comparative
RELIGION Investigate the World Through Religious Tradition
INQUIRE AND INVESTIGATE
Carla Mooney
Illustrated by Lena Chandhok
Contents
Timeline. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vi Introduction
What Is Religion?.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Chapter 1
Hinduism.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Chapter 2
Judaism.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Chapter 3
Buddhism.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Chapter 4
Christianity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Chapter 5
Islam.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Chapter 6
Many Religions, One World. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 Glossary Resources Index
Chapter 1
Hinduism
What are the rituals, beliefs, teachings, and traditions of Hinduism?
The teachings and traditions of Hinduism have been practiced for thousands of years. Hinduism encompasses many different religious rites and practices.
Hinduism is the oldest of the world’s five major religions. Elements of Hinduism have existed for thousands of years. Unlike many other religions, Hinduism does not have a single founder, a single scripture, or a common set of teachings. It does not recognize any one prophet or worship a single god. It does not follow one set of religious rites or traditions. Instead, Hinduism encompasses a vast number of practices, rituals, beliefs, teachings, and traditions. Hinduism is often described as a family of religions or a way of life.
ORIGINS OF HINDUISM No specific date marks the beginning of Hinduism. Most people believe that traditions of Hinduism formed in India around 1700 BCE. The word Hindu is derived from the River Indus, as is the word India. It was used by Muslim invaders in ancient India to identify those people who were native to the Indian subcontinent.
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Today, there are about 1 billion Hindus around the world, which is about 15 percent of the world’s population. The majority of the people who practice Hinduism live in the South Asia region, primarily in India, Nepal, and Bangladesh. Although Hinduism includes many different customs and traditions, there are some basic ideas and practices that are shared. Most Hindu traditions believe in a supreme being and in the concepts of truth, dharma, and karma. They also believe in the authority of the Vedas, the sacred scriptures of Hinduism, even though the Vedas are translated differently among traditions.
Dharma means striving to do the right thing, in accordance with duty and abilities, at all times. According to karma, good actions lead to good reactions, while bad actions lead to negative reactions.
The Four Vedas The four Vedas are some of the most ancient sacred texts that exist in the world today. The Vedas contain hymns, incantations, and rituals from Hindu traditions. They also give a view of everyday life in ancient India. On this website, you can explore English translations of the Vedas.
four Vedas translation
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Branches of Hinduism There are several branches of Hinduism, which differ mainly on which form of god each worships. Shaivas focus on Shiva as the supreme god, in his multiple forms. Vaishnavas worship Vishnu or his incarnations. Two of Vishnu’s most popular incarnations are Krishna, the teacher written about in the Bhagavad Gita, and Rama, the hero of the Ramayana. Vaishnavas believe that God incarnates into the world in different forms in order to restore dharma. The Shaktas branch of Hinduism worships the feminine form of God, Shakti. Followers of the fourth branch of Hinduism, Smarthas, worship six forms of God.
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THE CYCLE OF REBIRTH One of the main tenets of Hinduism is the belief in samsara, which is the cycle of birth, death, and rebirth. What do you think happens after we die? Hindus believe that each person has an atman, his or her eternal or real self, which can be thought of as a spirit or soul. An individual soul is immortal and is never created or destroyed—it has always been and always will be. In the continuous cycle of samsara, a person’s atman is reborn over and over again. This process of reincarnation is governed by karma, which is the belief that every action has an equal reaction either immediately or in the future. Karma dictates that good actions lead to positive reactions, while bad actions lead to negative reactions. In Hinduism, karma exists in a person’s current lifetime, and also across several lifetimes. Therefore, an action in one lifetime may lead to good or bad consequences in either current or future lives. For example, if you are a kind person who is nice to animals in one lifetime, you might be reborn as a goat with generous owners in another lifetime.
A person’s next rebirth depends on how he or she lived in previous lives. The cycle of samsara and reincarnation continues until a person achieves moksha. Hindus believe that this is the goal of every individual soul. Moksha is a soul that is free from the cycle of rebirth and the suffering that comes from living and dying.
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The soul then unites with Brahman, the supreme deity, and realizes its true nature. Several paths can lead to moksha. These include the path of duty, the path of knowledge, and the path of devotion to the gods.
DHARMA Another key tenet of Hinduism is the concept of dharma. In Hinduism, dharma can be described as duty, virtue, morality, right living, or appropriateness. Dharma is the power that maintains society and the universe. It is the idea that there is an underlying structure and meaning to the world. Behind the complex and random nature of events, there are fundamental principles and an eternal order of things.
When a person’s physical body dies, his or her atman is reborn in a new physical body, which can be human, animal, or a divine being.
Hindus believe that a person can live in harmony with the world and the universe by following that order and structure. Making dharma central to one’s life means striving to do the right thing, in accordance with duty and abilities, at all times.
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Female Goddesses While in many religions the idea of God is masculine, Hinduism recognizes the feminine form of the divine. Known as Shakti, she is often worshipped in the form of Maha Devi, the great goddess. Shakti takes on many different forms, each with her own qualities. She can be gentle and loving as the goddess Parvati. She can also be threatening and destructive as Kali and Durga.
FACTS ON FAITH Some Hindus identify Brahman with the self, while others believe it is distinct from the self.
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At the same time, dharma is a very individual concept. Dharma has different meanings for different people. Every person has obligations and duties based on age, gender, and social position. What is right for a child may not be right for an adult. To achieve dharma, many Hindus perform rituals and make offerings to the gods to maintain the universe’s sense of order. By performing rituals, Hindus believe that they are aligning themselves with the order of the world and becoming one with it.
A SUPREME GOD WITH MANY FORMS In most Hindu traditions, Brahman is a transcendent power without form and without limit that exists beyond the universe. Everything seen and unseen in the universe is encompassed by Brahman. It is the central force that keeps the endless cycle of creation and destruction moving and is the power that upholds and supports everything in the universe. In this way, Hinduism is a pantheistic religion because it equates God with the universe. In other ways, Hinduism is also a polytheistic religion that has many gods and goddesses. Most Hindus believe in a supreme god. However, this means different things in different Hindu traditions. In many traditions, the Supreme God has unlimited forms and is represented by many different deities. The different forms appear in Hindu literature as a large number of gods and goddesses.
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The multiple forms of God allow followers to worship in any number of ways, based on their family traditions, community practices, and other influences.
A RULING TRIO Three Hindu deities have emerged across different Hindu traditions as a ruling trio: Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva. These three gods form a ruling trio called the Trimurti. Together they are responsible for the creation, maintenance, and destruction of the world.
Hindu Rock Art The Elephanta Caves, located on an island in the Sea of Oman near Bombay, India, hold a collection of Hindu rock art. One of the cave’s stone carvings depicts the Trimurti: Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva. You can view photos of this unique art.
Elephanta Caves Oman Trimurti
Brahma is responsible for creation. He created the world and all its creatures. Statues of Brahma show him with four heads, which some people say represent the four Vedas, the ancient sacred texts of Hinduism. Other people believe that Brahma’s four heads stand for the four varnas, or social classes, of Hindu society. The second god is Vishnu, who protects and preserves humanity. Hindus believe that Vishnu returns to Earth during troubled times.
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They say that he has been incarnated on Earth nine times, and will return for a tenth incarnation before the end of the world. Some branches of Hinduism worship Vishnu as the only god, or the supreme god. Representations of Vishnu frequently show a human body, blue skin, and four arms. Dancing Shiva Outside the European Center for Research in Particle Physics (CERN) in Geneva, Switzerland, stands a statue of the dancing Lord Shiva from the Hindu religion. A gift from India, the statue celebrates the association between CERN, where scientists do high-energy physics research, and India. A plaque next to the statue explains that Lord Shiva danced the universe into existence and will eventually destroy it. For the scientists at CERN, the dancing Shiva portrays the cosmic dance of the subatomic particles they work with every day.
The third god is Shiva the destroyer. His role is to destroy the universe so he can recreate it. Shiva’s powers to destroy the world can also be constructive— by getting rid of the imperfections in this world, he makes space for a better one to be made. In this way, Shiva is seen as the source of both good and evil. Like Vishnu, Shiva is worshipped by some Hindus as their primary god. Shiva is often shown in images and sculpture as Shiva Nataraja, the Lord of the Dance. Shiva’s dance takes place within a circle of flames, representing the ongoing process of birth and death.
SACRED TEXTS The earliest sacred texts of Hinduism are the four Vedas. The Vedas are a collection of ancient texts that were created during a period of about 1,000 years, beginning around 1200 BCE. The Vedas contain revelations received by ancient scholars and priests. Hindus believe that scholars and priests directly received the texts from God. Because of this, the Vedas are known as shruti, meaning “that which is heard.”
Hindus believe that the Vedas have always existed and that when the universe is destroyed, the Vedas will remain. The Vedas provide the texts, prayers, and instructions for rituals and worship. For hundreds of years, before
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the texts were written down, Hindus passed the texts from one generation to the next by word of mouth. Can you think of other books that began in an oral tradition? The Vedas include four collections. • The Samhitas are the most ancient part of the Vedas. They include Rig-Veda and consist mostly of hymns of praise to the gods. • The Brahmanas provide instructions for rituals and prayers that guide priests in their duties.
FACTS ON FAITH Hindu scripture falls into two categories. Shruti means “that which is heard.” Smriti means “that which has been remembered.”
• The Aranyakas focus on worship and meditation. • The Upanishads focus on abstract concepts about the nature of the self and the universe. Other sacred Hindu texts consist of epic poems, which are full of action and stories of the gods. Known as smriti, meaning “that which has been remembered,” these epic poems explore moral dilemmas and present role models for Hindus to follow. The Mahabharata tells the story of a war between two royal families and the fight between good and evil. One of the books of the Mahabharata is the Bhagavad Gita, a scripture about virtue and duty. It is written in the form of a dialogue between the prince Arjuna and Krishna, who is an incarnation of the god Vishnu. In the text, the warrior-prince Arjuna is about to go to war against another branch of his family over the question of who should rule the kingdom. Arjuna and his brothers are the rightful heirs, but the other branch of the family took the throne and tried to kill Arjuna and his brothers. As a member of the warrior class, it is Arjuna’s duty to fight. However, he wants to withdraw from the battle because he does not want to kill his family and friends fighting on the other side, which could cause bad karma.
Sanskrit Sanskrit is the language of Hinduism and Buddhism, as well as Jainism, which is another ancient Indian religion. Sanskrit is also one of India’s 22 official languages. Today, Sanskrit is primarily used in Hindu ceremonies, hymns, and mantras. But in some villages of India, the spoken language of Sanskrit is making a comeback.
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Gurus In the Hindu faith, a guru is a teacher or master of a tradition who teaches through example and passes knowledge and wisdom to his disciples. His disciples may one day become gurus themselves and pass this knowledge down to future generations. Gurus are highly revered in Hindu traditions and in some cases can become the focus of devotion.
Arjuna’s charioteer, Krishna, advises him to do his duty and fight. He explains to Arjuna that the act of killing only creates bad karma if it is done for the wrong reasons, such as hatred or greed. Doing one’s duty, even if it conflicts with personal feelings, is ideal. Krishna also explains that the soul is immortal and death in battle does not mean the end. Only the current body dies, while the soul lives again through reincarnation.
WORSHIP Unlike many religions, worship in Hinduism is often an individual act. In practice, Hindus are free to choose which deities to worship, whether to worship at home or at a temple, and how often to participate in religious activities. Many Hindus have a shrine at home where they say prayers, called mantras, and make offerings of water, fruit, flowers, and incense to the deity. A shrine can be a room, a small altar, or a simple picture or statue of the deity, called a murti. Diagrams of the universe, called yantras, might also be used during worship.
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The simplest yantra is a circle inside a square inside a rectangle, with four gates that represent the universe’s four directions. Hindu temples are based on this design.
At home, family members often worship together, usually near sunrise and sunset. Hindu worship is called puja. Some Hindus worship at temples. The design of a temple is based on the simple yantra described above. In Hindu temples, the parts of the building have symbolic meaning. The central shrine represents the heart of the worshipper, while the temple’s tower represents the flight of the spirit to heaven. At the temple, a Hindu priest conducts certain rites with or on the behalf of worshippers. Worshippers may also gather to listen to recitations of the Hindu Epics or participate in a singing of devotionals.
RELIGIOUS RITES In the Hindu faith, religious rites fall into three categories. Nitya rituals are performed daily. They consist of offerings and prayers made at a home shrine. Naimittika rituals occur at certain times during the year, often to celebrate festivals and give thanks. Kamya rituals are optional, but highly encouraged. One example of a Kamya ritual is pilgrimage. A pilgrimage is an undertaking to see and be seen by the deity. Many Hindus embark on pilgrimages to rivers, temples, mountains, and other sacred sites in India. These are places where gods may have appeared or taken form in the human world. The Ganges River is the holiest river in the Hindu religion. Many Hindus make a pilgrimage to the Ganges to bathe in its waters.
Hindus decide for themselves when and where they will worship their gods.
hindu temples The design of the Hindu temple reflects many elements of the Hindu faith. The layout, plan, and building process all incorporate ancient rituals, symbols, and beliefs. While Hindu temples come in many styles and variations, most share certain core ideas, symbolism, and themes. You can explore Hindu temples and their design on these websites. Hindu temple design
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FACTS ON FAITH The first mention of the Kumbh Mela pilgrimage is by a Chinese traveler in the seventh century named Hiuen Tsiang. He describes half a million people gathered on the banks of the Ganges for 75 days of celebration.
One popular pilgrimage is the Kumbh Mela festival. Every 12 years, nearly 10 million people gather at Allahabad, where the Ganges and Yamuna Rivers meet. They participate in ritual bathing to wash away their sins, spiritual purification rituals, and a ceremony to receive blessings from the deity. Other pilgrims travel to the city of Varanasi, also known as Benares. It is located on the banks of the Ganges River and is believed to be the home of Lord Shiva. Hindu legend says that here is where Shiva’s fiery light broke through the earth to reach the heavens.
YOGA Have you ever done downward facing dog or triangle pose? Studies show that more than 20 million people in the United States practice yoga. It’s a very popular form of exercise!
A Hindu who dies at Varanasi and has his or her ashes spread on the Ganges River is believed to have experienced the best death.
Yoga has spiritual roots in Hinduism. The word yoga comes from the Sanskrit word yug, meaning “to unite.” Hindu texts talk about yoga as a practice to control the senses and the mind. Ideas about yoga can be found in the Upanishads and in the ancient Bhagavad Gita text. A more detailed account of yoga appears in the Yoga Sutras, a text that was created around the second century BCE. The Yoga Sutras include a set of techniques to achieve mental calmness and concentration, which are necessary for greater insight. According to the Yoga Sutras, the practice of yoga protects against ignorance, egocentric views, and emotional extremes. It also helps followers avoid the poisons of greed, anger, and delusion. The practice of yoga recognizes that the body and mind influence each other. A person’s thoughts and feelings can affect his or her physical well-being, while posture and physical control can promote mental alertness.
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By combining mental and physical aspects, yoga allows both the body and mind to calm and become more sharply focused. Once this occurs, inner insight may emerge.
FESTIVALS Hindus celebrate several religious festivals throughout the year. Festivals are based on the Hindu calendar and are often related to seasonal changes. The main Hindu festivals are Holi, Dusserah, and Diwali. Holi began as a fertility festival and it celebrates the New Year in March and the return of spring. Dusserah occurs between late September and mid-October. This is a nine-day festival that celebrates the victory of good over evil.
One of the most popular Hindu festivals is Diwali, the Festival of Lights. Diwali is a five-day celebration that includes food, fireworks, colored sand, and special candles and lamps. It celebrates the victory of good over evil, light over darkness, and knowledge over ignorance. Usually celebrated in the fall, Diwali began as a harvest festival to mark the last harvest of the year and the beginning of the new agricultural year. The lights of Diwali symbolize the inner light that protects people from spiritual darkness.
ORDER OF SOCIETY An important idea in classical Hinduism is that the order and structure of the universe includes human society. A person’s dharma depends on their class, or varna. It also depends on their stage of life, or ashrama.
diwali today Today, Hindus celebrate Diwali with family gatherings, clay lamps, fireworks, bonfires, and sweet treats. Diwali has become a national festival, celebrated by most people of India, regardless of their religion. During Diwali, people decorate their home with clay lamps, or diyas. They create patterns called rangoli on the floor with colored powder or sand. On the third day of the festival, families gather for prayers to the Goddess Lakshmi and for feasts and fireworks.
FACTS ON FAITH Holi is celebrated with bonfires and lots of color. Dusserrah is celebrated with music, dancing, and re-enactments.
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Indian society has been classified into four main groups since ancient times. In the Rig Veda you can read a hymn that tells of the body of a human sacrificed and divided to create the four main varnas: Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishya, and Shudra. The Brahmins are intellectuals and priests who perform religious rituals. The Kshatriya are the nobles or warriors. The Vaishyas are members of the merchant class who produce, farm, and trade, while the Shudras are servants. Under the varna system, each varna is essential to the right ordering of the world. Each depends on the others.
Today, Western ideas of equality, new roles, and nontraditional careers are challenging the traditional ideas of varna. Can you think of other times in history when contemporary life challenged the ideas of religion? People in the first three varnas are said to be twice-born because they have been born a second time through a sacred-thread ritual. This ritual, called upanayana, marks their acceptance of responsibility as a Hindu. The ritual is usually performed when a male child turns eight years old. Men who are twice-born go through four stages of life, or ashramas. In the first stage, students are expected to study the Vedas under instruction from a teacher or a guru. In the second stage, a man is expected to marry, have children, and support family and society. In the third stage, which traditionally begins with the birth of a grandchild, people retire from active work.
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They spend their time reflecting on life and advising others. In the final stage of life, which not all Hindus reach, the person gives up on the world and becomes a wandering ascetic. In traditional Hinduism, women may be classified by varna, but they pass through their own three stages of life. The first stage is as a child protected by her father, then she is a married woman protected by her husband. In the final stage, a woman is a widow protected by her eldest son. These stages of life reflect the traditional Hindu view of women as being more delicate than men and requiring protection.
In modern times, however, many Hindus are re-examining and changing their ideas about the roles of women. Hinduism’s followers across the world are united in many common beliefs, practices, and traditions. At the same time, Hinduism can be expressed in different ways, each with its own unique traditions. Other, related religions have arisen from these differences, including another of the world’s main religions—Buddhism.
Sacrifice Historically, sacrifice has been an important part of Hinduism. In Hinduism, sacrifice is an offering to the gods, generally food or drink. Fire is also an important part of sacrifice. Followers believe that ritual sacrifice provides a connection to the deity and also establishes the right order of the world. By making a sacrifice, followers might be protected from evil forces and enjoy abundant crops, good weather, health, and happiness.
KEY QUESTIONS • How can Hinduism be both monotheistic and polytheistic? • The concept of samsara, which is the cycle of birth, death, and rebirth, recurs in many contemporary stories. Why do you think humans are attracted to this idea? • What effect does the concept of varnas, or classes, have on the way people live their lives? Is this a good thing, bad thing, or both? Why?
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Inquire & Investigate
Ideas for Supplies • pencil and paper • digital voice recorder (optional)
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INTERVIEW A PERSON OF THE HINDU FAITH One of the best ways to understand a different religion or faith is to talk with a person who is a member of that faith. In this activity, you will discuss the Hindu faith with a person who practices it.
• Identify a person who practices Hinduism that you can interview. He or she might be a classmate, a member of your community, or a coworker of your parents. You can also contact local Hindu temples to ask if someone is willing to be interviewed. Schedule a time to meet or talk over the phone.
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Inquire & Investigate • Before the interview, spend some time thinking of questions about Hinduism. What would you like to learn more about? What interests you about the religion? Using these ideas, prepare a list of questions for the interview. • Conduct the interview at the scheduled time. Some of the person’s answers may spark new questions that you may want to ask. Takes notes and record the person’s answers. • After the interview, think about what you learned and consider the following questions. 1. What have you learned about Hinduism that you did not know previously? 2. What was the most surprising thing you learned about Hinduism? 3. How does Hinduism compare to your religion? If you do not practice a religion, think about how it compares to aspects of your life. What similarities are there? What are the differences?
VOCAB LAB Write down what you think each word means: reincarnation, transcendent, Shiva Nataraja, shruti, mantras, varnas, pilgrimage, Brahmins, and Shakti. Compare your definitions with those of your friends or classmates. Did you all come up with the same meanings? Turn to the text and glossary if you need help.
To investigate more, think about an aspect of Hinduism that you want to learn more about. Research it in greater depth and compare what you learn to what you already know. How does this new information change the way you view Hinduism? How does it expand your understanding of this faith? As you read each chapter in this book and develop an understanding of each religion, interview a member of that faith and ask similar questions.
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Inquire & Investigate
Ideas for Supplies • computer with Internet access • comfortable clothing • exercise mat
PRACTICE YOGA Yoga is an important part of Hinduism, allowing Hindus to clear and silence the mind. In this activity, you will practice several yoga poses.
• Explore yoga poses with these videos for beginning yoga students.
Yoga poses for beginners, where to start? • Foundations of Yoga
• Practice the different yoga moves with the instructor. Concentrate on using the yoga poses to still your mind. If you find yourself distracted, simply return your focus to your body and its movement. • As you practice the yoga moves, experiment with turning off the volume and performing the moves in silence. You can also add soothing background music of your choice. What do you prefer: silence, music, or the instructor’s voice?
To investigate more, use the yoga positions that you have learned to create your own yoga routine. Do you find yoga to be better for your body or your mind?
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GLOSSARY adaptation: the act of adjusting. baptism: the sacrament that admits a person into adultery: unfaithfulness of
Buddhism: a religion based on the teachings of Buddha.
afterlife: an existence
of Buddhism.
a married man or woman. after death.
Allah: the name of God in Islam. allegory: the use of
the Christian faith and involves being sprinkled with or immersed in water.
bar mitzvah: a ceremony
marking a boy’s transition to adulthood in the Jewish faith.
Buddhist: a follower caliph: a political and religious leader in Islam. cantor: a person who sings
symbolic figures and actions to express truths about the human experience.
bat mitzvah: a ceremony
and leads people in prayer in a church or temple.
alms: something given
BCE: put after a date, BCE stands for Before Common Era and counts years down to zero. CE stands for Common Era and counts years up from zero. This book was published in 2015 CE.
of Christianity.
freely to help the poor.
altar: a large table in house of worship that is used in religious ceremonies. ambiguity: being able to be
marking a girl’s transition to adulthood in the Jewish faith.
understood in more than one way. belief: a principle or idea that is accepted as the truth. angel: a messenger of Bible: the sacred text God in some religions. of Christianity. anoint: the rubbing of oil bimah: a platform in a on a person’s head during Jewish synagogue that a religious ceremony. holds the reading table anti-Semitism: hostility toward used when chanting or people who practice Judaism. reading from the Torah. apostles: Jesus’s 12 original blasphemy: the act of disciples in Christianity. saying offensive things about a religion or God. ark: in Judaism, a cabinet in which the Torah scrolls are kept. bodhisattva: a person in the process of becoming a artifact: an object made or changed by human beings in the Buddha, who puts off final enlightenment to help others past, such as a tool or weapon. on the path to enlightenment. ascetic: a person who lives Brahma: the Hindu creator god. a strict and simple life and often practices extreme selfBrahman: the divine denial for religious purposes. and transcendent power that exists beyond the ashrama: in Hinduism, one of universe in Hinduism. the four age-based life stages.
atman: the individual soul in Hinduism.
atone: to make amends. austerity: to live simply with
few luxuries or comforts.
Brahmins: priests and
intellectuals who perform religious rituals and are the highest of the four major classes of Hindu society.
Buddha: an enlightened
being in the Buddhist faith.
Catholicism: a branch
ceremony: a series of formal acts in a ritual. chancel: a part of a church near the altar, often reserved for the clergy and choir. Christian: a follower of Christianity.
Christianity: the world’s largest religion, whose followers believe that Jesus Christ is the son of God. circumcise: the surgical removal of the foreskin from a human male’s penis. clergy: a priest, monk,
minister, or other person ordained by the church.
commandment: a divine rule from God. communion: a sacrament in which some Christian denominations consecrate and share bread and wine during a religious service. conceive: to become pregnant. confirmation: a
sacrament in which some Christian denominations confirm their faith.
conquest: the use of
military force to take control of land and its people. GLOSSARY
111
GLOSSARY consecrate: to declare
design: to plan for a particular
ethics: relating to good
conservative: following
devotion: a form of prayer
Eucharist: a sacrament in
convert: to change to
dharma: the moral path
corruption: dishonest
diaspora: the movement of
something blessed or holy. traditional values and attitudes.
a different religion.
actions by those in power.
cosmology: the science of the origin and development of the universe. covenant: a formal and
serious agreement or promise.
covet: to desire to have something.
craving: an intense desire for something, such as a particular food.
or worship for special use.
that a person must follow. Jewish people to countries outside of Israel.
disciple: a follower of a religious leader, who spreads their teachings. discriminate: to unfairly treat a person or group differently from others, usually because of who they are. divine: related to a god. diya: an oil lamp, usually made
creation: the act of causing
from clay, that is used in Hindu festivals and ceremonies.
cremate: to burn the body
doctrine: a set of beliefs held by a religious group.
criteria: the standard by which something is judged or measured.
dukkha: a Buddhist
something to exist.
of a person who has died.
crucifixion: a slow and
painful execution in which a person is tied or nailed to a large wooden cross and left to hang until death.
cultural: relating to the
behaviors, beliefs, and way of life of a group of people.
Dalai Lama: the spiritual head of Tibetan Buddhism. debate: a discussion between
people with differing viewpoints.
deity: a god or goddess. denomination: a religious group.
descend: to move from a
higher place to a lower place.
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purpose or to plan artistically.
term for suffering.
duty: something that one is expected or required to do.
Eastern Orthodoxy: a branch of Christianity.
and evil and moral duties.
Christianity that involves taking bread and wine as the body and blood of Christ.
excommunicate: to officially exclude someone from participating in the sacraments and religious services of the Christian Church. extremist: a person who holds extreme or fanatical political or religious views. faith: strong religions
feeling and belief in God.
famine: an extreme shortage of food. fasting: not eating or drinking by choice for a period of time as part of a religious ritual. feminine: having
qualities that are usually associated with women.
Four Noble Truths: the central teachings of Buddhism that explain the nature of suffering, its causes, and how to overcome it.
eid: a Muslim term for
fundamentalist: a religious
eightfold: eight times. empire: a large state or group
God: the Supreme Being,
festival or holiday.
of states that is ruled by a single ruler called an emperor.
enlightenment: the discovery of the ultimate truth of life. era: a period of time with certain characteristics.
eternal: everlasting or perpetual. eternity: lasting forever.
COMPARATIVE RELIGION | GLOSSARY
view in which a person rigidly follows fundamental principles.
creator and ruler of the universe.
Gospels: the four books of the Bible’s New Testament that document Jesus’s life and teachings. guru: a teacher. Hadith: accounts of the prophet Muhammad’s actions and teachings.
hafiz: a person who has completely memorized the Islamic Qur’an.
GLOSSARY hajj: a pilgrimage to Mecca
and one of the pillars of Islam.
interfaith: involving people of different religions.
Hasidism: a Jewish movement founded in eighteenthcentury Eastern Europe.
invaders: people who enter another land to raid and conquer it.
hijab: a court official in Islam. Hindu: a follower of Hinduism. Hinduism: a group of
Islam: a monotheistic religion
religious beliefs, traditions, and practices from South Asia.
Holocaust: the systematic murder and persecution of Jewish people by the German Nazi state.
holy: sacred. homosexual: a person
who is sexually attracted to others of the same gender.
humility: having a modest opinion of oneself.
hygiene: practices that keep things clean and prevent the spread of germs.
hymn: a religious song written
for praise and worship.
idolatry: the worship of idols. imam: a leader of prayers in a
mosque or one of the leaders of the Shi’a Muslim community.
immortal: someone
who will not die.
impermanence: not lasting. incarnation: the belief that
Jesus Christ was both divine and human. Also one of a series of lives that a person is believed to have had in the past in Hinduism.
inevitable: unable
to be avoided.
insight: the ability to see into and understand a situation. interconnected: being related to one another.
manifestation: an
outward appearance, display, or demonstration.
mantra: a word or phrase repeated, chanted, or sung as a prayer.
developed in the Middle East that follows the teachings of the prophet Muhammad.
martyr: a person who endures
jihad: a Muslim religious duty
meditation: religious thought
Jew: a person whose
menorah: a candelabrum with nine branches that is used in the Jewish festival of Hanukkah.
Judaism: a monotheistic religion that uses the Torah as its sacred text.
messiah: a promised savior and deliverer.
to struggle against evil, either spiritually or physically.
religion is Judaism.
great suffering and death for his or her religious beliefs.
and spiritual introspection.
kamya: an optional Hindu ritual such as a pilgrimage.
Messianic Age: a future time where there is peace on Earth and no crime, poverty, or war.
karma: the law of moral
metaphor: the comparison of
cause and effect that influences reincarnation in Hinduism and Buddhism.
kosher: adhering to
Jewish dietary laws.
kshatriya: a member of the
Hindu royal and warrior class.
leader: a person who guides
and directs others in a group.
leavened: risen dough. liberal: the belief in individual
freedoms and reform.
liberation: the act of
being freed from oppression and gaining equal rights and opportunities.
luminescent: the emission of light.
magga: the end of suffering and one of the Four Noble Truths of Buddhism.
mandala: a sacred diagram used as a focus for mediation and other rituals in Buddhism.
one thing to another without using the words like or as.
Middle Ages: the period of time between the end of the Roman Empire and the Renaissance, about 350 to 1450 CE.
Middle East: the countries of Southwest Asia and North Africa, from Libya in the west to Afghanistan in the east. mindfulness: the intentional focus of one’s attention on emotions and sensations in the present moment. ministry: a period of service as a minister. minyan: a group of 10 Jewish adults required for certain religious obligations and rituals. miracle: an unusual or wonderful event that is believed to be caused by the power of God. GLOSSARY
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GLOSSARY missionary: a member
nirodha: one of the Four
pillar: a column that supports a
nirvana: the state of
mitzvah: a Hebrew word that means commandment.
plague: a serious disease that spreads quickly to many people and often cause death.
nitya: daily religious
moksha: release from the cycle of birth and death in Hinduism.
rituals in Hinduism.
polytheistic: the belief in many gods.
noble: an exalted moral or mental character.
pope: the head of the Catholic Church.
oral tradition: traditions passed on from one generation to the next by word of mouth.
prayer: an appeal or thanks to God.
ordain: a religious ceremony
for moral behavior.
of a religious group that is sent into another area to spread the word about his or her religion’s teachings and perform works of service.
monk: a member of a religious community of men that typically takes vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience.
monotheism: the belief
in one, all-powerful God.
moral: relating to right and wrong behavior and character.
Noble Truths of Buddhism, the end of suffering.
liberation from the cycle of death and rebirth.
that makes a person a member of the clergy who can perform religious rites and ceremonies.
orthodox: following traditional
mosque: a place of worship
and accepted religious norms.
muezzin: a man who calls
Muslims to prayer in a mosque.
pantheistic: a religious belief that identifies God with the universe.
murti: an image or
parable: a short story designed
for followers of Islam.
representation of a divine spirit, such as in stone, clay, or wood.
Muslim: a person who
follows the religion of Islam.
mythology: the collected
myths of a group of people.
naimittika: a Sanskrit
to teach or illustrate religious beliefs and moral lessons.
precept: a guide or rule prestige: having or showing rank, success, or wealth. priest: a member of the clergy in Christianity that leads religious services and performs rites. prophet: a person who is believed to speak for God. Protestantism: a branch of Christianity. pulpit: a raised platform in
parchment: the skin of an
a church where clergy stand to speak to followers.
patriarch: a man who controls
purification: the process of making something clean and pure.
animal that is prepared in a way that it can be written on.
a family, group, or government.
purify: to make something
word meaning incidental, a group of rituals in Hinduism that are performed when a particular occasion occurs, such as the birth of a child.
penance: a sacrament
narrative: a spoken or
to exterminate or drive away a group of people based on their religious beliefs or other characteristic.
Ramadan: a month of fasting
philosophy: the study of truth, wisdom, the nature of reality, and knowledge.
rangoli: a colorful Indian
written story of events.
Nativity: birth, often refers to
the birth of Jesus in Christianity.
nave: the central part
of a church building.
in Christianity in which a person confesses and atones for his or her sins.
persecution: a campaign
pilgrimage: a trip to visit a holy site.
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part of a building or a basic fact, idea, or principle of something.
COMPARATIVE RELIGION | GLOSSARY
clean and pure.
Qur’an: the sacred text of Islam. rabbi: a Jewish teacher
and spiritual leader.
in Islam to commemorate the time when Muhammad received his first revelations from God. decorative pattern made on the floor near the entrance to welcome guests.
realm: kingdom.
GLOSSARY rebirth: to be born again. reform: to change
samsara: the cycle of rebirth
something for the better.
in Hinduism and Buddhism.
long period of mourning for relatives who have passed away.
reincarnation: the belief that
samudaya: the origin of
Shiva Nataraja: one of the
after death, the soul comes back to Earth in another body or form.
suffering and one of the Four Noble Truths of Buddhism.
relic: an object that belonged
to a saint or other holy person.
Sanskrit: the primary language of Hinduism.
shramana: a religious ascetic in Buddhism.
religious: practicing a specific
savior: one who saves
system of beliefs through worship, obedience, and prayer.
resurrection: the
sin, evil, harm, or destruction.
others from danger. In Christianity, Jesus is believed to be the savior of souls.
shiva: in Judaism, a week-
forms of the Hindu god Shiva as the Lord of the Dance.
shrine: a sacred or holy place that is dedicated to a specific deity, martyr, or saint. shroud: a length of cloth
rising of Jesus from the dead in Christianity.
sawm: fasting and the
in which a dead person is wrapped and buried.
revelation: a surprising
scholar: a person with a
shruti: meaning that which is
fact that is made known.
great deal of knowledge.
reverence: great respect and love.
scribe: a person who copies
righteousness: being
morally right or justified.
rite: an act in a
religious ceremony.
ritual: a set of actions
that is always performed in the same way as part of a religious ceremony.
Sabbath: the day of rest
and worship. In the Jewish faith, the Sabbath occurs from sunset on Friday to sunset on Saturday, while the Christian Sabbath is on Sunday.
sacraments: rituals
in Christianity.
sacred: something that is holy. sacrifice: to give up something
to benefit another.
saint: a person honored
by the Christian church because of their holy life.
salat: prayer and the
second pillar of Islam.
salvation: being saved from
fourth pillar of Islam.
books, letters, and other documents by hand.
scripture: a sacred book. scroll: a piece of paper or
parchment with writing on it that is rolled up into the shape of a tube.
sect: a group whose members share the same beliefs and practices. seder: a Jewish ritual that
involves the retelling of the story of the escape of the Israelites from slavery in ancient Egypt.
segregate: to keep apart. sermon: a speech given
by a member of the clergy during a religious service.
shahada: the first and most important pillar of Islam, which professes the Muslim belief that there is only one God and Muhammad is his prophet. Shakti: the feminine form
of the divine in Hinduism.
heard, and is used to describe the four Vedas of Hinduism.
shudra: the fourth and lowest varna, or social class, of Hinduism.
sin: the act of disobeying God’s will.
smriti: meaning that which has been remembered, and is used to describe the four Vedas of Hinduism. soul: the eternal or real self. spiritual: relating to the
mind and spirit instead of the physical world.
stupa: a burial mound that contains ashes or relics of Buddha. submission: the act of obeying another person or force.
sunna: the teachings, actions, and saying of the Islamic prophet Muhammad that are passed down orally from one generation to the next. Sunni: one of the two
main groups of Muslims.
Shi’a: one of the two main groups of Muslims.
GLOSSARY
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GLOSSARY supernatural: unable to be explained by science or the laws of nature. supreme: the highest rank or authority.
Torah: the first five books of the Hebrew Bible, which represent the teachings given to Moses by God.
vaisha: one of the four classes,
tradition: the handing down
vaulted: an arched structure. Vedas: one of the sacred
sustainability: the
of customs, ideas, and beliefs from one generation to the next.
symbolic: something that
transcendent: having
ability to endure.
stands for or represents something else.
synagogue: a place where Jewish people worship and study.
tallit: a prayer shawl worn by Jewish men.
Talmud: a text that contains
discussion and interpretations of the Torah, Judaism’s sacred text.
tamid: a sanctuary lamp in a
Jewish temple that is usually located in front of the ark where the Torah scrolls are located.
virtue: any good quality or trait. Vishnu: one of the three
transgression: an act that goes against laws or rules. treason: the crime of betraying one’s country. Trimurti: the ruling trio of
gods in Hinduism: Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva.
Trinity: the Christian concept upanayana: a Hindu ritual
sections of the Christian Bible.
tolerance: the willingness to respect or accept the customs, beliefs, or opinions of others.
texts of Hinduism.
transept: the part of a church or other building that lies across the main body of the building at right angles.
terrorism: the use of violence testament: one of two main
of Hindu society.
virgin: a person who has
of three forms of a single God: Father, Son, and Holy Spirit.
and threats to frighten people.
varnas: the classes
continuous existence outside the created world.
tenet: a principle or belief that is held to be true.
or varnas, of Hindu society.
which marks a male child’s initiation into the life of a student and acceptance as a full member of the religious community.
Upanishads: one of the sacred texts of Hinduism.
not had sexual intercourse.
ruling gods of Hinduism, known as the Preserver.
wheel of life: the endless cycle of birth, death, and rebirth in Buddhism. worship: to express love or devotion to God.
yantras: Hindu diagrams of the universe. yarmulke: a skullcap worn by many Jewish men.
yoga: a form of physical and
mental exercise and mediation.
zakat: paying of charity and the third pillar of Islam. Zionism: a political movement to establish a national homeland for the Jewish people in Palestine, and the development of the modern state of Israel.
RESOURCES BOOKS Ambalu, Shulamit. The Religions Book: Big Ideas Simply Explained. New York: DK, 2013. Bowker, John. World Religions: The Great Faiths Explored & Explained. New York: DK, 2006. Cooke, Tim. National Geographic Concise History of World Religions: An Illustrated Time Line. Washington, D.C.: National Geographic, 2011. 116
COMPARATIVE RELIGION | GLOSSARY & RESOUCES
CHILDREN’S ACTIVITY/EDUCATION RESOURCE
focus on social studies
More than 7 billion people live on our planet and more than 80 percent of them describe themselves as being religious. Few topics incite such passion as religion. What does that mean? Why are humans invested in ideas that may never be proved? Why has religion played such an important role in history? In Comparative Religion: Investigate the World Through Religious Tradition, readers seek answers to these questions by comparing and contrasting the cultural, spiritual, and geographical underpinnings of five different religions. By developing a better understanding of the similarities and differences among religions of the world, readers gain a strong foothold in a dialogue that has continued for thousands of years. Combining hands-on activities with theology, history, geography, world cultures, art, and architecture, Comparative Religion encourages a deeper understanding of the world’s religions. Entertaining graphic art, fascinating sidebars, and links to primary sources illuminate the topic and bring it to life, while key questions reaffirm foundational concepts.
AGES: 12–15 | GUIDED READING LEVEL: W “ Comparative Religions presents the basic elements of five religious traditions to help readers become familiar with and reflect on those faiths. Most importantly, it attends to ways the major faiths have shaped and are shaping their world, and cues them to note how tremendously significant the impact of religion is.” —Kate Oxx, Assistant Professor of Religious Studies, Saint Joseph’s University “ This book is a very well executed, readable, and accurate portrayal of the world’s major religions. Helpful website references allow students to learn more about the religions on the Internet, and a nicely illustrated cast of characters brings the issues to life. This book challenges students to really engage with the philosophy, history, and culture of the religions and it introduces them to a lot of new terms without overloading them.” —Daniel Veidlinger, Professor, Department of Comparative Religion and Humanities, California State University, Chico
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