Alison Pike

ABSTRACT Objective. Guided by Bronfenbrenner's ecological model, we examined relations between child characteristics and contextual factors and mothering and fathering in ethnic minority and majority samples within Great Britain. Design. 125 families (59 English and 66 of Indian origin) with 8½-year-old children participated. Parental warmth and use of harsh discipline were rated from home observations and semi-structured interviews. Mothers and fathers completed questionnaires regarding children's negative emotionality as well as reports of their marital satisfaction, job spillover, and a demographic questionnaire for the assessment of socioeconomic status (SES). Results. Children's negative emotionality was negatively linked to parental warmth and positively linked to parental use of harsh discipline. Mothers tend to be warmer to girls than to boys. At the contextual level, marital relationship quality is negatively associated with maternal and paternal use of discipline, and SES is positively linked to parental warmth. SES provides unique prediction of paternal warmth. Elevated levels of negative job spillover and lower levels of SES are linked to increased use of harsh discipline only for the English fathers, whereas paternal marital satisfaction is negatively related to paternal use of discipline only for the Indian fathers. Conclusion. Some correlates are similar, but parenting in middle childhood also varies for mothers and fathers as well as for parents from different cultural groups.

To briefly summarize behavioral genetic findings in relation to child and adolescent psychopathology, paying special attention to the environmental rather than genetic components of variation, and to describe recent research exploring specific nonshared environmental processes in the development of adolescent depression. Behavioral genetic studies of child and adolescent psychopathology were outlined, with special attention given to findings from the Nonshared Environment and Adolescent Development Project. This project was also used to explore maternal negativity as a "candidate" nonshared environmental influence for adolescent depression. These studies indicate that the environmental factors influencing developmental psychopathology are primarily of the nonshared variety (with the notable exception of juvenile delinquency). In addition, consistent results have not yet emerged from assessments of adolescent depression. Finally, maternal negativity was identified as a specific nonshared environmental factor related to adolescent depression. The environment as well as genetics is important to understanding childhood psychiatric disorders, and behavioral genetic designs provide the best evidence for this. Specifically, environments not shared by siblings are particularly salient. From a clinical standpoint, these considerations point to the importance of assessing the entire family rather than only the family member with the "problem."

In the accompanying paper we describe how MRK-409 unexpectedly produced sedation in man at relatively low levels of GABA(A) receptor occupancy (∼10%). Since it was not clear whether this sedation was mediated via the α2/α3 or α1 GABA(A) subtype(s), we characterized the properties of TPA023B, a high-affinity imidazotriazine which, like MRK-409, has partial agonist efficacy at the α2 and α3 subtype but is an antagonist at the α1 subtype, at which MRK-409 has weak partial agonism. TPA023B gave dose- and time-dependent occupancy of rat brain GABA(A) receptors as measured using an in vivo [(3)H]flumazenil binding assay, with 50% occupancy corresponding to a respective dose and plasma drug concentration of 0.09 mg/kg and 19 ng/mL, the latter of which was similar to that observed in mice (25 ng/mL) and comparable to values obtained in baboon and man using [(11)C]flumazenil PET (10 and 5.8 ng/mL, respectively). TPA023B was anxiolytic in rodent and primate (squirrel monkey) models of anxiety (elevated plus maze, fear-potentiated startle, conditioned suppression of drinking, conditioned emotional response) yet had no significant effects in rodent or primate assays of ataxia and/or myorelaxation (rotarod, chain-pulling, lever pressing), up to doses (10 mg/kg) corresponding to occupancy of greater than 99%. In man, TPA023B was well tolerated at a dose (1.5 mg) that produced occupancy of >50%, suggesting that the sedation previously seen with MRK-409 is due to the partial agonist efficacy of that compound at the α1 subtype, and highlighting the importance of antagonist efficacy at this particular GABA(A) receptor population for avoiding sedation in man.

The identification of specific nonshared environments responsible for the variance in behaviour problems is a key challenge. Nonshared environmental influences on teacher-reported behaviour problems were explored independently of genetics using the monozygotic (MZ) twin differences design. Six aspects of classroom environment were rated by a representative sample of 570 nine-year-old MZ twins in the UK in different classrooms and were related to their different teachers' reports of prosocial behaviour, hyperactivity, conduct problems, peer problems and emotional symptoms. Within-pair differences in perceptions of the classroom were significantly correlated with teacher-reported behaviour problems, indicating that children with less favourable perceptions of their classroom environment were reported by their teachers as less prosocial, more hyperactive, and to have more conduct and peer problems. Socioeconomic status did not significantly moderate any of these relationships. However, parent-reported household chaos was a significant moderator. The classroom environment is related to behaviour problems even when genetic factors are held constant. Classroom environment is more strongly associated with behaviour problems when the home environment is more chaotic.

Friendship and sibling relationships differ in that there is an element of choice in friendships, whilst the latter represent a fixed and given relationship. The present study set out to investigate the temperamental correlates of friendships and sibling relationships, as well as to examine their genetic and environmental components. Two hundred and twelve same-sex twin-pairs (102 MZ and 110 DZ; 104 male pairs and 108 female pairs) aged between 12 and 15, together with their parents, comprised the sample. The twins themselves reported on both negative and positive aspects of the two relationships, and all family members provided reports of the twins' temperament (mothers, fathers, and adolescent self-reports). Analyses revealed that negative aspects of both the sibling relationship and friendship were related to emotionality, while the positive aspects of these relationships were associated with sociability and activity. Genetic influences and the shared environment accounted for variance seen in the sibling relationship. In addition, nonshared environment accounted for a moderate amount of the sibling relationship variability and explained most of the variance for the friendship components. Finally, bivariate analyses of the covariance between temperament and close relationships highlighted the importance of nonshared environmental influences during adolescence. Three themes emerged. First, congruent temperamental expressions were seen across these two relationships' contexts. Second, friendship and the sibling relationship have distinct etiological profiles, indicating the child-specific character of adolescent friendships versus the reciprocal nature of the sibling relationship. Finally, the common influences to temperament and relationship quality provided evidence for the validity of adolescents' unique, nonshared experiences.

Extensive research has identified risk factors for problem behaviour in childhood. However, most of this research has focused on isolated variables, ignoring possible additive influences. The purpose of this study was to examine whether risk factors for problem behaviour act in a cumulative manner, and to investigate whether cumulative risk stemming from distinct ecological levels (Bronfenbrenner, 1979) differentially influences the manifestation of problem behaviours in middle childhood. In addition, ethnic differences between minority (i.e., Indian) and majority (i.e., English) families were examined. The sample consisted of 125 children (59 English and 66 of Indian origin) between the ages of 7 and 9.6 (M = 8.51, SD = 0.62) and their parents. Both mothers and fathers completed questionnaires regarding the children's problem behaviour and provided reports of the children's characteristics and environment. Children were also assessed and provided reports about themselves and their relationships. Finally, parent-child mutuality and parenting behaviour were coded from a videotaped parent-child interaction task. Risk factors acted in a cumulative manner - the more risk children experienced, the more problem behaviour they exhibited. Total problem behaviour was predicted by all three levels: individual, microsystem and exosystem. However, externalising problems were mainly predicted by microsystem-level cumulative risk, whereas internalising problems were predicted by both individual-level cumulative risk and exosystem-level cumulative risk. These results were similar for both ethnic groups. The support for the cumulative hypothesis highlights the importance of having a broad picture of children's characteristics and environmental components when analysing children's adjustment. The distinct influence of risk stemming from the different ecological levels suggests that the trajectories of internalising, externalising and total problem behaviour may be different.

Using a sibling design, this study examined the association between adolescents' friendship experiences and their aspirations for self-acceptance, affiliation, and financial success. We hypothesized that adolescent siblings would differ in their aspirations and that unique experiences in friendships would be associated with these differences. Within our sample of 102 same-sex sibling pairs (mean age older sibling 16 years, younger sibling 14 years), only a small degree of sibling similarity was found for aspirations as well as friendship experiences. Self-acceptance and affiliation were positively linked to general friendship positivity as well as to positive features of the adolescents' closest friend. Bivariate model-fitting techniques revealed that nonshared processes (i.e., unique to each child in the family) explained these links between friendship experiences and aspirations. The results indicate that growing up in one home and being socialized by the same parents does not make adolescent siblings similar in their aspirations but rather that nonshared experiences like those with close friends are related to aspiration dissimilarity of siblings.

... In contrast, parental styles characterized by hostility, rejection, and harsh discipline are linked to elevated levels of delinquency, psychopathology, academic failure, and adjustment problems (Baumrind, 1993; Maccoby & Martin, 1983). ...

This article addresses concerns raised by M. C. Neale (1999) in his commentary on the D. A. Bussell et al. (1999) Nonshared Environment in Adolescent Development (NEAD) study. These concerns fall into two categories: (a) model assumptions and sample design and (b) testing of alternative models. The validity of the assumptions of quantitative genetic models is a concern for all researchers in this area. Discussion of those assumptions in this reply is brief and focuses on those most relevant to the NEAD sample. The two alternative models proposed by Neale were designed to provide alternatives to the large shared environmental effect found in the original report of Bussell et al. Because these alternative models did not provide a better fit, the appropriateness of Bussell et al.'s basic model and the importance of shared environmental influences for explaining the association among family subsystems are supported.

The purpose of this study was to specify the relationship between positive and harsh parenting and maternal scaffolding behavior. A 2nd aim was to disentangle the effects of maternal education and parenting quality, and a 3rd aim was to test whether parenting quality mediated the association between maternal education and scaffolding practices. We examined associations between positive and harsh parenting practices and contingent and noncontingent tutoring strategies. Ninety-six mother-child dyads (49 boys, 47 girls) from working- and middle-class English families participated. Mothers reported on parenting quality at Time 1 when children were 5 years old and again approximately 5 years later at Time 2. Mother-child pairs were observed working together on a block design task at Time 2, and interactions were coded for contingent (contingent shifting) and noncontingent (fixed failure feedback) dimensions of maternal scaffolding behavior. Positive and harsh parenting accounted for variance in contingent behavior over and above maternal education, whereas only harsh parenting accounted for unique variance in noncontingent scaffolding practices. Our findings provide new evidence for a more differentiated model of the relation between general parenting quality and specific scaffolding behaviors.

Explaining how genetic factors contribute to associations between parenting and adolescent adjustment is an important next step in developmental research. This study examined the mediating effect of adolescent perceptions on these associations and the genetic and environmental influences underpinning the mediated relationship. Parent, adolescent, and observer ratings of parenting and adolescent adjustment were used in a genetically informative sample of 720 same-sex sibling pairs from 10 to 18 years old. Adolescent perceptions of parenting did significantly mediate a composite measure of parental conflict-negativity and adolescent antisocial behavior and depressive symptoms. The most substantial genetic contributions to the association between parenting and adolescent maladjustment were those mediated by adolescent perceptions. Once genetic and environmental contributions to adolescent perceptions of parenting were removed, shared environmental factors became more important for the remaining direct association.

... Foundation. Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Alison Pike, Social. ... 1995). The presence of genetic influence on measures of the family environment is consistent with the idea that socialization is bi-directional. ...

Research has consistently demonstrated that children's behavior toward their siblings tends to resemble interactions occurring in the parent-child relationship. This study examined the relative contributions of genetic and environmental influences to the covariation between sibling relationships and mother-adolescent relationships. Reported and observed family interactions were assessed for 719 same-sex sibling pairs of varying degrees of genetic relatedness. The covariance between mother-adolescent and sibling interactions was decomposed into genetic, shared, and nonshared environmental components. The overlapping effects of shared environment on the two relationship subsystems explained most of the covariance. Smaller but significant genetic and nonshared environmental effects were also found. The consistency of these findings with family processes, such as modeling, is discussed.

ABSTRACT The present study investigated the adjustment of Indian adolescents living in Britain as well as the links between parents' and adolescents' acculturation styles and the adolescents' problem behaviours. The sample consisted of 68 young adolescents (31 Indian and 37 English) between the ages of 10 and 13, and their mothers and fathers. Mothers, fathers and adolescents reported about their own acculturation style, and parents also reported on their adolescents' problem behaviour. Overall Indian adolescents exhibited more internalizing problems than did their English peers. Furthermore, within the Indian group, the more Westernized mothers were in their acculturation style, the higher the level of externalizing problem behaviour their adolescents exhibited. In addition, the more traditional adolescents were the more internalizing problems they displayed. Finally, Indian adolescents experienced more internalizing problems when their parents were more Western or less traditional than the adolescents themselves. These findings highlight the importance of examining not only parental acculturation style, but also the parent–child acculturation discrepancy as a risk factor for problem behaviour.