Excerpt from "The Wisdom of Our Ancestors"

THE WISDOM OF OUR ANCESTORS

Conservative Humanism and the Western Tradition

University of Notre Dame Press

Notre Dame, Indiana

CONTENTS

Foreword, by Daniel J. Mahoney ix

Preface xv

introduction Conservatism: The Quest for a Quiddity 1

chapter 1 Humanism: The Master Idea of Western Civilization 000

chapter 2 The Metaphysics of Conservatism 000

chapter 3 Establishment 000

chapter 4 Law 000

chapter 5 Humanistic Enterprise 000

chapter 6 The Conservative via media: Between Nationalism and the Dream of Cosmopolis 000

chapter 7 Liberty and History 000

chapter 8 Conservatism without Reprimitivism 000

Concluding Remarks 000

Notes 000

Index 000

A particularly discerning twentieth-century political philosopher, Leo Strauss, insisted that it is “better to understand the low in light of the high” rather than the other way around. That is the approach adopted by Graham James McAleer and Alexander S. Rosenthal-Pubul in this rich, learned, and invigorating book. Their aim is both high and serious: to establish the ennobling links between conservatism, Christian humanism, and classical wisdom at their wisest and most humane. In this laudable aim, in this welcome synthesis, they succeed admirably.

For a book on conservatism, McAleer and Rosenthal-Pubul are remarkably attentive to “what is going on”—to the debates that animate what is left of “the republic of letters” and public-spirited philosophy, theology, and political theory today. Theirs is a dialectical approach, first limned negatively by what they reject: not only a contemporary liberalism that reduces liberty to self-will and subjectivism but also a traditionalism that eschews the goods inherent in the liberal order. Nor do they reduce conservatism to classical liberalism, as many in the AngloAmerican world do. Theirs, moreover, is a modern conservatism, addressing the moral crisis coextensive with late modernity but without rejecting modernity tout court. As conservatives and Christian humanists, they value the truth inherent in the liberal affirmation of human equality and common humanity. But for them, the goods of the liberal polity, not to mention the goods of the soul, will never be defined or maintained by freedom without purpose and self-limitation. Liberalism, for all its virtues, cannot begin to adequately answer the question

of the nature of the human being, who is said to be free and equal. And in its decayed late-modern manifestations, progressive liberalism refuses to even ask the question. It is content—nay, it aggressively counters truth-seeking with negation and repudiation, rejecting “the perennial philosophy” and even the most minimal respect for “the wisdom of the ancestors.” The original liberal promise of liberty and equality has thus to a large degree culminated in nihilism and moral debasement. This is the dire situation in which we find ourselves and that the authors of this book seek to address.

Our authors thus present conservatism—high conservatism, the conservatism of the larger Western tradition—as a via media between the late modern rejection of ordered freedom, of the natural moral law, of respect for family, tradition, and religion, and a hyper-traditionalist or reactionary turn to “privileged particular attachments.” Too often, those who espouse the latter forget that, as our authors put it, the “the circle of sympathy ultimately extends universally” in the form of binding moral obligations that reach far beyond kinship and even the civic community. To be sure, the local—and the full array of particular—attachments have inherent dignity and must be defended against the levelling and homogenizing tendencies of doctrinaire egalitarianism. But salutary tradition is never an end-in-itself. It must respect the “moral consensus” of civilized human beings, a phrase taken from Aurel Kolnai, the Hungarianborn anti-totalitarian moral and political philosopher who is so admired by the authors of this book, and prudently navigate between the wisdom and dignity of the ancestral, of the tried and true, and the universal principles that ultimately ground common life. The cardinal virtues— courage, temperance, justice, and prudence (or practical wisdom)— belong to human beings as human beings, as does the humanizing quest, inherent in ordinary experience but pursued more systematically through philosophy, theology, and literature, for the simply true, good, and beautiful. High conservatism therefore refuses to succumb either to the exclusionary charm of the particular or to the tyrannizing allure of global cosmopolitanism. The latter, carried to its logical conclusion, leads to what Kant so suggestively called “soulless despotism” and that we today experience in manifold ways.

Following the lead of Roger Scruton, Pierre Manent, and older forms of Catholic thought, McAleer and Rosenthal-Pubul defend the

nation as a just and legitimate political form without conflating nationalism and conservatism. They are particularly ctitical of the neo-pagan Right with its preference for ethnonationalism and its disdain for properly civic attachments. For them, there is no “end of history” with an unproblematic liberalism as the final form of the human adventure. At the same time, they will not abide the “illiberal” repudiation of representative government or commercial society either—the authors generally side with Adam Smith and David Hume against those traditionalists and Leftists who identify commercial society with luxury, moral corruption, injustice, and human degradation.

Most generally, the West has largely lost sight of “what it stands for or what it stands against,” as McAleer and Rosenthal-Pubul state in their preface. The crucial nexus connecting territorial membership with rule of law and self-government, emphasized so well by the late, great English conservative political philosopher and man of letters Roger Scruton, is today under systematic assault. More deeply, we have largely lost an appreciation of our dependence on a natural order of things— and a beneficent Providence—above the human will. Our unfounded substitute faith in inexorable historical “progress” and in human perfectibility played a major role in the genesis of totalitarian violence and mendacity on a mass scale in the twentieth century. As a civilization, however, we did not learn the lessons that the totalitarian episode should have taught us. Today, our smug and unphilosophical social science, with its deterministic emphasis on “social” causation, has next to no place for the civic and moral agency of human persons. McAleer and RosenthalPubul are particularly good at articulating the intrinsic links between conservatism, Christian humanism, and the personalist affirmation of free will and a human soul that, while embodied, transcends material and social causation.

In its judicious mix of classical and Christian wisdom, humanism is, in the words of our authors, the “master idea of Western civilization.” Such humanism is utterly realistic about the reality of human imperfection and evil while simultaneously stressing human freedom, natural moral law, and conscience as both essential to human nature and informing human agency. In this connection, McAleer and RosenthalPubul write incisively about the crucial role that classical humane letters and education in self-mastery play in ordering and elevating the

human soul. Already in Xenophon’s Memorabilia, Socrates had pointed out that a human being cannot be free or wise if he or she is a slave to the passions. Judaism and Christianity taught the great truth that every human being is made in “the image and likeness of God,” a claim deepened by the very fact of the Incarnation, of God becoming flesh and blood. The great works of Greek and Latin wisdom—those of Plato, Aristotle, Seneca, Plutarch, and Cicero, among others—taught civilized human beings that dignity is also acquired or earned when we human beings live lives informed by moral and intellectual virtue. Classical Christianity would add that even free and virtuous human beings are “fallen” human beings, who must open themselves to the grace of God. Conversion, repentance, and forgiveness thus became invaluable treasures of the Western moral and spiritual patrimony. To jettison them is to jettison essential elements of our humanity. These themes luminously come together in what our authors call the “Benedict synthesis,” the unforced melding of the deepest Christian insights about the “logos” at the heart of the created order, a “purified” Hellenism in search of wisdom about human nature and the nature of the “Whole,” and modern liberty that refuses to bend to the positivistic and scientistic reduction of reason to narrow instrumental rationality. The late Pope Benedict XVI, the architect of this synthesis in its most satisfactory form, is thus one of the heroes of the book.

Avoiding angelism and reductive materialism, high conservatism has much to teach us about the meaning of what it means to be a human being worthy of civilized liberty. Authority should never be confused with authoritarianism, and liberty, equality, and human dignity must not lose sight of the nobility that allows human beings to achieve true “height” as well as “depth,” in the words of Kolnai.

Drawing on the Russian philosopher Nicholas Berdyaev (who was not exactly a conservative but who was profoundly anti-totalitarian), the authors of this work brilliantly uncover the Achilles’s heal of an exclusively modern humanism. As Berdyaev eloquently argued in The Meaning of History, if modern humanism initially exalts man, it ultimately debases him “by ceasing to regard him as a being of a higher and divine origin.” Limiltess human self-affirmation leads inexorably to “self-enslavement,” in Kolnai’s phrase from his seminal 1949 essay “Privilege and Liberty.” Divorced from the deeper insights of Christian

civilization, it leads, in Berdyaev’s words, to man’s “own perdition.” Liberalism proffers many legitimate aims and aspirations, including an enhanced concern for the weak and marginal (although this concern is presented in a more balanced and spiritually fulsome way in the Christian tradition). But liberalism fails miserably in providing “an adequate ontological ground for its humanism.” It needs the salutary correction provided by conservatism, in no small part to prevent what is best in liberalism from perishing from this earth.

In the last lecture he delivered at the Collège de France in 1978, the great French anti-totalitarian political thinker Raymond Aron suggested that, while every human being should be free to find his or her own path in life, none have the right to invent their own tablets of good and evil. Such were the near final words of a liberal open to the best conservative thought. This wise and valuable book explains exactly why that is the case.

PREFACE

It is a lack of confidence, more than anything else that kills a civilisation. We can destroy ourselves by cynicism and disillusion, just as effectively as by bombs.

It was about forty years ago that Sir Roger Scruton raised the question of “the meaning of conservatism.” It is a question we must ask again. What is the meaning of conservatism for us, now well into the twentyfirst century? The answers in our present circumstances are by no means self-evident. Our world is increasingly marked by the growing opposition between liberalism and nationalism. More and more conservatives are themselves dividing along the line separating these two camps.1 Is there, however, a specifically conservative political philosophy that is not reducible to either liberal cosmopolitanism or nationalistic tribalism? Let us first examine the contenders before returning to our main question.

Liberalism—the defense of the Enlightenment tradition—is a valorization of capitalism, libertarianism, cosmopolitanism, individualism, universal rights, and the idea of progress. After the brutal ideological struggles of the twentieth century, liberalism seemingly emerged from the Cold War as the sole victor and remaining political doctrine of global scope. The world order forged after the fall of the Iron Curtain in 1989 was built on the pillar of globalization, defined as “the free movement of goods, capital, and to a large degree labor (immigration)

across ever-more porous national borders.” Globalization was reinforced by the development of supranational institutions and federations, such as the European Union (EU) (Treaty of Maastricht, 1992) and the World Trade Organization (WTO) (1995). And, of course, the whole edifice of the liberal world order took place under the aegis of the liberal superpower, the United States. In its “unipolar moment,”2 the United States would shepherd the world toward a future based on liberalism, human rights, democracy, and free-market capitalism.3

This new world order was famously hailed by Francis Fukuyama as the “end of history”: the idea that liberalism had vindicated its claim to be “the end point of mankind’s ideological evolution”; that history would now move inexorably toward “the universalization of Western liberal democracy as the final form of human government.”4 In Fukayama’s conception, liberal commercialism has superseded all premodern iterations of the West, indeed, all forms of social variant, everywhere. We read Fukuyama as a liberal, therefore, and posit neoconservatism as a form of liberalism. For reasons we shall make clear in this book, we hold that progressivism is also a variant of liberal commercial civilization.5

Today, however, every aspect of this liberal world order has come into question. The U.S. “unipolar moment” and with it the post–Cold War paradigm of the liberal international order are giving way to an era of multipolarity,6 neonationalism,7 and great civilization rivalries.8 Part of this is the fruit of liberalism’s own success.9 China, by entering into the global market economy, achieved decades of unprecedented economic growth. The British accountancy firm PwC projects that by 2050, China will have an economy roughly equal to the United States and Europe combined, with India in second place.10 Attending this economic power is rising military muscle, with China’s navy projected by some to be qualitatively equal, but larger, than the U.S. Navy by the 2030s.11 Yet contrary to Fukuyama’s early prognostications, China’s economic liberalization (really a form of nationalistic mercantilism) has not led to political liberalization.12

To the rise of China, and other historic Asian civilizations, we may add the new assertiveness of Russia and political Islam.13 Throughout the world, in a process Samuel Huntington called indigenization, civilizations are rejecting Western models and returning to their own roots. We do not know what the future holds, but the outlines of a polycen-

tric, post-Western world are already coming into view.14 Added to this, we may consider the West’s own increasing doubts about serving as liberalism’s missionary to the world. Fukuyama’s optimism about liberal democracy’s capacity to be universalized was battered and bruised by the war in Kosovo, and utterly deflated when the West, led by the United States, was basically defeated in Iraq,15 and routed in Afghanistan,16 by a stubborn political Islam and strident ethnic tribalism. The Russo-Ukraine War of 2022 has widely been perceived as the coup de grâce for the end of history thesis.17

In the long arc of history, what we may be seeing is the end of an era that began more than five centuries ago with the voyages of Columbus. We mean the era marked by the dominance of Europe, and latterly by the United States. What is more than anything else shifting power from West to East is the rising economic weight of the historically great Asian civilizations, whose vast populations are now augmented by rising economic growth and technical prowess.

These geopolitical considerations, epochal though they are, pale in significance to the internal evidence of cultural decay and demoralization. The modern West is no longer conscious of its identity: it no longer knows what it stands for or what it stands against.18 The roots of this crisis have been a long time in coming; some of its contours, the sense of the loss of meaning, purpose, standards, and values in Western culture, were already sketched by nineteenth-century thinkers, such as Nietzsche and Dostoyevsky, and in the twentieth century by broadly conservative thinkers, such as Leo Strauss, Eric Voegelin, and José Ortega y Gasset. Without being exhaustive, some of the West’s conundrums include (1) globalization as a suspension of territorial membership that roots rule of law and democracy (Scruton); (2) liberty ridding humans of an acceptance of dependency, a root condition of our humanity (Cardinal Robert Sarah); (3) a “culture of death” and sexual libertinism (Pope John Paul II); (4) a belief in human goodness that so minimizes evil that the ever-present possibility of war is ignored (Carl Schmitt); (5) the glamour of bourgeois life stunting the human spirit (Friedrich Nietzsche); (6) perfectionist ideals denying the splitness ritualized in religion (Eric Voegelin); and (7) sophisticated analysis of social causation obscuring the recalcitrant reality of human persons (Max Scheler).

Contemporary times have only seen an accelerating sense of tension and disorientation. In our cultural crisis, the ordinary guardians of our civilizational inheritance, the intelligentsia, have, in the aggregate, done little to sustain or transmit civilizational confidence. On the contrary, as Scruton noted, many intellectuals have fully embraced a “culture of repudiation.”19 A poignant example was furnished by one student’s reaction to efforts to reintroduce a long-expunged20 Western Civilization requirement at Stanford: “A Western Civ Requirement would necessitate that our education be centered on upholding white supremacy, capitalism, and colonialism, and all other oppressive systems that flow from Western civilizations.”21 The polemic against the Western heritage as irremediably evil has not remained contained within the academic world. The 2020s have, to date, witnessed a wave of iconoclastic fury against the traditional heroes and symbols of Anglo-American and Western civilization. In scenes reminiscent of the Puritan, French, and Maoist revolutions, statues of, among others, Christopher Columbus, St. Juniper Serra, George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, Ulysses S. Grant, David Hume, and Sir Winston Churchill were toppled or vandalized. Churches and synagogues were likewise attacked, and war memorials were not spared he culture of repudiation had for a generation steadily worn down the inherited reverence for the Founding Fathers of the United States, Christianity, and Western civilization. Now it had seemingly metastasized into a “revolutionary moment”22 aiming to throw off the past and begin history anew from Year Zero. Here there was no calibrated judgment on defects within the Western patrimony, but a wholesale condemnation of it as fit only to be erased from human memory. Our cultural situation of disorder and decay has become searingly visible.

From the standpoint of the iconoclasts, the Western inheritance represents a burden of sin that its modern heirs must cast off or expiate lest they be implicated in the guilt of our ancestors.23 It is little wonder, then, that once ubiquitous Western Civilization survey courses have been vanishing from universities in the United States. In some ways, “post-Westernism” is more an internal crisis than an external threat. It is a crisis of confidence. What is there to be proud of? Plenty, actually. We aim to recall what Edmund Burke called “the wisdom of our ancestors.”

Our call to reclaim with reverence the spiritual and intellectual inheritance of the West comes in a time of transition in which the post–

Cold War order built around the premises of liberalism and globalization is challenged by the rise of a new nationalism. In this great contest between liberalism and nationalism, a central question is how conservatism is to be positioned between these forces. Russia was quicker to learn the lesson of Iraq than was the United States. Perhaps its historical alienation from the West allowed Russia to mobilize around a trend running counter to liberalism, that is, nationalism. Perhaps its own experiment with liberalism in the 1990s, which was experienced as a time of economic turmoil and political humiliation, triggered an antiliberal reaction. Whatever the cause,24 the nationalist backlash against globalized liberalism ultimately arrived in the heartlands of the West. Disaffection with the EU following the prolonged economic crisis starting in 2008 and the migrant crisis of 2015–16 was followed by the Brexit referendum in the UK, and the rise of nationalist parties across the Continent who differed on many points but shared a common skepticism toward the EU’s postnational vision and mass migration. Viktor Orban, Hungary’s prime minister, put the matter starkly by declaring that the era of “liberal babble” was now over.25 Meanwhile, the election of an avowed American nationalist26 in Donald Trump signaled to the world the country’s doubts about bearing the continued costs of maintaining the liberal world order. A renewed emphasis on sovereignty and borders in trade and immigration policy, combined with skepticism toward international institutions, were to characterize a new course of the United States. The roots of this nationalist resurgence are partially economic. The winners of globalization were largely those businesses that benefit from a globalized labor market and supply chains, but also middle-class consumers who benefit from a cheaper and greater variety of goods. Yet there were also losers of the globalization process in terms of the manufacturing working class in the developed countries who felt threats to jobs and wages from outsourcing and immigration. But equally or more so, the new nationalism was driven by cultural fears. Even in European nations where declining birth rates might argue for accepting high levels of immigration based on a purely economic logic, fears about the loss of national and cultural identity drove more and more Europeans to nationalist parties.

The new nationalism, though largely “populist” in temper, has not had a shortage of formidable intellectual defenders. Yoram Hazony’s widely acclaimed The Virtue of Nationalism makes the case for the

sovereign nation-state as the available alternative to some form of universalistic imperialism, including, as he sees it, the imperialism of modern liberalism. More radical thinkers, such as those on the French New Right (Nouvelle Droite), argue for “ethnopluralism,” that is, the right of each ethnos to maintain its own character and culture against the homogenizing, universalist claims of liberalism and globalized capitalism. These Nouvelle Droite thinkers oppose mass migration and valorize particularism, pluriversality, cultural relativism, the primacy of tribal identity or ethnos, rooted community, antiglobalization, economic protectionism, borders, and bounded communities. These two value orientations—liberal cosmopolitanism and nationalism27—are in fact emerging as the main contenders to shape events more generally in the twenty-first century.

In Russia, a similar trend of exalting ethnos and particularism is found in the writings of Aleksandr Dugin.28 Dugin is quick to point out that postmodernism has long been critical of liberal optimism and, at least since the Romantic movement going back to the German CounterEnlightenment of Herder and Fichte, there have been all manner of literary, artistic, and musical works celebrating regions and peoples throughout Europe’s hinterland.

Dugin is one of the most controversial thinkers of our time. Vilified as “the most dangerous philosopher in the world”29 and “Putin’s brain,”30 he has been sanctioned by the U.S. government, and his daughter was recently murdered in a possible assassination attempt against Dugin himself. Some may question why a thinker like Dugin, who is sometimes cursorily dismissed in the West as a crank, if not a neofascist, would occupy a place in our work as an important interlocutor worth debating. Indubitably controversial and provocative, Dugin’s place as the preeminent political philosopher in Russia supplies a part of the answer. Just as Putin presents Russia as a geopolitical alternative to the West (tensions with which have been recently exacerbated with the Russo-Ukrainian war), so Dugin’s Fourth Political Theory” presents itself as an ideological alternative to Western liberalism.31 Understanding the ideologies that motivate a great power rival has self-evident value. But there are deeper philosophical reasons related to our project. Dugin represents a continuation of Heidegger’s critique of humanism, and we present a defense of Western humanism, if rightly understood

on the basis of its classical and Christian foundations. The liberal universalism of Fukuyama and the antiliberal particularism of Dugin represent two extreme poles, between which our own work aims to navigate. We aim, in short, to reconcile universal moral values with particularist loyalties. Because Dugin is still less well known than other thinkers we discuss, an overview of some of his core tenets will be of value. In his antimodernism and in his work of trying to dismantle liberal universalism and progressivism, Dugin draws crucially upon the work of René Guénon (1886–1951), and on the philosophy of Heidegger, the German conservative revolutionaries (as Schmitt, Junger, Spengler, and others), and the traditions of geopolitics (Ratzel, Mackinder, Haushofer, and others). We will say more about Dugin’s ideas and sources in chapters 2 and 6.

Dugin may perhaps be approached as the continuation of an interrupted nineteenth-century Russian Slavophile tradition of philosophy that included Aleksey Khomyakov (1804–60) and Ivan Kireyevsky (1806–56). Whereas the Westernizers (Belinsky, Herzen) disparaged the Russian past and saw Russia’s future in the embrace of the European Enlightenment and continuing the “turn to the West” that began with Peter the Great, Slavophiles rejected this interpretation of Russian history and destiny. Instead, they saw Russia as a great civilization in its own right, and they attacked Europe’s Enlightenment for its one-sided rationalism and scientism, arguing instead for a Russian idea of “integral knowledge” (Kireyevsky), which includes mysticism, passion, and intuition. Slavophile themes find clear contemporary echoes in Dugin’s Eurasianism (insisting on Russia’s separate, non-Western civilizational course), his communitarianism (as against liberal individualism), and his romantic refusal to subordinate faith, mythos, and mysticism to scientific rationality. And much as the Slavophiles drew on German romanticism and idealism (Hegel, Schelling), Dugin draws above all on the German romantic Martin Heidegger.

Dugin sees liberalism as both the first and the last of the Western ideologies that characterize ”modernity.” The liberal concept of the autonomous individual for Dugin is born out of Cartesian subjectivity. Dugin presents liberalism’s aim, as a political and cultural project, as the emancipation of the individual from all involuntary collective identities—religious, ethnic, and, finally, with the emergence of gender

theory, even natural sexual identity. For Dugin, liberalism, by negating religion and ethnos, has an inherent tendency toward secular cosmopolitanism as the ideal. Once religious and ethnic differences among human beings are overcome, there will be only an undifferentiated universal humanity of free individuals. As with a related economic system, capitalism, liberalism has a similar tendency toward universalism that we today call “globalization” (a concept already foreseen in some ways by Kant and Marx). In the twentieth century, liberalism triumphed over the two modern alternative Western ideologies, fascism/Nazism and communism, vanquished in 1945 and 1989, respectively. The post–Cold War world is characterized by U.S. unipolarity, and the effort to universalize liberalism as the end of history that all nations and civilizations must ultimately accept. Liberalism for Dugin thus brooks no rivals and is fundamentally a universal imperium.

Dugin however proposes a fourth political theory. Postmodernism for Dugin is the final stage in the decadence of Western modernity and its metaphysics. But it is also an opportunity to transcend modernity and restore sacral order. The suspicion of universalist grand narratives, and the Heideggerian critique of Cartesian subjectivity, allows for the emergence of plurivocity—a diversity of discourses other than the Enlightenment project. The postmodern situation is therefore for Dugin an intellectual door that opens the space to reclaim the legitimacy of premodern traditionalism. It is the fact that Dugin turns to the sacral orders that preceded the Enlightenment and liberal modernity that establishes Dugin as a figure of “the Right.” And just as plurivocity characterizes the intellectual landscape, so he sees multipolarity and the diversity of civilizations with their own worldviews characterizing the emerging postliberal era. There is no question that Dugin is a rightwing critic of Western liberalism with a hard geopolitical edge in favor of an assertive if not imperial Russian foreign policy. Dugin has at his worst been given to intemperate and indefensible outbursts replete with expressions of Russian expansionism, sympathy for violent actions, and militant anti-Americanism, anti-Westernism, and anti-Catholicism.32 Whatever our ultimate view on the relation between Dugin and fascism, on his own terms he would see nationalism and its extreme apotheosis of fascism as the third political philosophy still caught up in the logic of late modernity, and thus he is proposing a fourth Though

Dugin exalts the ethnos and broader categories of “the people” (drawing on the specifically Russian tradition of the narod ), he overtly rejects the identification of ethnos and race or the idea of a race hierarchy33 that was prominent in European extreme-right movements of the 1930s. Like the French Nouvelle Droit, he seems to embrace ethnopluralism and the coequality of distinct ethnically based communities, each with their own diverse value structures, but he differs in his more positive appraisal of Christianity. But it is not clear how Dugin’s account can avoid cultural relativism and the rejection of universal moral principles. It seems that for him each ethnos generates its monadic moral universe without any apparent need for its moral values to logically cohere with those of others. Our own understanding of traditionalist conservatism differs from this, for although we recognize the value of particularity and attachment to the localities of place, custom, and culture, we also affirm the universal validity of natural law as articulated by some of the best classical and Christian thinkers of the Western tradition. We believe conservative humanism is a via media, an essential correction—and no mere aesthetic preference—of these value orientations. Traditional conservatism has a lineage distinct from both liberalism and nationalism (or ethnopluralism): it is neither cosmopolitan nor tribal. There is a throughline that runs from the social forms of the Middle Ages, to Burke, Ruskin, Scheler, Berdyaev, Tolkien, Kolnai, Scruton, and papal reflections on politics, known as Catholic social thought (CST). This Anglo-Continental political reflection defends ancestral traditions and accepts privileged particularistic attachments (to family, religion, hearth and home), but its circle of sympathy ultimately extends universally (natural law). It emphasizes personal virtue, tradition, family, and solidarity more than liberalism does, but it sees establishment, hierarchy, and natural law as counterweights to a straightforward celebration of the local and autonomous. It does not decry the state, but in affirming varieties of privilege it wants to forestall the collapse of the religious, familial, educational, and civil into statism.

Conservatism, distinct from both liberalism and nationalism,34 is not necessarily opposed to all that issues from them. There are also hybrid forms (liberal-conservatism, nationalist-conservatism), and thus we will argue that there is a place for aspects of the Scottish Enlightenment in the thought-world of conservative humanism. In chapter 5,

we argue that a humanist political economy requires this.35 Put otherwise, there are elements of the Fukuyama and Dugin positions that need to be retained.

Central to the contemporary role of conservatism is to act as the guardian36 of Western civilization’s confidence. It is a difficult time for the West.

With the passing of Roger Scruton in 2020, now seems the right time to take stock of conservative thought, which has always had the defense of civilization as a guiding star. It is a massive field, and any avenue taken is likely to seem to others a bit eccentric. In describing his journey to conservatism, Scruton observed: “Leo Strauss, Eric Voegelin, and others have grafted the metaphysical conservatism of Central Europe on to American roots, forming effective and durable schools of political thought.”37 Throughout, we talk about contemporary events and figures, but our orientation is like Voegelin’s—and he figures a good deal in the book—in developing an account of political humanism backed by the “metaphysical conservatism of Central Europe.”

We are both graduates of the Catholic University of Leuven, Belgium, and we propose that conservatism in the twenty-first century must be a defense of humanism, the best lens by which to understand Western civilizational identity. A guidepost to Western humanism is found in Pope Benedict XVI’s Regensburg Address: the West is a capacious synthesis of Christianity, “critically purified” Hellenism, and Latin culture. Because humanism has existed in classical, Christian, and modern secular forms, it provides us with a narrative of continuity that can best make sense of the West as an integral whole and explain the relation of its historic phases to one another. We believe that conservatism is the philosophy of politics that, for the foreseeable future, best secures the conditions making humanism possible.

Conservatism is a defense of tradition—but which tradition? Humanism broadly conceived has a legitimate claim to be the Western idea; indeed, it is an ancient tradition.

There are three historical iterations of humanism, which we detail far more in the introduction.

First, classical humanism—this is the Greek παιδεία and Roman humanitas—was a conscious cultivation of human excellence, striving for the full development of human faculties, particularly the moral,

intellectual, and aesthetic. This is the central Greek ideal of culture (Jaeger) running through its poetry, art, rhetoric, philosophy, and political conceptions. Fully revived in the Renaissance, it became the basis of Western liberal education in the modern era up to the twentieth century.

Second, Christian humanism stems from the fact that Christianity can claim to be the most anthropological of all faiths. Christianity claims that God became man in the Incarnation. All human beings have intrinsic and transcendent dignity: created in the divine image, redeemed by the God-man, given freedom, and called to eternal life. In the Middle Ages, the West became a Christocentric culture, neither theocentric (like Islam) nor anthropocentric (like modern secular culture), but incarnational. As a value, the Incarnation addresses suffering and offers tenderness as a balm. In this consists Christianity’s essential correction of the ancients. Embracing the divine and the human, Latin culture posits a harmony between body and soul, nature and grace, faith and reason, and church and state. This explains its openness to humanist culture: the Renaissance arose from medieval Catholic Italy. Third is modern humanism . Often called secular humanism which might not really be true38—it dates to the Enlightenment. It is a very complex phenomenon,39 and to one of its varieties we are steadfastly opposed: the reduction of nature to biology; science conceived as conquest, the “relief of man’s estate” (Bacon) through technoscience;40 a critique of tradition, boasting liberation of man from nature41 and inheritance;42 a denunciation of religion as intolerance and superstition; and thus anthropocentrism, twined with an ethics of humanitarianism,43 being an entitlement, nonreciprocal vision of rights and individual liberties. These elements make up atheistic liberal humanism.44 Russian theorist Berdyaev made the point that modern humanism reductively strips us to mere biological beings, its vitalism undermining transcendent dignity. Vitalist accounts emphasize scarcity, nakedness, necessity, materialism, positivism, and disenchantment. Berdyaev argued such bleakness would collapse into antihumanism,45 the upshot being a spiritual deadening, a technocratic loneliness. Nineteenth-century vitalism imploded spectacularly with Nazism, its atrocities stemming from “the rupture of species” (Rolf Zimmermann),46 racism its reigning ideology (Dugin, FPT, 44). Contemporary vitalism retains the old materialism and partibility, but offers a fresh blend, mixing in digital tech.

In a review of the best-selling proponent of transhumanism, Yuval Harari, Scruton finds him saying that modern life is “a constant pursuit of power within a universe devoid of meaning,” and yet thrilling to the idea that “once the Internet-of-All-Things is up and running, humans might be reduced from engineers to chips, then to data, and eventually we might dissolve within the torrent of data like a clump of earth within a gushing river.”47 Here, we see vitalism slipping into angelism.

Though influenced by Berdyaev, the Jesuit Erich Przywara was prescient to observe that in a weird way we moderns are an unstable hybrid flopping between vitalism and angelism.48 Cardinal Sarah elaborates. Contemporary innovation in communication “gives us the impression of generating space and time, of being gods capable of communicating without being stopped by any obstacle.” At the same time, our angelism has a supplement: “genetics is a new god.” Assured that we are solely “the result of the development of matter over the course of history,” we can say that technologically elevating the genome can raise no serious questions—it’s just matter, right?49 Philosopher of science Jean-Pierre Dupuy concurs: “In this telling, the prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells that formed the basis of life have been converted into products of the human mind, genetic algorithms, even though these algorithms first appeared only toward the end of the twentieth century. Life is regarded as a digest, or summary, of information—the blueprint for the fabrication of living beings themselves. The materialist monism of modern science has suddenly become a spiritual monism: if the mind is identical with nature, it is because nature is interpreted as if it were a creation of the mind.”50

On the one hand, liberalism’s break with ideas of natural constraint includes what Pierre Manent calls “the dream-life of the angels.”51 For this reason, technoscience holds out the promise of suspending our shared history, overcoming that oppressive idea, the family.52 Hegel’s angelism broached the possibility. In Fukuyama’s telling of Hegel, history can make us free because we have always been free of the earth: “The distinction between human and non-human is fully rational: only human beings are free, that is, able to struggle for recognition in a battle of pure prestige. This distinction is based on nature, or rather, on the radical disjunction between the realm of nature and the realm of freedom. The distinction between one human group and another, on the other hand, is an accidental and arbitrary by-product of human history.”53

The “universal and homogeneous” state of Absolute Spirit is possible, it turns out, because we are angels, surfing above nature. This explains Schopenhauer’s quip that in modernity the person becomes “a winged cherub without a body.”54 And yet, on the other hand, “man is materially obese” (Sarah), hoping “to clothe himself in silicon and steel.”55 On vitalism, princes of the Catholic Church agree with East Coast aesthetes: “For postmodern capitalism, man is a resource like any other,”56 the electronic devices we use to enhance our personal brands making us “data-cows,” the term used by the massive industry that mines, fragments, and monetizes our deepest secrets and desires.57 The test of the political worth of conservative humanism is that it can thread its way between angelism (Hegel’s “raising the Logos to complete clarity in consciousness”58) and vitalism59 (materialism’s “shrunken self”).60

Berdyaev argued that it was the idea of divine beauty that decorated mortal life.61 Conservative humanism affirms an obedience to a moral order transcending our will. From the ancients, it draws on the idea of human intellectual and aesthetic cultivation and the development of the natural virtues. From Christianity it draws upon a transcendent vision of the human being rooted in the Incarnation, which provides the foundation for a transfigured and universal form of natural law, and so emerges as a critical corrective of the moral particularism of the ancient city (in spite of certain ancient precedents in Stoicism)—and also a new cast of gentle virtues. The Christian doctrine of sin moreover tempers humanism with a sense of sobriety.62 Conservative humanism must also be modern, not reactionary. Modern liberty—a consequence of massive changes in the thoughtscape of Europe: the Renaissance, the Reformation, the discovery of the New World, and the Industrial Revolution—is salutary. The astonishing refinements in the arts and sciences have granted opportunities for personal development far outstripping what was previously possible for ordinary folk. Despite its profound problems in modernity, conservative humanism draws on modern personalism and finds worth in some of its moral formulations and commercial logic.

What follows is a road map to the book’s argument. Each chapter can be seen as a commentary on themes addressed in Scruton’s The Meaning of Conservatism. We run far afield from Scruton, but his book is indispensable to conservative reflection. In launching off from Scruton, here we show how some of his analysis dovetails with our own.

Road Map

Our introduction chapter will clarify the thought-world of conservatism. To some, even Fukuyama is a conservative, others, especially in the United States, think conservatism is libertarianism, or the policies of Reagan and Thatcher. Leftists view conservatism with horror as just a dog whistle for atavistic nationalism. In other chapters (2, 6–8) we work to distinguish conservatism from liberalism and nationalism. Here we suggest what conservatism means in a positive sense. Political conservatism only achieves self-consciousness when there is a crisis of tradition, as occurred in the West following the French Revolution. In that sense, conservatism is a modern movement, but one that strives to preserve continuity with the past. At the broadest level, conservatism is the defense of the ancestral. In the Western context, this largely means the “defense of humanism.” This definition is more capacious than it seems at first, since it necessarily means also the “defense of the organs of tradition,” how “establishment” (meaning “the institutions bearing values and offices”; see chapter 3) transmits the character and inheritance of a civilization to future generations. These organs are principally three: the institutions of religion, family, and education. However, against the atomic individualism of contemporary liberalism, libertarianism, and Thatcherism, we credit the state as part of establishment facilitating the sympathetic sociality of human nature. We affirm a balance sought by Scruton.63 Scruton rejected Lady Thatcher’s “liberal economics” because it wrongly stated the scope of establishment. Scruton defended the welfare state as necessary to modern conservatism— pointing out that it was Bismarck who established the German variant—and he argues in Meaning of Conservatism that where political and social goals warrant it, state ownership of something like a nation’s railway system is an appropriately conservative policy. However, Scruton was at pains to point out that conservatism does not embrace the state as radically as socialists and nationalists.64 Following Aurel Kolnai (1900–1973), we argue that conservatism is a justification of privilege, part of which is maintaining and expanding the scope of autonomous partnerships—family, church, guilds, trusts, small business, corporations, private schools, sports associations, townships, apprenticeships, and craft, among others. Self-organization is one of the pillars of conservative humanism (subsidiarity).

Chapter 1 is primarily historical. In contrast to Fukuyama’s claim that liberalism is “the Western idea” superseding all that came before, we present humanism as the master idea of our civilization. Present in each of the West’s great phases—classical antiquity, the Middle Ages, the Renaissance, and modernity—humanism is the arching value conservatism seeks to preserve. For the ancient Greeks and Romans, humanism signified an ideal of education focused on the full development of human intellectual, moral, and aesthetic faculties through philosophy, poetry, rhetoric, and other studies. Christianity, the religion of the God-man, supplied an egalitarian note affirming the singularity and unrepeatable value of each and every human being. Against certain dark strains in medieval thought, Aquinas championed nature, arguing that human persons have an integrity of their own and are able to shape their natural powers by a responsible freedom. In the Renaissance, Christian dignity combined with a revival of classical intellectual and aesthetic ideals, leading to an astonishing development of the arts and educational reform. We show in chapter 5 that modernity consolidated these gains by means of commerce and its facilitation of the “refinement of the arts and sciences” (Hume). However, modernity also sees the rise of secular humanism, with its advocates hoping to supplant God with science and technology. But as Berdyaev observes, at this very moment of maximum human self-assertion, humanism undermines itself. Without God, man has no transcendent dignity and becomes a merely physical, natural creature. As a result, argues Berdyaev, inhuman and antihumanistic forces that worship impersonal things such as race (Nazism) or economics (Marxism) come to the fore to threaten the human image. Even after the political defeats of these totalitarian systems, we contend that the secular-liberal West remains under threat of reprimitivism, devolving into “transhumanism”65 or the “culture of death.”66 The role of conservatism is the defense of a Western humanism that affirms what John Paul II labeled “the transcendent dignity of the human person.” Chapter 2 examines the metaphysical situation to which conservatism is a response. Politics is about the relationship of the individual to the group. Metaphysically, Fukuyama takes up what we call the univocal position: all peoples are of one mind—the glamour and ease of liberal commercialism has universal appeal. Dugin’s is the equivocal position. He, along with thinkers such as Seyyed Hossein Nasr,67 René Guénon, and Zhang Wewei, defends capital “T” Traditionalism—all

traditional civilizations are good and lead to truth; modern Western civilization, heavily inflected by liberal commercial universalism, is false and perverting. The middle ground is the analogical position, which aims to hold in tension the univocal and equivocal.68 From Voegelin and Przywara, we derive a tensional metaphysics that grounds natural law and allows a judicious adoption of insights from liberal commercialism. Against Dugin, therefore, we defend the universalist claims of the West. However, against Fukuyama, this metaphysics also affirms the singularity and particularism of land and establishment. We take seriously Dugin’s worry about futurism in politics and share the worries about technoscience expressed by Pope Francis.

Chapter 3 stakes out the political salience of establishment. We rely on Kolnai’s treatment of privilege. As Scruton argues, conservatism is not a cynically “realist” politics but is rather oriented around ideals: a society has a self-image; laws are built around salutary fictions and myths; people understand themselves and others as agents, assuming both freedom and responsibility, pillars of rule of law.69 It is the object of conservative politics to sustain this “surface of social consciousness” (Scruton). Pope Francis has recently made Scruton’s point as to “the distinctive features of human life, which we are committed to safeguarding and promoting, not only in its constitutive biological dimension but also in its irreducible biographical aspect.”70 Kolnai argues that privilege—the professions, officer corps, professoriate, the bench, aristocracy, fashion houses, heralded sports clubs, and so on—embodies a hierarchy of values. The state is another such embodiment. Against some populism, privilege, we contend, is one of the pegs of a worthy humanism. A shorthand of this idea is Harvard Square, or a visit to any elite university. Our universities sit at the heart of power—training the next generation of leaders—and the buildings look the part. Because they are repositories of the refinement of the arts and sciences (Hume), graduating from a university means one is more sophisticated than when first attending. This sophistication—a competency around the order of values—comes with the trappings of worldly success. This latter is one meaning of privilege, but not the core meaning. The core of privilege are the porticos of University College London or the library at Coimbra, vehicles for accessing a value order transcending human will.71

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Chapter 4 concerns rule of law and is a discussion of natural law. Central to Scruton’s thinking is Burke’s claim at the end of his address “Conciliation with the Colonies” (1775) that “English privileges have made [America] all that it is; English privileges alone will make it all it can be.” Scruton rejects theories of natural right and sees liberty as a privilege in the gift of the state. If one takes the natural law tradition to span the efforts of Aquinas, Grotius, and Locke, he notes, one sees that there is barely any agreement on what the relationship is between nature and ethics, or any consensus about what makes for good politics. The natural law tradition cannot be the basis for a conservative politics.72 We disagree, arguing that natural law is a necessary corrective of the irrationalities that can flare inside technoscience73 and a critical control of the irrationalism of biocentrism.74 A positive law position such as Scruton’s75 is all too easily buffeted by both these irrationalisms. They mangle rule of law, which, as Hume points out, is basic for the refinement of the arts and sciences.76

Chapter 5 is a conservative assessment of the worth of the Industrial Enlightenment and its postliberal critics. We borrow the term humanistic enterprise from Italian fashion designer Brunello Cucinelli and argue that the division of labor, despite its problems, is a worthy vehicle of humanism. The last forty years have seen a mountain of scholarship on Adam Smith that has significantly altered our understanding of his writings on the division of labor. We show that these writings have the bona fides of conservatism. We do so by showing that they match the ideal of differentiation set as a measure of healthy politics by a conservative of unimpeachable standing, Voegelin.

Chapter 6 details the growing divide in our time between liberal cosmopolitanism and nationalism. Where does conservatism fit? Liberalism of the Kantian variety argues for the transcendence of all national and particular loyalties in favor of a global federation embracing universal humanity. With the end of the Cold War, this “dream of cosmopolis” appeared closer to realization, and with the watchword of “globalization,” where goods, capital, and people move across porous borders presided over by supranational institutions (WTO, WHO, the EU). More recently there has been a resurgence of nationalism insisting on the primacy of sovereignty, borders, and ethnic communities as the primary loyalty. The Anglo-Continental tradition77 in this respect

represents a middle ground valorizing particularist loyalties to family and nation but situates these loyalties within an ordo amoris that ultimately embraces all human beings. As such we argue that conservatism stands as a via media between nationalism and liberalism, rejecting both an undifferentiated cosmopolitanism and a narrowly tribal nationalism. Chapter 7 addresses the central idea of liberalism, liberty. But what does “liberty” mean? And is there a specifically conservative form of liberty with which it contrasts? In proclaiming the universal victory of liberalism as “the end of history,” Fukuyama understands the historical process as one of emancipation, the liberation of the autonomous individual in political, economic, and religious life. Setting Burke against Fukuyama (and their intellectual progenitors) allows us to compare and contrast liberal and conservative conceptions of freedom. Liberalism, in the well-known formulation of Isaiah Berlin, posits negative freedom, meaning that one is free to the degree one’s actions are not externally obstructed. This notion of liberty underlies the familiar “freedoms” of Western states (speech, religion, press, etc.). Within moral limits, expanding the zone of personal negative freedom is an important modern achievement. Freedom in this sense is not, however, the only conservative value. Scruton challenges the primacy of liberty and emphasizes instead the authority of establishment as the source of other important conservative values, such as order, inheritance, property, solidarity, trust, and care. Burke argued that for negative liberty not to degenerate into libertinism it must be circumscribed within a framework of inherited and established political, religious, and social institutions that supply to it moral order. Burke’s own idea of this order was a summation of the classical and Christian humanistic traditions. Socrates argued that one can be unfree not only when one’s desires are externally obstructed, but also when one is enslaved by one’s own passions. From this emerges an opposing conception of liberty not as unencumbered action but as virtuous self-mastery. Christianity in a somewhat similar vein speaks of persons laboring under the slavery of sin and requiring Christ’s liberation. For Aristotle, the life of reason and virtue becomes the very end of politics. Christian humanism added that persons are freer once they have attained control over the enslaving passions. Burke develops these ideas into a critique of the Enlightenment and the French Revolution. At the same time, he champions the traditional liberties of the English and of religious tolerance, therewith inte-

grating the best aspects of liberalism with the humanistic legacy of freedom and virtue.

Chapter 8 addresses reprimitivism—the motif of a falling away from civilization into barbarism—and it is found on the right (Voegelin) and on the left (Marx). This motif is no mere nostalgia, of which conservatives are so often accused. Civilizations are delicate, and reprimitivism, as thoroughly demonstrated by the Western totalitarianisms of the twentieth century, is always a real possibility.78 In the case of the Nazis, reversion to primordialism was consciously embraced. Kolnai’s The War against the West is our guide. We thus think Dugin’s toying with biocentrism—the animating metaphysics of National Socialism— pernicious. However, there is another danger for conservatism. It must be owned that personalist philosophers of the twentieth century have edged toward angelism.79 By this, we mean something specific. Personalism—a critical contributor to conservative humanism in the twentieth century—has reflected at length on our embodiment.80 It has examined far less the character of our desire, yet desire is basic to politics. Thinkers such as Plato, Aquinas, Hobbes, and Nietzsche, to name only a few, have long appreciated this. We think there is another tool: conservatism needs to take psychoanalysis more seriously,81 and not leave its inquiries exclusively in the hands of leftist thinkers.82 Psychoanalysis has identified all manner of ruses by which the mind camouflages its most elaborate, and dark, strategies. It can thus help conservatives understand why civilization is stalked by primitivism. Early in all of Scruton’s political works is a discussion of rule of law. Famously, conservatism is a law-and-order politics,83 but our twist is to look at detective fiction as a conceit (Scruton) by which many in the contemporary West digest the theme of law in conservative politics. Lacan was convinced that psychoanalysis could help with the forensic assessment of a crime scene, but to see the value of thinking about law and psychoanalysis, consider only that the two highest grossing categories of the publishing industry are romance and crime novels.

Method of Our Work

This book is genuinely a joint work that involved collaboration on all parts, but the two authors evenly divided their contributions based

upon their primary intellectual interests and past work. Graham James McAleer is the principal author of chapters 2 (metaphysics), 3 (privilege and establishment), 4 (natural law), 5 (geography), and 8 (the danger of primitivism). Alexander Rosenthal-Pubul is the primary author of the introduction (defining conservatism), and chapters 1 (Western humanism), 6 (nationalism) and 7 (freedom). Both authors worked closely together on the preface and concluding remarks.

Acknowledgments

It remains to thank friends Christopher Wojtulewicz, Paul Seaton, Jim Buckley, Brian Murray, Fr. John Peck, S.J., Miles Smit, John Hymers, Ted Roedel, and Biagio Tassone for years of kind support and fertilizing discussion. Thanks to George Owers for suggesting some important additional topics and directions. And we also want to thank Michael Millerman for generously sharing his expertise on Dugin. Particular thanks to the team at Law & Liberty—Brian Smith, John Grove, Lee Trepanier, Rachel Lu, Richard Reinsch (now at Heritage)—and Amy Willis at Liberty Fund. We are also grateful for the encouragement of Rachel Kinder throughout the publishing process and the staff at University Notre Dame Press for their fine work. Last, we thank Dan Mahoney for supporting this book from the very start and his kindness in writing a foreword to the volume.