Agricultural Policy

As outlined in this chapter, agricultural development has a major ecological and environmental footprint. Nevertheless, agricultural development (together with other biologically based food-supplying industries) is needed to provide enough food for the world's growing level of human population. This chapter begins by discussing the general impacts of agriculture on the environment and the use of natural resources, then considers market failures as influences on the occurrence of agriculture's environmental impacts and its use of natural resources before examining economic factors that affect agricultural sustainability. Subsequently, the implications of agricultural policies for the state of the environment and for the availability of natural resources are outlined.

Goat farming is an important production sector not only for Greece, but also for other Mediterranean countries, as it contributes to the family economy in rural areas. Despite the importance of goat farming, this sector has experienced economic difficulties due to poor management and increased production costs. The aim of our research is to determine goat farm profitability by surveying goat farmers for revenues, variable costs, and fixed costs of their farms. With the use of Principal Component Analysis, all economic factors contributing to overall production costs are examined, as well as their specific impacts on cost formulation. According to our results, goat farms in Greece are not profitable and they cannot survive without government subsidies. Farm economics and agricultural policies could be leveraged to improve community and environmental outcomes in order for farms to be economically and financially sustainable.

A solução dos problemas na Amazônia não são independentes, mas conectada com outras partes do País e do mundo. A redução dos desmatamentos e queimadas na Amazônia depende do desenvolvimento de atividades agrícolas adequadas nas áreas já desmatadas e que tenham mercado, em vez do uso “sustentável” da floresta e de direitos difusos. Nesse sentido, uma política agrícola teria efeitos mais positivos do que uma política ambiental, que não pode ser efetuada de maneira isolada das demais regiões do País, sob risco de transferir contingentes populacionais de outras localidades. Há necessidade de elevar a produtividade das atividades agrícolas na Amazônia, reduzirem a pressão sobre os recursos naturais com risco de esgotamento, incentivar plantios racionais de recursos extrativos potenciais, substituir as importações de produtos tropicais (seringueira, dendê, cacau, etc.), melhorarem as relações de troca dos produtos amazônicos versus produtos importados da Zona Franca de Manaus, efetuar a r...

Agricultural policy has in the last 50 years taken much of the risk and the initiative away from Norwegian farm forest owners. Subsidies in agriculture have guaranteed an acceptable income and there has been neither need nor incentives for starting up new activities at the farms. This situation is now gradually changing. The income both from agriculture and forestry is decreasing and farm forest owners have either to move, to find job opportunities outside the farm or to start up new activity at the farm using the farm's resources. ...

The supply of spider plant (Cleome gynandra) as one of the African leafy vegetables in Kenya is low and this is attributed to poor fertilizer use and limited access by farmers to improved varieties. This study was carried out to evaluate the effect of different N forms on growth and yield of spider plant. Greenhouse and field experiments were conducted in 2011 and 2012 in Ruiru and Juja. Objectives were: to determine the plant growth and yield of spider plant cultivars under different nitrogen levels. 8 lines that were developed at the World Vegetable Centre, Arusha, were evaluated alongside the commercial variety (control). All experiments were undertaken for 2 seasons, where both variety and nitrogen factors were investigated under split plot design. Plants were harvested at 7-10-day intervals. Data was analyzed in SAS 9.1.3 software. Accessions were ranked from 1-9 in terms of performance. Results indicated that application of manure resulted in increased yield and other growth p...

That author of this study draws attention to a case of resistance against the communist regime, which occurred in a Czech rural district almost 60 years ago. The work deals with peasants’ protest rally in front of the District National Committee building in Dobruška. In December 1949, local private farmers decided to respond to official inspections of their homesteads (which forced them to deliver disproportionately large amounts of produce within the framework of the Czechoslovak Communist Party’s agricultural policies) by organising a protest march to the District National Committee. A Czechoslovak national flag was raised at the head of the procession and around 300 people took part in the event. The state security authorities responded with the mass detention of selected farmers, whom it then portrayed as a group of subversives. This resulted in the political trial of 18 farmers, whom communist propaganda disparagingly described as the “village rich” or “kulaks.” The case was heard before the Prague State Court in Hradec Kralove. Prison sentences ranging from 13 to 25 years were given to six people who were identified as organisers, while sentences of 1 to 9 years were meted out to the others. Fourteen people had all their property confiscated while five were subsequently forced out of their homes as part of a nationwide security clampdown known as Operation K (“kulaks”). The study describes what motivated the farmers to resist and gives an account of what went on behind the scenes during the investigation. It also outlines how the treasonous group was fabricated and provides details of the hardships suffered by those who were convicted as well as the difficulties subsequently experienced in their district. The paper draws on documents from both central and regional archives.

Tarım kooperatifleri Türkiye’deki tarımsal örgütlenme için uygun bir model midir? Yoksa tarımsal işletmelerinin çoğunluğunu küçük işletmelerin oluşturduğu ve işletmelerinin arazileri parçalı yapıdaki tarımsal yapımız, yeni bir örgütlenme modeline muhtaç mıdır?
“Çiftçi Tipi Anonim Ortaklıklar” (ÇAO), Türk tarımsal örgütlenme politikası olarak benimsenen kooperatifçilik anlayışına eleştiri olarak doğmuş bir modeldir. ÇAO, Türk tarımında yapısal bir sorun olan tarımsal işletmelerin küçük ve parçalı yapısına, kooperatiflerin bir çözüm olamayacağının altını çizerek, anonim ortaklıkların kurum ve ilkeleri aracılığıyla ve toprağın doğal varlık niteliğini ön planda tutarak ekolojik ve ekonomik anlayışla, çözüm olarak sunulmuştur.
Türkiye’deki tarımsal işletmelerin küçük ve parçalı yapısı nedeniyle Türk tarımında örgütlenecek unsurun bu sorunlu tarımsal işletmeler olmaması gerektiği, örgütlenecek unsurun tarım arazileri olması gerektiği savunulmuştur. Bu nedenle tarımsal örgütlenmemizin, tarımsal işletmeleri örgütleyerek onlara hizmet sunan kooperatifler yerine, tarım arazilerini örgütleyebilecek ve onları sermaye unsuru olarak görerek bir yönetim altında toplayabilecek anonim ortaklıklar esaslı olması gerektiği belirtilmiştir. Arazi sahiplerinin sosyal durumları nedeniyle, şirkete sermaye olarak arazilerin mülkiyetinin devredilmesi yerine, araziler üzerinde sermaye olarak şirket lehine intifa hakkı veya kiracılık hakkı tesis edilmesi önerilmiştir. Böylece arazi sahipleri, arazilerinin mülkiyetini kaybetmeden, arazilerini bir ortaklık altında bir araya getirerek optimal büyüklüğe sahip işletme oluşturabilecek ve bu ortaklığın pay sahibi olacaklardır. Tarım arazilerinin doğal varlık niteliği nedeniyle ortaklığın faaliyet konusu, “onarıcı tarım” olarak belirlenmiş ve arazilerin bir araya getirilmesiyle oluşan ekonomik faydaya ekolojik fayda da eklenmiştir. ÇAO’nun ülkemizde tarımsal örgütlenme politikası olarak benimsenebilmesi için tarım arazilerindeki iyileşmeye göre vergisel teşviklerle desteklenmesi düşünülmüş ve mevzuatta müstakil veya ek bir kanuni düzenleme yapılması önerilmiştir.

With rapidly changing dietary environment, dietary guidelines for Koreans were revised and relevant action guides were developed. First, the Dietary Guidelines Advisory Committee was established with experts and government officials from the fields of nutrition, preventive medicine, health promotion, agriculture, education and environment. The Committee set dietary goals for Koreans aiming for a better nutrition state of all after a thorough review and analysis of recent information related to nutritional status and/or problems of Korean population, changes in food production/supply, disease pattern, health policy and agricultural policy. Then, the revised dietary guidelines were proposed to accomplish these goals in addition to 6 different sets of dietary action guides to accommodate specific nutrition and health problems of respective age groups. Subsequently, these guidelines and guides were subjected to the focus group review, consumer perception surveys, and a public hearing fo...

A análise do protecionismo agrícola nos EUA é feita, no mainstream, a partir de uma perspectiva que privilegia as relações entre grupos de interesse e legisladores, assim como os ambientes institucionais nos quais a legislação agrícola é elaborada. Embora essas relações sejam da maior importância, a política agrícola deve ser examinada num contexto maior e mais complexo, posto que a atividade agrícola em si, no interior das fazendas é apenas uma pequena parte econômica dos sistemas agroalimentares responsáveis pela maior parte do suprimento de alimentos e fibras. Recorremos à noção de Complexo Agroindustrial (CAI) para examinar a fonte do poder político que mantém os programas de subsídios em funcionamento, mesmo diante de toda contestação estadunidense e estrangeira a eles. Concluímos que os subsídios conferem às fazendas a capacidade de continuar funcionando numa lógica que privilegia os negócios de diversos segmentos dos CAI, apesar de elas serem frequentemente deficitárias. Neste contexto, é improvável que as políticas de subsídio sejam resultado apenas do interesse de grupos de produtores agrícolas. O objetivo da tese não é refutar a análise pluralista – a dominante – da concessão de subsídios agrícolas. É oferecer um ângulo alternativo e complementar para a análise deste fenômeno. Nosso estudo sobre a economia política dos CAI demonstra que diversos interesses, incluindo os de Estado, compõem os consensos que ordenam o funcionamento da acumulação capitalista nos referidos Complexos. As fazendas produtoras de commodities subsidiadas são peças muito importantes para a dinamização de setores intimamente ligados à avançada agricultura estadunidense, dos quais destacamos quatro: fornecedores de insumos agrícolas (maquinário, químicos, sementes etc.); processadores (indústria alimentícia e de rações, mercadores); serviços financeiros (crédito, seguros); setor imobiliário (proprietários de terras). O Estado, por sua vez, é ator interessado neste modelo e não apenas uma arena onde grupos societais travam disputas políticas. Conclui-se que a resiliência dos subsídios agrícolas nos EUA decorre de uma fonte de poder político muito maior e mais difusa do que a que emana das cerca de 40% das fazendas americanas que recebem subsídios.

Özet: 1980 sonrası neo-liberal ekonomi politikalarına bağlı olarak uygulanan yapısal uyum programlarının aynı zamanda kırsal bölgelerde de kalkınma sağlayacağı düşünülmekte idi. Oysa genel olarak bakıldığında uygulanan tarım politikaları özellikle kırsal kesimde gerek tarım gerekse tarım dışı ekonomilerde istenilen başarıları sağlayamadığı gibi yoksullaşmayı da artırdığı gözlemlenmektedir. Yoksullaşma konusunda özellikle kır-kent arasındaki fark dikkate alındığında farkın kırsal kesimin aleyhine olacak şekilde açıldığını söylemek yanlış olmaz. Göreceli yoksulluk temel alındığında bu farkın daha çok açıldığı, resmi verilerde ve yapılan diğer araştırmalarda görülmektedir. Bu çalışmada temel olarak yapısal uyum programlarının ve tarım politikalarının kırsal kesimde yoksulluğu ne boyutta etkilediği tartışılacaktır. Anahtar Kelimeler: Kırsal yoksulluk, kırsal değişme, kırsal kalkınma, yapısal değişim programları, tarım politikaları. Abstract: It was thought that the carried out structural adjustment programmes, according to Neo-Liberal Policies after 1980's, would lead the development in rural regions. However, it could be seen that the carried out agricultural policies, especially in rural areas both in agrarian and non-agrarian economies, could not achieve the expected development, contrary they caused poverty. About the poverty between rural and urban areas it could be said that the gap increased against rural areas. Focusing on relative poverty the differences between rural and urban areas is emphasized in formal information and in finished studies related to such theme. This study targets to discuss the dimensions of the effect of structural adjustment programmes and agricultural policies on rural poverty.

1445. “Desafios do agronegócio brasileiro no contexto da economia global”, entrevista online ao Instituto Brasileiro de Direito do Agronegócio, organizado pelo Centro de Estudos de São Gotardo (MG), focando as temáticas da política agrícola, comercial e internacional, assim como as conexões entre agricultura e desenvolvimento; dia 21/03/2022; 19:30hs. Disponível em formato pdf na plataforma Academia.edu (https://www.academia.edu/74243623/4108_Desafios_do_Agronegocio_Brasileiro_em_um_contexto_de_Economia_Global_2022_); divulgado no blog Diplomatizzando (link: https://diplomatizzando.blogspot.com/2022/03/desafios-do-agronegocio-brasileiro-no.html). Relação de Originais n. 4108.

Farm subsidies have become increasingly maligned in agricultural policy debates, but the merits of subsidies are a distraction from deeper political, economic, and ecological problems in agriculture. Drawing on a history of the U.S. Farm Bill, this paper argues that a fixation on farm subsidies ignores why they came into being, and more generally glosses over the imperative for modern states to intervene into agricultural economies. Karl Polanyi's 'double movement' framework is used to situate the rise and fall of agricultural supply management within food regime theory. In the second, or surplus food regime, the U.S. government wielded excess commodities as geopolitical toolsdeven as domestic farm policy labored to contain overproduction, and thus support agrarian viability. In the subsequent corporate food regime, " free market " agriculture displaces and discredits supply management, even as massive government intervention into how food is grown and sold continues. Making space to remember historical price support programs, to situate their accomplishments and limitations, and to recognize residual supply-management mechanisms (such as farm cooperatives and agricultural marketing orders) is crucial for fostering agricultural viability in the US and beyond. Twentieth century supply management had flaws, but it cannot be wholly omitted. This paper highlights key motivations, elements, and contradictions of these policies and programs to begin the process of considering how supply management principles and strategies could be updated and enhanced for 21st century agriculture. Such a framework would need to pay more attention to diversity within domestic and international agricultures, and be more sensitive to the multi-scalar dimensions of food systems.

Egypt is the largest rice producer in the Middle East, with total production accounting for 1.25% of the world's rice production. Rice is considered as an important export crop and a source of hard currency earnings required to finance sustainable economic and social development. In 2016, rice exports value amounted to US$ 24.277 million. To achieve the research objective, rice production and economic indicators were estimated by applying simple regression analysis, as well as partial equilibrium model based on two scenarios; under governmental intervention and under nonintervention by the government in order to assess the economic impacts of interventions in pricing and production policies. The research used field data a multistage stratified sample collected from 256 rice farmers in Kafr El Sheikh governorate to identify farmers' opinions regarding agricultural policies applied to the crop and the different impacts thereof. the results showed that the rice production declined at a rate lower than the rate of decline in planted area, whic h can be attributed to the increase in yield. Also, domestic rice consumption increased at a high rate that reached 2.76% per annum despite the decline in production that reached 1.92% per annum, the nominal protection coefficient recorded an average of 0.6 for the study period 2001-2018, which means that the government has been imposing either direct or indirect taxes on domestic rice producers in favor of consumers, where farmgate price has been lower than the border price of rice. The problem that rice production is influenced by limiting rice planted area ranks first, with a relative importance amounting to 100%. Low productivity ranks second, with a relative importance amounting to 96.88%.

With a significant contribution of 16.8 percent towards the country’s GDP, agriculture is one of the most important sectors in the Bhutanese economy. The sector directly employs about 59.4 percent of the total population, accounts for 4.3 percent of total exports income and serves as a catalyst for the other sectors by providing raw materials.
The country with an open border policy and free trade agreement with India has made it increasingly dependent on agricultural imports from India. In 2012 alone Bhutan imported food items worth Nu. 4,936.59 million from India, which included rice, cooking oil, vegetables, meat, fish, butter, cheese, milk and other milk products.
Today, the country is gearing towards self-sufficiency in terms of agricultural produce, but has not been sufficient. The sector is faced with numerous challenges.
Recognizing the challenges that affect the agricultural sector, it is crucial for the government to further intervene. Such interventions can come in the form of linking rural producers to urban market and other institutions, increasing public investment in agricultural sector, making rural credit and micro finance easily accessible to the farmers and mitigating human wildlife conflicts. Encouraging the use of Information technology in agricultural marketing and further strengthen farmers cooperatives will go a long way in mitigation the challenges.

Bayelsa, Nigeria is an area with natural botanical beauty.  A resort can be developed to not only showcase the native plants of the area, but give the local people an opportunity to share their culture, foods, dances and music with international visitors. Social responsibility is easy to achieve if everyone benefits from the project. The resort can save areas for flora and fauna to live in their natural places as well as develop botanical gardens, community gardens and centers to share the culture of the local people.
When developing the resort, it is important to leave some natural areas untouched by development.  If there are mountains or wetland areas they should be left for visitors to view the wildlife and plants native to the area. A natural sanctuary is important for sustainability.
Community gardens can provide the restaurants and local people with many types of fruits, vegetables, herbs and flowers. These gardens can be located next to the restaurants but also next to guest rooms  so that visitors can pick fresh Papaya off of trees outside their door.