- Johannesburg, Gauteng, South Africa
- University of the Witwatersrand, Evolutionary Studies Institute, Faculty Memberadd
- none()edit
- I am an archaeologist and faunal taphonomist. My main fields of specialization are the origin and evolution of bone t... moreI am an archaeologist and faunal taphonomist. My main fields of specialization are the origin and evolution of bone tool technology, microscopic analysis of bone surface modifications and San material culture, past and present. My main fields of interest are vertebrate taphonomy and the fossil record, early hominin cultural and behavioural evolution, tracing the emergence of modern human behavior, correlating archaeology, palaeontology and climate change, ethnoarchaeology amongst Kalahari Bushmen and the origin(s) of ritual mortuary practice.(I am an archaeologist and faunal taphonomist. My main fields of specialization are the origin and evolution of bone tool technology, microscopic analysis of bone surface modifications and San material culture, past and present. My main fields of interest are vertebrate taphonomy and the fossil record, early hominin cultural and behavioural evolution, tracing the emergence of modern human behavior, correlating archaeology, palaeontology and climate change, ethnoarchaeology amongst Kalahari Bushmen and the origin(s) of ritual mortuary practice.)edit
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Border Cave is a key Middle Stone Age (MSA) site in southern Africa, with a 4 m-deep sedimentary sequence that dates from more than 227 000 (227 ka) to 44 ka ago. Lithic assemblages vary considerably during this period and artefacts made... more
Border Cave is a key Middle Stone Age (MSA) site in southern Africa, with a 4 m-deep sedimentary sequence that dates from more than 227 000 (227 ka) to 44 ka ago. Lithic assemblages vary considerably during this period and artefacts made from organic materials become common at the end of the MSA sequence. Here we describe charcoal from the 10 members that comprise the stratigraphic sequence. Anatomical features of charcoal were studied by means of reflected light microscopy, the use of the International Association of Wood Anatomists code and modern wood charcoal reference collections. Most woody plants represented by charcoal at the site are evergreen trees. Indicator plants from bushveld and open woodland taxa were most common in Member 6 BS (>227 ka) and Member 5 WA (~227 ka). Moist forest was most common in Members 5 BS (~161e144 ka) and 4 WA (~168e113 ka), while Member 1 RGBS (~74 ka) had a combination of bushveld and moist forest. At about 64 ka, dry bushveld predominated, while in Members 3 BS (72e56 ka) and 2 WA (~60 ka) moist forest was the predominant vegetation type. Member 2 BS.UP (49e44 ka) mostly included bushveld and moist forest patches, while Member 1 WA (~43 ka) was predominantly dry bushveld. The Border Cave occupations seem to have taken place in drier conditions than those at present. The driest members were 5 BS, 4 WA, 1 RGBS and 3 WA, followed by Members 2 BS and 1 WA. Member 3 BS was only slightly drier than present, while Member 2 WA was moderately drier than present. The past vegetation is similar to the modern vegetation profile and there appears to have been remarkable stability through time, suggesting that cultural changes in the sequence may not be linked to environmental change.
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In responding to Val (2016), we welcome the opportunity to further clarify our interpretations of the taphonomic and geological context of Homo naledi in the Dinaledi Chamber of the Rising Star Cave as presented in Dirks et al. (2015). In... more
In responding to Val (2016), we welcome the opportunity to further clarify our interpretations of the taphonomic and geological context of Homo naledi in the Dinaledi Chamber of the Rising Star Cave as presented in Dirks et al. (2015). In so doing we want to state from the onset that, contrary to what is claimed in Val (2016), Dirks et al. (2015) do not reject mass mortality or death trap scenarios as possible explanations but, based on currently available evidence, consider deliberate body disposal to be the most plausible reason for the deposit. We also want to remind colleagues that the Dinaledi collection is accessible to researchers upon application. We are committed to promoting best scientific practice by making all data available for independent inspection, including observations on hominin remains, and broaden debate. We note that Val has not yet studied the collections directly or visited the cave, but has based her comment on re-interpretations of data presented in Dirks et al. (2015).
Research Interests: Evolutionary Biology, Archaeology, Geology, Paleontology, Anthropology, and 8 moreHuman Evolution, Biology, Taphonomy, Medicine, Cave, Breccia, C, and F
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Border Cave is a key Middle Stone Age (MSA) site in southern Africa, with a 4 m-deep sedimentary sequence that dates from more than 227 000 (227 ka) to 44 ka ago. Lithic assemblages vary considerably during this period and artefacts made... more
Border Cave is a key Middle Stone Age (MSA) site in southern Africa, with a 4 m-deep sedimentary sequence that dates from more than 227 000 (227 ka) to 44 ka ago. Lithic assemblages vary considerably during this period and artefacts made from organic materials become common at the end of the MSA sequence. Here we describe charcoal from the 10 members that comprise the stratigraphic sequence. Anatomical features of charcoal were studied by means of reflected light microscopy, the use of the International Association of Wood Anatomists code and modern wood charcoal reference collections. Most woody plants represented by charcoal at the site are evergreen trees. Indicator plants from bushveld and open woodland taxa were most common in Member 6 BS (>227 ka) and Member 5 WA (~227 ka). Moist forest was most common in Members 5 BS (~161e144 ka) and 4 WA (~168e113 ka), while Member 1 RGBS (~74 ka) had a combination of bushveld and moist forest. At about 64 ka, dry bushveld predominated, while in Members 3 BS (72e56 ka) and 2 WA (~60 ka) moist forest was the predominant vegetation type. Member 2 BS.UP (49e44 ka) mostly included bushveld and moist forest patches, while Member 1 WA (~43 ka) was predominantly dry bushveld. The Border Cave occupations seem to have taken place in drier conditions than those at present. The driest members were 5 BS, 4 WA, 1 RGBS and 3 WA, followed by Members 2 BS and 1 WA. Member 3 BS was only slightly drier than present, while Member 2 WA was moderately drier than present. The past vegetation is similar to the modern vegetation profile and there appears to have been remarkable stability through time, suggesting that cultural changes in the sequence may not be linked to environmental change.
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In responding to Val (2016), we welcome the opportunity to further clarify our interpretations of the taphonomic and geological context of Homo naledi in the Dinaledi Chamber of the Rising Star Cave as presented in Dirks et al. (2015). In... more
In responding to Val (2016), we welcome the opportunity to further clarify our interpretations of the taphonomic and geological context of Homo naledi in the Dinaledi Chamber of the Rising Star Cave as presented in Dirks et al. (2015). In so doing we want to state from the onset that, contrary to what is claimed in Val (2016), Dirks et al. (2015) do not reject mass mortality or death trap scenarios as possible explanations but, based on currently available evidence, consider deliberate body disposal to be the most plausible reason for the deposit. We also want to remind colleagues that the Dinaledi collection is accessible to researchers upon application. We are committed to promoting best scientific practice by making all data available for independent inspection, including observations on hominin remains, and broaden debate. We note that Val has not yet studied the collections directly or visited the cave, but has based her comment on re-interpretations of data presented in Dirks et al. (2015).
Research Interests: Evolutionary Biology, Archaeology, Geology, Paleontology, Anthropology, and 8 moreHuman Evolution, Biology, Taphonomy, Medicine, Cave, Breccia, C, and F
Fully shaped, morphologically standardized bone tools are generally considered reliable indicators of the emergence of modern behavior. We report the discovery of 23 double-beveled bone tools from ~ 80,000–60,000-year-old archaeological... more
Fully shaped, morphologically standardized bone tools are generally considered reliable indicators of the emergence of modern behavior. We report the discovery of 23 double-beveled bone tools from ~ 80,000–60,000-year-old archaeological layers at Sibudu Cave in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. We analyzed the texture of use-wear on the archaeological bone tools, and on bone tool replicas experimentally used in debarking trees, processing rabbit pelts with and without an ochre compound, digging in sediment in and outside a cave, and on ethnographic artefacts. Debarking trees and digging in humus-rich soil produce use-wear patterns closely matching those observed on most Sibudu tools. This tool type is associated with three different Middle Stone Age cultural traditions at Sibudu that span 20,000 years, yet they are absent at contemporaneous sites. Our results support a scenario in which some southern African early modern human groups developed and locally maintained specific, highly stan...
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Fragments of land snail (Achatinidae) shell were found at Border Cave in varying proportions in all archaeological members, with the exception of the oldest members 5 WA and 6 BS (>227,000 years ago). They were recovered in... more
Fragments of land snail (Achatinidae) shell were found at Border Cave in varying proportions in all archaeological members, with the exception of the oldest members 5 WA and 6 BS (>227,000 years ago). They were recovered in relatively high frequencies in Members 4 WA, 4 BS, 1 RGBS and 3 WA. The shell fragments present a range of colours from lustrous beige to brown and matt grey. The colour variability can occur when shell is heated. This possibility was explored here through experimental heating of giant land snail shell fragments (Achatinidae, Metachatina kraussi - brown lipped agate snail) in a muffle furnace from 200 to 550 °C for different lengths of time. Colour change, weight loss, and shattering of the heated samples were recorded. Transformation of aragonite into calcite and the occurrence of organic material was investigated by means of Infrared and Raman spectroscopy. Scanning electron microscopy was also used on selected specimens to help identify heat-induced transformation as opposed to taphonomic alteration. The identification on archaeological fragments of features produced by experimentally heating shells at high temperatures or for long periods has led us, after discarding alternative hypotheses, to conclude that large African land snails were systematically brought to the site by humans, roasted and consumed, starting from 170,000 years ago and, more intensively between 160,000 and 70,000 years ago. Border Cave is at present the earliest known site at which this subsistence strategy is recorded. Previous research has shown that charred whole rhizomes and fragments of edible Hypoxis angustifolia were also brought to Border Cave to be roasted and shared at the site. Thus, evidence from both the rhizomes and snails in Border Cave supports an interpretation of members of the group provisioning others at a home base, which gives us a glimpse into the complex social life of early Homo sapiens.
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The use of ash and leaves with insecticidal properties in the bedding construction reflects complex cognition, as does the cooking of starchy rhizomes that come from layers dated to 170 ka. In addition to a rich mammal fauna found in all... more
The use of ash and leaves with insecticidal properties in the bedding construction reflects complex cognition, as does the cooking of starchy rhizomes that come from layers dated to 170 ka. In addition to a rich mammal fauna found in all of the deposits, the remains of a new individual, a 3e4-year-old child, were recovered from Member 1 BS.LR C that has an ESR date of 42.6 ka.
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members have distinctive taphonomic histories that cross-cut the identified archaeological industries. As such, caution is warranted when combining BS and WA members for analysis of artefacts and ecofacts.
The use of ash and leaves with insecticidal properties in the bedding construction reflects complex cognition, as does the cooking of starchy rhizomes that come from layers dated to 170 ka. In addition to a rich mammal fauna found in all... more
The use of ash and leaves with insecticidal properties in the bedding construction reflects complex cognition, as does the cooking of starchy rhizomes that come from layers dated to 170 ka. In addition to a rich mammal fauna found in all of the deposits, the remains of a new individual, a 3e4-year-old child, were recovered from Member 1 BS.LR C that has an ESR date of 42.6 ka.
Border Cave es una cueva ubicada en las montañas de Lebombo, en la frontera entre la región de KwaZulu-Natal (Sudáfrica) y Esuatini. Las excavaciones arqueológicas se iniciaron en 1934, se retomaron en los 70' y el sitio vuelve a... more
Border Cave es una cueva ubicada en las montañas de Lebombo, en la frontera entre la región de KwaZulu-Natal (Sudáfrica) y Esuatini. Las excavaciones arqueológicas se iniciaron en 1934, se retomaron en los 70' y el sitio vuelve a investigarse en la actualidad. Border Cave es una ventana al conocimiento de la prehistoria sudafricana debido a la excelente preservación del material orgánico. El objetivo del presente trabajo es conocer este sitio arqueológico desde la experiencia de las autoras que han participado de la campaña del año 2019 haciendo énfasis en la relación entre el equipo de investigación y la comunidad local.
New excavations at Border Cave use high-resolution techniques, including FT-IR, for sediment samples and thin sections of micromorphology blocks from stratigraphy. These show that sediments have different moisture regimes, both spatially... more
New excavations at Border Cave use high-resolution techniques, including FT-IR, for sediment samples and thin sections of micromorphology blocks from stratigraphy. These show that sediments have different moisture regimes, both spatially and chronologically. The site preserves desiccated grass bedding in multiple layers and they, along with seeds, rhizomes, and charcoal, provide a profile of palaeo-vegetation through time. A bushveld vegetation community is implied before 100,000 years ago. The density of lithics varies considerably through time, with high frequencies occurring before 100,000 years ago where a putative MSA 1/Pietersburg Industry was recovered. The highest percentage frequencies of blades and blade fragments were found here. In Members 1 BS and 1 WA, called Early Later Stone Age by Beaumont, we recovered large flakes from multifacial cores. Local rhyolite was the most common rock used for making stone tools, but siliceous minerals were popular in the upper members.
Abstract This study focuses on two early Pliestocene Australopithecus sediba hominin specimens and associated fauna from Malapa, South Africa. These specimens have been interpreted as having fallen through a shaft opening into a cave,... more
Abstract This study focuses on two early Pliestocene Australopithecus sediba hominin specimens and associated fauna from Malapa, South Africa. These specimens have been interpreted as having fallen through a shaft opening into a cave, where they died and likely mummified, before being washed into a lower chamber. In order to better understand the taphonomy of the fossils and to identify the invertebrate agent(s) responsible for damage, we examined the fossils using high resolution imagery, and studied the site and associated breccia blocks in the laboratory for traces of invertebrate activity. We also conducted bone modification experiments with termites and hide beetles. Results show the presence of blowfly puparia within the cranium of the juvenile male (MH1), indicating that flies visited the facial orifices of the freshly decomposing corpse. Blowflies, which have a requirement to oviposit in daylight, imply that the body was exposed to sunlight for part of the day. A shaft opening that admitted sunlight is supported by the presence of a fossil fungus garden associated with MH2. Fungus gardens occur subsurface and sprout mushrooms in areas with dappled light. Analysis of the fossil surfaces revealed a pattern comprising 14 damage types that were made on relatively fresh bone. A bone modification experiment conducted with resident termites at the site showed that they created the same suite of microscopic surface features as those observed on the fossils. The features are mostly the result of harvesting symbiotic fungi from fresh bones and mineral-rich coatings from fossils. Damage resulting from the activity of hide beetles is similar to that of termites, apart from invasive edge gnawing produced by the beetles. This research highlights the importance of insect activity in the modification of fossils in the Cradle of Humankind and calls for consideration of this agent at other sites in the region.
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A horncore feature was encountered during excavations at Border Cave, in Member 2 BSL, dated 60–49 ka. The basal half of the horncore lay towards the centre of a combustion feature and was calcined. The tip half lay on a mat of burnt... more
A horncore feature was encountered during excavations at Border Cave, in Member 2 BSL, dated 60–49 ka. The basal half of the horncore lay towards the centre of a combustion feature and was calcined. The tip half lay on a mat of burnt grass bedding towards the edge of the fireplace. It was covered with a black shiny residue, which was also present on nearby stone tools. The feature was jacketed and excavated later under a microscope in the laboratory. Raman spectroscopy identified the residue only as amorphous carbon, indicating the presence of a heated organic substance. Knowing that variation exists in modern and archaeological glue recipes, we wanted to know if the black residue was melted keratin, and if it was, whether it had been used as a substitute for beeswax or latex for hafting. We set out to test the hypothesis by conducting a heating experiment with a modern sheathed horncore. Experimental results showed that keratin does not transform into viable glue when heated. Instead, it reduces immediately to a glassy brittle residue. Our finding strongly supports a scenario of incidental deposition of residue on the archaeological stone tools. Previous combustion experiments have shown that the sediment below a fire can reach 300+ °C through vertical heat transfer. This implies that horn sheaths in archaeological deposits, separated from overlying combustion features by thousands of years, can transform into a black residue that may deposit on nearby stone and bone tools.
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Early plant use is seldom described in the archaeological record because of poor preservation. We report the discovery of grass bedding used to create comfortable areas for sleeping and working by people who lived in Border Cave at least... more
Early plant use is seldom described in the archaeological record because of poor preservation. We report the discovery of grass bedding used to create comfortable areas for sleeping and working by people who lived in Border Cave at least 200,000 years ago. Sheaves of grass belonging to the broad-leafed Panicoideae subfamily were placed near the back of the cave on ash layers that were often remnants of bedding burned for site maintenance. This strategy is one forerunner of more-complex behavior that is archaeologically discernible from ~100,000 years ago.
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Abstract A fossilised large mammal bonebed was discovered eroding out of a gully in the Free State of South Africa. The bonebed is ∼1.5 m below the modern land surface, and extends over an area 35 × 13 m. Surface scatters of stone tools... more
Abstract A fossilised large mammal bonebed was discovered eroding out of a gully in the Free State of South Africa. The bonebed is ∼1.5 m below the modern land surface, and extends over an area 35 × 13 m. Surface scatters of stone tools occur in a 1 km radius of the site, and a large fire place associated with spirally fractured burnt bone is preserved to one side. The purpose of this research was to excavate and taphonomically analyse the faunal sample to elicit the cause of death, and radiocarbon date it to establish when it happened. The bonebed is represented by black wildebeest, including juvenile and adult individuals. Faunal remains are randomly oriented and many are complete. Weathering stage 1 on most of the bones together with the articulation pattern suggest that the carcasses were exposed for more than a year and less than three before being buried by hillslope sediment. Two-thirds of those fractured record a spiral breakage pattern. There are a few trample marks on bones and evidence of some termite activity. No stone tools were found in the section of bonebed we excavated, and there is no evidence of manmade or carnivore damage on the fauna. Calcrete nodules in the underlying deposits and phytoliths representative of desertification throughout the sedimentary sequence suggest that the animals died under drought conditions between 3840 ± 40 and 3500 ± 40 cal BP, and that human activity at the site was marginal.
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Discussion about early projectile technology typically includes criteria used to distinguish artefacts used as hafted points from those employed for other purposes, associated faunal and lithic assemblages, palaeoenvironment, age of the... more
Discussion about early projectile technology typically includes criteria used to distinguish artefacts used as hafted points from those employed for other purposes, associated faunal and lithic assemblages, palaeoenvironment, age of the material, associated hominins and their cognitive capacities, criteria used to identify complex technology and cognition, and how innovative technologies might have developed and spread. Here we summarize what is known about osseous weaponry in the African Middle Stone Age, and discuss the implications of these items for the origin(s) of modern cognitive complexity. Results indicate the use of bone spear points in the Aterian and Still Bay, and bone-tipped arrowheads in the Howiesons Poort and the Early Later Stone Age. The appearance and disappearance of projectile technology suggests that it likely emerged more than once, as an adaptation to local environments, rather than being the outcome of a process in which technology advanced in step with developing cognition.
Research Interests: Geology()
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In recent years, there has been a tendency to correlate the origin of mod-ern culture and language with that of anatomically modern humans. Here we discuss this correlation in the light of results provided by our first hand analysis of... more
In recent years, there has been a tendency to correlate the origin of mod-ern culture and language with that of anatomically modern humans. Here we discuss this correlation in the light of results provided by our first hand analysis of ancient and recently discovered relevant archaeological and pa-leontological material from Africa and Europe. We focus in particular on the evolutionary significance of lithic and bone technology, the emergence of symbolism, Neandertal behavioral patterns, the identification of early mor-tuary practices, the anatomical evidence for the acquisition of language, the
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Many fossil bones from the dolomitic caves in the Cradle of Human-kind are covered by brownish-black coatings of manganese dioxide and smaller amounts of iron oxide. This obscures fine details on bone surfaces, making their identification... more
Many fossil bones from the dolomitic caves in the Cradle of Human-kind are covered by brownish-black coatings of manganese dioxide and smaller amounts of iron oxide. This obscures fine details on bone surfaces, making their identification and interpretation by palaeontologists and archaeologists difficult or impossible. The use of acids to remove the coating Is undesirable because of the risk of damage to the bone surfaces. We have developed a novel method which selectively removes the coating without damaging the bone. The method is based on the use of hydrogen peroxide as a reducing agent, which converts iron and manganese to more soluble forms. The procedure is inexpensive, effective, environmentally benign and does not alter the bqne surface. It is particularly useful in revealing bone surface modifications, especially those that can reveal evidence of early human behaviour.
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University of the Witwatersrand, Palaeo-Anthropological Scientific Trust (PAST) Ernest Oppenheimer Memorial Trust Cultural Service of the French Embassy in South Africa, French Ministry for Education and Science OMLL/ESF Program, Human... more
University of the Witwatersrand, Palaeo-Anthropological Scientific Trust (PAST) Ernest Oppenheimer Memorial Trust Cultural Service of the French Embassy in South Africa, French Ministry for Education and Science OMLL/ESF Program, Human Sciences Research Council Nedcor Foundation and Palaeo-Anthropology Unit for Research and Exploration
Research Interests: Geology()
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We describe the scale pattern and cross-sectional morphology of the hairs of seven southern African artiodactyls: Aepyceros melampus (impala), Connochaetes taurinus (blue wildebeest), Connochaetes gnou (black wildebeest), Taurotragus oryx... more
We describe the scale pattern and cross-sectional morphology of the hairs of seven southern African artiodactyls: Aepyceros melampus (impala), Connochaetes taurinus (blue wildebeest), Connochaetes gnou (black wildebeest), Taurotragus oryx (eland), Raphicerus campestris (steenbok), Tragelaphus strepsiceros (kudu) and Phacochoerus aethiopicus (warthog). Samples were taken from the back of pelts curated at the Ditsong National Museum of Natural History in Pretoria, South Africa. Prior to examination, the average length of the hairs was measured. The hairs were mounted on stubs, sputter-coated with gold and examined using scanning electron microscopy. Analysis of the hair samples revealed fine details of species-specific scale and cross-sectional morphology. However, in one case the cross-sectional shape was not found to be the same as that previously reported for black wildebeest, and in another, the scale pattern of kudu was different from that described elsewhere. Scale pattern and c...
Bone tools from early hominin sites in southern Africa continue to intrigue researchers interested in the development of early human technology and cognition. Sterkfontein, Swartkrans and Drimolen have all yielded bone tools dated to... more
Bone tools from early hominin sites in southern Africa continue to intrigue researchers interested in the development of early human technology and cognition. Sterkfontein, Swartkrans and Drimolen have all yielded bone tools dated to between 1 and 2Mya associated with numerous Paranthropus robustus and few early Homo remains. The bone tools are described by different authors as implements used to
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Until now, the oldest known human hair was from a 9000-year-old South American mummy. Here we report fossil hairs of probable human origin that exceed that age by about 200,000 years. The hairs have been discovered in a brown hyaena... more
Until now, the oldest known human hair was from a 9000-year-old South American mummy. Here we report fossil hairs of probable human origin that exceed that age by about 200,000 years. The hairs have been discovered in a brown hyaena (Parahyaena brunnea) coprolite from Gladysvale cave in South Africa. The coprolite is part of a hyaena latrine preserved in calcified
Research Interests: Archaeology, Geochemistry, Anthropology, Biological Anthropology, Archaeological Science, and 15 moreCoprolite analysis, Archaeological Chemistry, Archaeological Hair, Forensic Taphonomy, Human Osteology, South Africa, Human Taphonomy, Journal of Archaeological Science, Archaeological Sciences, Human Hair, Gladysvale Cave, Fossil Coprolite, Carnivore coprolites Quaternary Parasite eggs, Coprolites, and Coprolite(Coprolite analysis, Archaeological Chemistry, Archaeological Hair, Forensic Taphonomy, Human Osteology, South Africa, Human Taphonomy, Journal of Archaeological Science, Archaeological Sciences, Human Hair, Gladysvale Cave, Fossil Coprolite, Carnivore coprolites Quaternary Parasite eggs, Coprolites, and Coprolite)
(Coprolite analysis, Archaeological Chemistry, Archaeological Hair, Forensic Taphonomy, Human Osteology, South Africa, Human Taphonomy, Journal of Archaeological Science, Archaeological Sciences, Human Hair, Gladysvale Cave, Fossil Coprolite, Carnivore coprolites Quaternary Parasite eggs, Coprolites, and Coprolite)
Plant carbohydrates were undoubtedly consumed in antiquity, yet starchy geophytes were seldom preserved archaeologically. We report evidence for geophyte exploitation by early humans from at least 170,000 years ago. Charred rhizomes from... more
Plant carbohydrates were undoubtedly consumed in antiquity, yet starchy geophytes were seldom preserved archaeologically. We report evidence for geophyte exploitation by early humans from at least 170,000 years ago. Charred rhizomes from Border Cave, South Africa, were identified to the genus Hypoxis L. by comparing the morphology and anatomy of ancient and modern rhizomes. Hypoxis angustifolia Lam., the likely taxon, proliferates in relatively well-watered areas of sub-Saharan Africa and in Yemen, Arabia. In those areas and possibly farther north during moist periods, Hypoxis rhizomes would have provided reliable and familiar carbohydrate sources for mobile groups.
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Wonderkrater, a Middle Stone Age site in the interior of South Africa, is a spring and peat mound featuring both paleoclimatic and archaeological records. The site preserves three small MSA lithic assemblages with age estimates of 30 ka,... more
Wonderkrater, a Middle Stone Age site in the interior of South Africa, is a spring and peat mound featuring both paleoclimatic and archaeological records. The site preserves three small MSA lithic assemblages with age estimates of 30 ka, >45 ka and 138.01±7.7 ka. Here we present results of the pollen analysis of a core retrieved from the middle of the peat mound, which covers, with hiatuses, the timespan between ca. 70±10 ka and 30 ka. Pollen percentages of terrestrial, local aquatic, and semi-aquatic plants reveal changes in the regional climate and in the water table of the spring. Results identify regional wet conditions at ca. 70±10 ka, followed by a dry and a wet period between 60 ka and 30 ka. Superimposed on these three phases, recurring changes in the size and depth of the water table are observed between…