health, Department of Health and Social Services AAHD Call To Action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 American Association on Health and Disability DJPH Submission Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 Delaware Journal of Public Health The DPH Bulletin May 2019. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 Division of Public Health, Department of Health and Social Services The Consequences of Medication Nonadherence are Stacking Up . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 Quality Insights Help Your Patients Help Themselves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 Quality Insights Trauma Informed Delaware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 Trauma Delaware The Nation's Health - May 2019 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 American Public Health Association Highlights of The 89th Annual Meeting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 Delaware Journal of Pubic Health Save the Date - John Scholz Stroke Education Conference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 John H. Ammon Medical Education Center Christiana Hospital
82 Delaware Journal of Public Health – May 2019
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The Delaware Academy of Medicine is a private, nonprofit organization founded in 1930. Our mission is to enhance the well being of our community through medical education and the promotion ofpublic health. Our educational initiatives span the spectrum from consumer health education tocontinuing medical education conferences and symposia. The Delaware Public Health Association was officially reborn at the 141st Annual Meeting of the American Public Health Association (AHPA) held in Boston, MA in November, 2013. At this meeting, affiliation of the DPHA was transferred to the Delaware Academy of Medicine officially on November 5, 2013 by action of the APHA Governing Council. The Delaware Academy of Medi-cine, who’s mission statement is “to promote the well-being of our community through education and the promotion of public health,” is honored to take on this responsibility in the First State.
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