Lithium Batteries

This paper presents the "state of the art" of the solar UAV (Unmanned Air Vehicle). Using conventional fuel is a pollutant, have a limited life and costly. So there is a huge demand for using an unlimited non-exhaustible source of energy as a fuel. As solar energy is one of the available renewable energy, it can be used to increase the endurance of UAV. It talks about of the application of Solar UAV, of the key technologies involved in the design and manufacture. The main challenge in a solar air-vehicle design is balancing between the available energy and operational requirements. Since these two represent complex functions of the design variables the design process is based on a Multidisciplinary Optimization Design (MDO) approach.           
There are various types of electric motors, solar cells, batteries, hybrid operating systems, which will be discussed.
An important attention is given to HeliPlat, the solar UAV designed by the Department of Aerospace Engineering of  “Politecnico di Torino”.

"New Zealand-based Pacific Lithium Limited (PLL) was established in 1994 to develop a world-competitive business based on the extraction of lithium from seawater, using a new adsorption technology developed by chemical engineer John Bloom (Sun, Mellalieu & Willis, 1999). Through the fundraising efforts of entrepreneur Robin Johannink, the company subsequently raised NZ $10 million from shareholders, including a 12% stake in the company from Vertex Asia (a technology subsidiary of the Singapore government) and a further 8.6% from a key customer: Japanese trading company Nisho Iwai. By late 1995, the company had started building a processing plant at Whakerewa, near the Thames Estuary, but later suspended construction of the facility as its seawater lithium adsorption technology had not achieved optimum economic levels of lithium recovery. Since the company’s foundation, several new companies had entered the world lithium supply market (Sun & Mellalieu, 1999).

Note:
This is the THIRD installment in a series of cases. For a Case Resource library providing Part A, Part B and other resources, see:
Mellalieu, P. (n.d.). Pacific Lithium Ltd - Case resource library. Retrieved January 24, 2014, from https://www.academia.edu/1513410/Pacific_Lithium_Ltd_-_Case_resource_library

Citation:
Mellalieu, P. J., & Sun, J. G. (2000). Pacific Lithium (C): Flight of the Phoenix. In Proceedings of the Annual Educators Conference of the New Zealand Strategic Management Society (Vol. 1). Canterbury University, Christchurch: New Zealand Strategic Management Society. Retrieved from https://www.academia.edu/1510450

Early demonstrations of wearable devices have driven interest in flexible lithium-ion batteries. Previous demonstrations of flexible lithium-ion batteries trade off between low areal capacity, poor mechanical flexibility and/or high thickness of inactive components. Here, a reinforced electrode design is used to support the active layers of the battery and a freestanding carbon nanotube (CNT) layer is used as the current collector. The supported architecture helps to increase the areal capacity (mAh cm-2) of the battery and improve the tensile strength and mechanical flexibility of the electrodes. Batteries based on lithium cobalt oxide and lithium titanate oxide shows excellent electrochemical and mechanical performance. The battery has an areal capacity of ≈1 mAh cm-2 and a capacity retention of around 94% after cycling the battery for 450 cycles at a C/2 rate. The reinforced electrode has a tensile strength of ≈5.5–7.0 MPa and shows excellent capacity retention after repeatedly flexing to a bending radius ranging from 45 to 10 mm. The relationships between mechanical flexing, electrochemical performance, and mechanical integrity of the battery are studied using electrochemical cycling, electron microscopy, and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS).

This project explores the merits of fast charging in a transformer-less converter design. The power supply is designed specifically for use with the Mavic Air Drone batteries however can be easily modified for other small lithium ion batteries. Large inductance requirements make this converter design less practical than those with transformers however the benefits of high current fast-charging are verified.

A battery is a device consisting of one or more electrochemical cells with external connections for powering electrical devices such as flashlights, mobile phones, and electric cars. Batteries come in many shapes and sizes, from miniature cells to huge battery banks. During the last few decades, environmental impact of the petroleum-based transportation infrastructure, along with the fear of peak oil, has led to renewed interest in an electric transportation infrastructure. The carbon footprint and other emissions of electric vehicles varies depending on the fuel and technology used for electricity generation. The electricity may be stored on board the vehicle using a battery, flywheel, or super capacitors. Hence the development of different type of battery power EV started. Aluminium-air batteries (Al-air batteries) produce electricity from the reaction of oxygen in the air with aluminium. They have one of the highest energy densities of all batteries. However, an electric vehicle with aluminium batteries has the potential for up to eight times the range of a lithium-ion battery with a significantly lower total weight. This is ecofriendly in nature with greater availability. With low cost we can generate more electricity. Keywords: Zn, Li Batteries, Aluminum Air battery, d-electron bonding I. INTRODUCTION When a battery is connected to an external electric load, a redox reaction converts high-energy reactants to lower-energy products, and the free-energy difference is delivered to the external circuit as electrical energy [1],[2] [3]. Batteries come in many shapes and sizes. Batteries convert chemical energy directly to electrical energy. In many cases, the electrical energy released is the difference in the cohesive or bond energies of the metals, oxides, or molecules undergoing the electrochemical reaction. For instance, energy can be stored in Zn or Li, which are high-energy metals because they are not stabilized by d-electron bonding, unlike transition metals [4]. Batteries are designed such that the energetically favourable redox reaction can occur only if electrons move through the external part of the circuit. A battery consists of some number of voltaic cells. Each cell consists of two half-cells connected in series by a conductive electrolyte containing metal cations. One half-cell includes electrolyte and the negative electrode, the electrode to which anions (negatively charged ions) migrate; the other half-cell includes electrolyte and the positive electrode, to which cations (positively charged ions) migrate. Cations are reduced (electrons are added) at the cathode, while metal atoms are oxidized (electrons are removed) at the anode. Some cells use different electrolytes for each half-cell; then a separator is used to prevent mixing of the electrolytes while allowing ions to flow between half-cells to complete the electrical circuit [5], [6]. Each half-cell has an electromotive force (emf, measured in volts) relative to a standard. The net emf of the cell is the difference between the emfs of its half-cells. Thus, if the electrodes have emfs E 1 and E 2 , then the net emf is E 1-E 2 in other words, the net emf is the difference between the reduction potentials of the half-reactions. The electrical driving force or ΔV bat across the terminals of a cell is known as the terminal voltage (difference) and is measured in volts. The terminal voltage of a cell that is neither charging nor discharging is called the open-circuit voltage and equals the emf of the cell. Because of internal resistance, the terminal voltage of a cell that is discharging is smaller in magnitude than the open-circuit voltage and the terminal voltage of a cell that is charging exceeds the open-circuit voltage. An ideal cell has negligible internal resistance, so it would maintain a constant terminal voltage of E until exhausted, then dropping to zero.

Button batteries can be lethal if ingested and not promptly excreted or removed. These batteries are present in a multitude of household items including car remotes, IT devices, and many consumer items targeted at children. There are various technologies available for button batteries and they are produced in various sizes. Lithium button batteries with a diameter of 20mm or more pose the greatest risk. Most at risk are children of 0-5 years. At this age, there is a propensity to put foreign objects in the mouth. These batteries once swallowed, rather than passing through the alimentary canal and being excreted, may lodge in the oesophagus where they will burn through tissue, sometimes trough to the trachea, sometimes through to the aorta. This will be fatal for the child if the problem is not promptly identified and the battery then promptly extracted. Death will follow within several weeks of ingestion, following episodes of ill health, if the problem is not recognised. The presenting symptoms of ill health by the child can be misdiagnosed as food poisoning, a virus, an infection, or some common malady. Three child deaths in Australia from ingested button batteries (all 20mm lithium) are reported in the present paper. In each case, after prior misdiagnoses, the ingested battery was detected by X-ray, and, in each case, too late for successful intervention. Ingested button batteries can be detected by X-ray or ultrasound, but they may be indistinguishable from an ingested coin, which present less risk and are not actively corrosive. A new safety standard in Australia seeks to reduce the access of children to button batteries. The standard accepts the design status quo of button batteries, and seeks to avoid their misuse, in particular to stop them being ingested by young children. This is a safety-by-regulation approach. The alternative is a safety-by-design approach where the onus is on product designers to engineer safety into and danger out of the product. The twin problems of lithium button batteries are, firstly, their size where they are small enough to be easily swallowed by children but large enough to lodge in the oesophagus (where they are ≥20mm in diameter), and secondly, their bio-reactivity with flesh, which is partly a matter of chemistry but also partly a matter of the surface areas of the electrodes (which are extensive surfaces rather than point electrodes).

Traditional printing methods offer the advantage of well-matured technology, high accuracy of depositing inks over flexible substrates at high web speeds, and low cost of fabrication. The components of a battery—the current collectors, active layers, and separator—can all be deposited using convention- al printing techniques by designing suitable inks. A combination of low thickness of printed electrodes, flexible packaging, battery architecture, and material properties makes printed batteries flexible. In this paper, we will discuss mate- rial challenges and mechanical limits of flexible printed batteries. We will review several printing techniques and present examples of batteries printed using these methods. In addition, we will briefly discuss other novel non-printed compliant batteries that have unique mechanical form.

Developing a lithium mining project is a complex challenge which requires a careful planning, involving a multidisciplinary team. Each stage needs to be considered in planning, including resource exploration, production process design, basic and detailed engineering, financing, over to construction, commissioning, personnel training and process performance verification.

En base a la experiencia y conocimiento generado en el proyecto de industrialización de los recursos evaporíticos (litio) de Bolivia, el trabajo analiza diferente alternativas para la industrialización del litio a escala regional. Combinando metodologías cualitativas y cuantitativas el autor demuestra la viabilidad de un enfoque estratégico para la industrialización de un recurso natural, esencial para la futura matriz energética global, capaz de dar respuesta a problemas tales como la soberanía energética, la integración regional o el desarrollo de capacidades endógenas en ciencia y tecnología.

The redox couples M/M+ of the Group I alkali metals Lithium, Sodium, Potassium, Rubidium and Caesium have been extensively investigated in a room temperature ionic liquid (IL) and compared for the first time. Cyclic voltammetric experiments in the IL N-butyl-N-methylpyrrolidinium bis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide ([C4mpyrr][NTf2]) and subsequent simulation of the data has allowed the determination of the formal potential (Ef0 vs. ferrocene/ferrocenium), standard electrochemical rate constant (k0) and transfer coefficient (α) for each couple in the group. The trend in Ef0 in [C4mpyrr][NTf2] is remarkably similar to the established trend in the common battery electrolyte, propylene carbonate.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cplett.2010.04.063

The on-board energy storage system plays a key role in electric vehicles since it directly affects their performance and autonomy. The lithium-ion battery offers satisfactory characteristics that make electric vehicles competitive with conventional ones. This article focuses on modeling and estimating the parameters of the lithium-ion battery cell when used in different electric vehicle drive cycles and styles. The model consists of an equivalent electrical circuit based on a second-order Thevenin model. To identify the parameters of the model, two algorithms were tested: Trust-Region-Reflective and Levenberg-Marquardt. To account for the dynamic behavior of the battery cell in an electric vehicle, this identification is based on measurement data that represents the actual use of the battery in different conditions and driving styles. Finally, the model is validated by comparing simulation results to measurements using the mean square error (MSE) as model performance criteria for the driving cycles (UDDS, LA-92, US06, neural network (NN), and HWFET). The results demonstrate interesting performance mostly for the driving cycles (UDDS and LA-92). This confirms that the model developed is the best solution to be integrated in a battery management system of an electric vehicle.

""Pacific Lithium Limited is a recently-established company that has recruited some of the best of the world’s technologists to commercialize leading-edge lithium battery technologies for the mobile electronics and electric vehicle industries.

How do an entrepreneur and an inventor with a bright idea to extract lithium from seawater tackle the two giant lithium mineral processing companies to take the US $10 billion per year lithium battery industry?

The world market for high performance batteries has been estimated as growing at a rate of 25% per year and is likely to reach a world demand of US $10 billion by the year 2002. With the growth in demand for portable powered equipment, and the imminent introduction of electric cars in the early decades of the next century, lithium-based products appear to have a promising future as an energy storage medium. New Zealand-based Pacific Lithium Limited – PLL - is emerging as a world class competitive player in this ‘energetic’ market.

PLL was established in 1994 to develop a world-competitive business based on the extraction of lithium from seawater, using a new adsorption technology developed by chemical engineer John Bloom. By late 1999, through the fundraising efforts of entrepreneur Robin Johannink, the company had raised $US 25 million from 600 shareholders, including a substantial stake from Vertex Asia (a technology subsidiary of the Singapore government) and a further stake from a key customer: Japanese trading company Nissho Iwai.

The case continues with a description of some of the properties of lithium and its products. Next, we present the historical sequence of events covering the establishment of Pacific Lithium, and the industry and market conditions prevailing at several points in the journey.

Case resource library for the story of Pacific Lithium:
The case can be used for teaching purposes in several ways. Students can be asked to update the case to the current day. Alternatively, the full case can be presented to students as a sequence of parts, A, B and C, presented in the Case Resource Library.

Mellalieu, P. J. (n.d.). Pacific Lithium Ltd - Case resource library. Retrieved July 1, 2009, from https://www.academia.edu/1513410/Pacific_Lithium_Ltd_-_Case_resource_library

Citation:
Mellalieu, P. J., Sun, J. G., & Willis, A. (2000). Pacific Lithium: Stored Energy for the Mobile Society - Case study. New Zealand Strategic Management, 4 (Winter)(3), 51–64. Retrieved from https://www.academia.edu/1512250/Pacific_Lithium_Stored_Energy_for_the_Mobile_Society_-_Case_study

The problem considered in this paper is the analysis of a battery State-of-Charge estimation algorithm: in particular the mix estimation algorithm. This algorithm provides the estimation mixing two estimation approaches: namely the Coulomb-Counting and the Model-Based. The mix algorithm is qualitatively able to provide a more robust and accurate estimation with respect to the estimation provided by the approaches the algorithm mixes together.
The aim of this paper is to analyze the differences between the three algorithms and the advantages produced by the mixing procedure. In particular the paper presents the comparison of the mix algorithm behavior with the Coulomb-Counting and the Model-Based behaviors in case of measure errors.

This is a conceived hypothesis regarding the origin of the large interfacial resistance found in solid-state electrolytes, e.g. for all-solid-state batteries. An explanation is given based on the same physical phenomenon which makes the echo of sound or a ray of light to be reflected when passing from one medium to another one. This wave reflection is associated with the impedance mismatch of the electromagnetic wave through both media. Then, the known interfacial resistance between two solid electrolytes, or even solid-liquid ones, would be related to the corresponding reflection coefficient.

Graphene nano-sheets such as graphene oxide, chemically converted graphene and pristine graphene improve
the capacity utilization of the positive active material of the lead acid battery. At 0.2C, graphene oxide in
positive active material produces the best capacity (41% increase over the control), and improves the high-rate
performance due to higher reactivity at the graphene/active material interface. The in-situ changes in the
graphene structure and oxygen states support these, as well as higher adsorptive surface area, better graphene/
lead dioxide interfacial reaction, and finer & highly utilized lead dioxide phases. The multi-scale physio-chemical
mechanisms improving capacity and cycle life is thus: Electrolyte/ionic permeation improvements results from
increase in pre-formation porosity, and higher interfacial reactivity at gel zone which enhances active material
reversibility. Our ion transfer model reveals the optimized redox reaction in the electro-active zone of graphene
enhanced active materials. This work shows the best enhancement in the capacity of lead-acid battery positive
electrode till date.

Lithium-ion solvate ionic liquids (SILs), consisting of complexed Li + cations and a weakly basic anion, represent an emergent class of nonvolatile liquid electrolytes suitable for lithium-based electrochemical energy storage. In this report, solid-state, flexible solvate ionogel electrolytes are synthesized via UV-initiated free radical polymerization/cross-linking of poly-(ethylene glycol) diacrylate (PEGDA) in situ within the [Li(G4)][TFSI] electrolyte, which is formed by an equimolar mixture of lithium bis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide (LiTFSI) and tetraglyme (G4). Ion diffusivity measurements reveal enhanced Li + diffusion in PEGDA-supported solvate ionogels, as compared to poly(methyl methacrylate)-supported gels that lack ethylene oxide chains. At 21 vol% PEGDA, a maximum Li + transport number of 0.58 and a room temperature ionic conductivity of 0.43 mS/cm have been achieved in a solvate ionogel electrolyte that exhibits an elastic modulus of 0.47 MPa. These results demonstrate the importance of polymer scaffold selection on solvate ionogel electrolyte performance for advanced lithium-based batteries. ■ INTRODUCTION Ionic liquids (ILs), or room temperature molten salts, are composed entirely of ions and demonstrate unique properties with great potential as electrolytes for electrochemical energy applications, including supercapacitors, fuel cells, dye-sensitized solar cells, and lithium-ion batteries. 1,2 ILs possess moderate room temperature ionic conductivity (∼1−10 mS/cm), high electrochemical stability (3−5 V), and negligible vapor pressure. 3,4 The first manifestations of Li +-containing IL electrolytes for lithium-ion battery prototypes were prepared via dissolution of a solid lithium salt (with a typical concentration of 1 M) into an IL, resulting in a substantial increase in solution viscosity at a relatively low concentration of lithium cations. 5 This increase in viscosity yields maximum room temperature ionic conductivities in the range of only ∼0.1 mS/cm, while also limiting the lithium-ion transport number (t Li +) to a value of 0.3 or lower due to the presence of at least three different ionic species in the electrolyte. 6 Recently, a new class of lithium-containing electrolytes has emerged within the IL research community, namely, solvate ionic liquids (SILs). 7−11 SILs offer some of the same advantages of traditional ILs, such as ultralow vapor pressure and non-flammability, and consist of a salt combined with a ligand that is strongly coordinated with either the cation or anion to form a complex ion. 8 An early example of a lithium-ion SIL was reported by Pappenfus et al. via an equimolar combination of lithium bis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide (LiTFSI) with the organic ligand tetra(ethylene glycol) dimethyl ether (tetra-glyme, G4) to form [Li(G4)][TFSI]. 9 SILs can exhibit room temperature ionic conductivities of at least 1 mS/cm, high electrochemical stability up to 4.5 V vs Li/Li + , 7,10,11 and, importantly, larger t Li + values (∼0.5), 11 making them strong candidates for lithium-based energy storage devices. While lithium-ion SILs show promise for developing safer batteries, these liquid electrolytes must still be contained to prevent leakage. Few investigations have been conducted to date on developing free-standing SIL gel composite (i.e., solvate ionogel) electrolytes. Kitazawa et al. fabricated a self-assembled physical gel network using an ABA-triblock copolymer consisting of polystyrene and poly(methyl methacrylate) blocks to form physical cross-links and ion conduction pathways, respectively, in [Li(G4)][TFSI]. 7 At 10 wt% copolymer loading, the solvate ionogel demonstrated a room temperature ionic conductivity of ∼0.4 mS/cm and a t Li + value of 0.52, although the mechanical stiffness was low (shear modulus ∼2 kPa). 7 Quasi-solid-state solvate ionogels have also been fabricated by blending fumed silica nanoparticles into [Li-(G4)][TFSI], as reported by Unemoto and co-workers. 12 A solvate ionogel containing 25 vol% SiO 2 nanoparticles exhibited a room temperature ionic conductivity of 0.15 mS/cm and a t Li + of 0.53. 12 Obtaining a high t Li + value is critical for the realization of a high power lithium-ion battery, where lithium ions are capable of carrying a greater fraction of current through the device. A recent study by Porcarelli et al. attempted to leverage

In this work, Cladophora glomerata, a harmful seaweed, is converted into an olive-shaped magnetic biochar by a slow pyrolysis process catalyzed by iron. The resultant magnetic biochar has a high surface area of 296.4 m2 g-1 with a carbon-rich structure that makes it suitable to be used as an electrode in Li-ion batteries. The catalytic pyrolysis process showed significant effect on steam reforming, ketonization and deoxygenation and/or denitrogenation reactions. The overall quality of the pyrolysis products increases: the gas contains a higher percentage of hydrogen (up to 22%), while the oil is enriched in furans (with a selectivity of about 14%). The electrochemistry behavior of magnetic biochar has been also evaluated, using galvanostatic charge–discharge, cyclic voltammetry (CV), and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) analyses. The electrochemical results indicated a higher initial specific discharge capacity (740 mAh g−1) and great cyclic stability for magnetic electrode as compared to the biochar electrode.

BATTERIES: BOTTLENECK FOR ELECTRIFICATION
• Hybridized/Electrified transportation system require an energy storage system on-board.
• To provide the maximum range with minimal weight and volume, Li-ion is preferred over other technologies.
• Li-ion technologies require advanced battery management systems (BMS) to operate safely at maximum performance.

BATTERY MULTI-TASKING
• Batteries provide different tasks during driving, recharging and with the possibility of vehicle-to-grid integration
• Aging cause to be factored when scheduling a specific task

GOALS OF THIS RESEARCH
• Quantify the accuracy variations in a Li-ion battery model
when considering higher and lower order ECM models.
• Time domain and frequency domain testing and modeling.
• Develop a simulation tool (REV-Cycle) including EV powertrain and battery model for daily pattern aging study.

En esta contribución, se realiza un análisis exhaustivo de la empresa mixta conformada por Yacimientos de Litio Bolivianos (YLB) y ACI Systems Alemania GmbH (ACISA) para la producción de hidróxido de litio a partir de salmueras residuales del Salar de Uyuni. El ensayo se divide en tres partes. En la primera, se muestran las perspectivas distintas de las socias en términos de visión y alcance de la asociación, así como las omisiones y distorsiones de información por parte de las mismas en relación con el Decreto Supremo No. 3738 de creación de la empresa pública YLB-ACISA promulgado el pasado 7 de diciembre de 2018.  Adicionalmente, se consideran aspectos relativos a las salmueras residuales emergentes de un proceso de producción anterior de carbonato de litio altamente ineficiente, junto con una serie de conflictos de intereses que empañan seriamente el proceso de selección de ACISA como socia de YLB en el  nuevo emprendimiento. En la segunda, además de encontrar que YLB no podrá asumir ninguna decisión favorable a los intereses particulares de Bolivia sin contar con el apoyo de su “socia alemana” se examina las ocho razones por las cuales es posible argumentar que la empresa mixta YLB-ACISA es “entreguista” y atentatoria a los intereses nacionales. Finalmente, en la tercera, se demuestra la ilegalidad del DS 3738 por cuanto vulneraría el principio de participación 100% estatal de YLB en las dos primeras fases de la estrategia de industrialización del litio del gobierno, establecido en las Leyes de Minería y Metalurgia y de Creación de YLB, así como el Artículo 224 de la primera ley citada anteriormente bajo el argumento falaz de que el hidróxido de litio producido a partir de salmuera residual es un producto industrializado.

The mechanism of enhancing the capacity of the LiFePO 4 cathodes in lithium ion batteries by the addition of a small amount of vanadium, which locate on the lithium site and induce lithium vacancies in the crystal structure, is reported in this article. As a result, the capacity increases from 138 mAh/g found for pristine LiFePO 4 to 155 mAh/g for the V-added compound, and the conductivity increases from 4.75 × 10 −4 S/cm for the LiFePO 4 without V addition to 1.9 × 10 −2 S/cm for the V-added compound. A possible model to facilitate the enhancement of conductivity and capacity is described with evidence supported by X-ray powder diffraction, X-ray absorption spectroscopy, and neutron powder diffraction data.

This work investigates life cycle costing analysis as a tool to estimate the cost of hydrogen to be used as fuel for Hydrogen Fuel Cell vehicles (HFCVs). The method of life cycle costing and economic data are considered to estimate the cost of hydrogen for centralised and decentralised production processes. In the current study, two major hydrogen production methods are considered, methane reforming and water electrolysis. The costing frameworks are defined for hydrogen production, transportation and final application. The results show that hydrogen production via centralised methane reforming is financially viable for future transport applications. The ownership cost of HFCVs shows the highest cost among other costs of life cycle analysis.

The decarbonisation of the global economy-which is necessitated by the climate crisis-and the new wave of technological evolution featuring artificial intelligence (AI) and 5G networks, fuel the race to secure uninterrupted access to critical minerals. Traditional industrial actors (the US, the EU and Japan) are pitted against China and its global Belt and Road Initiative, that sets out to unite Eurasia and Africa and loop in South America into a seamless space of high connectivity (land, maritime, air, cyberspace) and trade. Understanding how the high geographic concentration of rare earths, lithium and cobalt often creates hotspots of contention especially in unstable parts of the world, offers instructive indications of how the race to decarbonise and digitalise the global economy will contribute to shaping geopolitics in the years to come.

Abstract

Smartphone technology development has led to a phenomenal increase in its use worldwide, triggering the development of efficient and safe lithium batteries to
support advanced smartphones. Lithium ion batteries have many advantages such as high energy density, long lifetime, small size, low weight, no memory effect,
and a slow loss of energy. Since new lithium batteries have been continually developed along with new smartphones, the batteries have high potentials to incur
environmental impacts associated with rare, precious, and toxic metals. Thus, this study evaluates and compares metal-derived environmental impact potentials
from smartphone lithium batteries taking into account battery model replacements, in order to figure out the environmental effect of battery technology development.
The concentrations of metals in the batteries were analyzed to determine whether the batteries would be classified as hazardous waste. Life cycle
impact assessment methods are used to evaluate resource depletion, human health toxicity, and eco-toxicity potentials from metals. The results showed that the
technological development of the batteries did not contribute to reducing hazardous waste potentials. However, it significantly decreased resource depletion and
toxicity potentials because the masses of metals were overall reduced over the battery model replacements. This study can be used to provide environmental
information for manufacturers to produce low-impact lithium batteries and for e-waste policy makers to effectively manage and recover hazardous and toxic
metals in waste batteries.

Key words: Lithium Battery, Resource Depletion, Smartphone, Toxicity Potentials

We report a polysiloxane based single-ion conducting polymer electrolyte (SIPE) synthesized via a hydrosilylation technique. Styrenesulfonyl(phenylsulfonyl)imide groups were grafted on highly flexible polysiloxane chains followed by lithiation. The highly delocalized anionic charges in the grafted moiety give rise to weak association with lithium ions in the polymer matrix, resulting in a lithium ion transference number close to unity (0.89) and remarkably high ionic conductivity (7.2 Â 10 À4 S cm À1) at room temperature. The high flexibility arising from polysiloxane enables the glass transition temperature (T g) to be below room temperature. The electrolyte membrane displays high thermal stability and a strong mechanical strength. A coin cell assembled with the membrane comprised of the electrolyte and poly(vinylidene-fluoride-co-hexafluoropropene) (PVDF-HFP) performs remarkably well over a wide range of temperatures with high charge–discharge rates.

The paper investigates the feasibility of employing a battery thermal management system (BTMS) in different applications based on a techno economic analysis considering the battery lifetime and application profile, i.e. current requirement. The preliminary objective is to set the decision criteria of employing a BTMS and if the outcome of the decision is positive, to determine the type of the employed BTMS. However, employing a BTMS needs to meet a number of application requirements and different BTMS associates a different amount of capital cost to ensure the battery performance over its lifetime. Hence, the objective of this paper is to develop and detail the method of the feasibility for commissioning BTMS called “The decision tool frame-work” (DTF) and to investigate its sensitivity to major factors (e.g. lifetime and application requirement) which are well-known to influence the battery pack thermal performance, battery pack performance and ultimately the performance as well as utility of the desired application. This DTF is designed to provide a common frame-work of a BTMS manufacturer and designer to evaluate the options of different BTMS applicable for different applications and operating conditions. The results provide insight into the feasibility and the required specifi-cation and configuration of a BTMS.

With the increased use of intermittent renewable power generation, including wind and solar power, the need for energy storage is increasing. Repurposed hybrid electric vehicle lithium ion batteries have been shown to have energy storage potential at a modest capital cost. In this paper, the authors use a two stage MatLAB simulation to create and optimise, a net zero grid-connected facility. The yearly electricity price is calculated under various scenarios using two different pricing structures, fixed feed-in tariff and market pricing. The facility under consideration is a commercial distribution centre with refrigeration, onsite generation of hydrogen for fuel cell powered forklifts, solar and wind power generation, and re-purposed batteries for energy storage. Importantly, the feed-in tariff mechanism is shown to be a deterrent to implementing energy storage onsite, as well as to increasing the use of locally generated power. Although further savings are possible in the model, when energy storage is used, close to $50,000 in savings can be seen from electrolyser load shifting that requires no capital investment. The mechanism also negatively influences indirect electricity emissions, which is not consistent with environmental objectives.

sistemi di accumulo costituiscono il sistema più versatile presente sul mercato sia per l’accumulo
dell’energia prodotta da fonti alternative intermittenti come l’eolico e il fotovoltaico, sia per lo sviluppo
della mobilità elettrica. Ma quali sono le problematiche di sicurezza e di ciclo di vita dei sistemi di
accumulo? ENEA si è fatto promotore di un network tutto italiano per la prevenzione dei rischi, la
protezione e l’intervento di emergenza, che fronteggi la rapida espansione del mercato dei sistemi di
accumulo e degli apparecchi utilizzatori