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Cornell University Library
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769.S59 The book
of bread
/
3 1924 003 577 214
JÂŤ
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Cornell University Library
original of this
book
is in
the Cornell University Library.
There are no known copyright
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the United States on the use of the
text.
http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924003577214
Printed by Turnbull
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Spears
Edinburgh
THE
BOOK OF BREAD BY
OWEN
SIMMONS,
F.C.S.
(OWEN AND OWEN) Highest Possible Medallist in the United Kingdom in Bread-making in 1886
Examiner (1888-9)
National Associktion of Master Bakers and Confectioners of Great Britain and Ireland Certificated by Examinations under Government [Science and Art Department) in Chemistry, Mechanics, Machine Construction and Hygiene, and in Bread-making under the City and Guilds of London Institute [with ^'Honours ") " Expert since 1888 to " The British Baker Technological
to the
Bread Judge at the International Exhibitions Juror to the Universal Food and Cookery Association Lecturer on Bread-making Technology at the International Exhibitions, at the Borough Polytechnic, and " The National School of Bakery " etc., etc.
Maclaren Offices
of The
& British
Sons Baker'
37 and 38 Shoe Lane, London, E.G.
0^
"^6
9
tytyryyt^
All rights reserved
CONTENTS The
...
Illustrations
.... SECTION
Ingredients and their Uses
SECTION The Good and Faulty
PAGE ii
Points of a Loaf
I
II .
.
SECTION
15
.
.
72
III
The Changes
in Flour and Bread during Storage, Fermentation, Baking, AND Digestion .129 .
.
.
.
.
.
,
....
.
SECTION IV The
Finishing of the
Dough
.
141
SECTION V Machinery, Appliances, Ovens, Firing, Draught and Ventilation
192
SECTION VI Methods of Fermentation and Manufacture
228
.
SECTION VII Useful Data
Index
.
.
.
.
315
,321
PREFACE A
LT HOUGH the
first
For
Press.
almost incredible,
it
is
now
just
upon twenty years since
contribution from the author's pen appeared in the
fifteen years, since 1888,
when
first
Trade
approached by the publishers
of The British Baker and of this present work, the author's articles in that
prominent journal have been quite continuous, as many as three having occasionally appeared in one weekly issue.
a phenomenally large correspondence of
many hundreds
almost every conceivable inquiry concerning ness,
During that long connection, of letters, containing
the bakery busi-
difficulties in
have been received from throughout the British Empire, and these
correspondents have book.
many
These requests have been followed by
publishers, which in turn success,
times suggested and requested the writing of a
as others
say,
distinct offers
from the present
had to be refused, because the very secret of the attending
these
contributions,
namely, the close
association with the commercial side of the subject, has militated against
obtaining the necessary time and opportunity for treating sufficiently well a matter of such importance, and entailing an immeasurably greater strain
than the usual weekly "
Book of Bread"
article.
as a suitable
Even
the recent invitation to produce this
companion
to the
most excellent
Cakes," was, after great consideration, declined with regret the whole truth, and nothing but the truth, his repeated refusal
is
;
"
Book
of
but the truth,
that, not until the
author saw
was endangering the continuance of a long and valued
connection, did he reluctantly yield to persuasion, and then proceed with
all
PREFACE
8 his
might to arrange
Thus the
doing thoroughly that which he had undertaken.
for
origin of this book.
After reference to the extent of the Trade Press contributions, a word of explanation
given on
is
Anonymity
title-page.
its
name
due, concerning the
personal, but in matters technical
is
of the author of this
distinctly repulsive
in
work as
all
matters
Both
has considerable advantages.
it
by correspondence and by many positions held, the author has been thrown into contact, in different capacities, with a large
number of
all
sections of
the trade, and, although always having the courage of his opinions necessary, he has preferred privacy
and reserve, not wishing
personally upon others, or to appear egotistical.
when
to force
them
He has also experienced great
pleasure in discussing, and hearing opinions concerning his
own
articles,
which, of course, could not have been so freely done had their authorship
been recognised. distinct
The
names, as of individuals, a unity
had become known
accompanying
much ally,
in
well-informed
satisfaction, pleasure,
some
in trinity,
circles,
title-page, the reputation of
The British Baker
and
and although one of them is
another
now announced on is
the
affording the author
and amusement, especially when, as occasion-
of the subject matter
Amongst about 350 in
work has mostly been done under three
author's
distinct
is
quoted authoritatively to himself
books and pamphlets on
office alone, there are
many
this trade contained
excellent contributions
by
gentlemen who have been good enough to mention the author therein, such as those, taken at random, of Messrs J ago, Gribbin, Cobley, Vass, and Chidlow.
was
On
J.
&
a different system to the above,
originally intended to produce the author's
tions in the
form of an Encyclopedia.
contributions order, which assistant,
Mr
and
letters,
A. Kirkland, Blandy, Vine,
The
own twenty
it
years' contribu-
author started to read his
own
classifying the various subjects in alphabetical
was rendered more possible by the Frederick Pile
:
excellent services of his
the extent, however, of the task being then
'M
PREFACE more
thoroughly
reaHsed,
further
contributions
those
reading of
had
and others could barely be commenced, therefore the
to be discontinued,
Encyclopedia idea had,
be abandoned.
for the present, to
The
various
headings had to be rearranged into their present sections, and the book, already most expensive in production, and voluminous,
now
consists
of
an exhaustive treatment of merely the questions suggested by the author's
own
correspondents, which, however, by extending over so long a time
and so wide an practically
would
area,
as seen
all,
find useful or
The
may be
fairly
taken as representing, and including,
by the index, the baker,
would desire
to
know.
contents will be seen to include
ingredients and mechanical appliances used
author
is
most constantly consulted.
bread, and discussed.
ordinary avocations,
in his
full
information on the various
by bakers, concerning which the
The good and bad
points in a loaf of
how they should be respectively obtained and avoided, are fully The two most important and unique features, however, clearly
distinguishing this
most expensive
book from anything hitherto produced, which
illustrations,
fulfil
a
promise
publication of diagrams of exhibition prize loaves in four years ago
;
and, secondly, the tabulated results,
of over 360 experiments,
and
different
in
are, firstly, the
arising
from
the
The British Baker
the concluding section,
methods of bread-making, together
many
with the results and the concentrated information of
years of close
observation and experience.
Most
of the loaves, that are photographically reproduced in colours,
have been selected from those winning prizes have been
book by well-known
specially supplied for the purposes of this
gentlemen engaged
in the family
are therefore specially
due
for
and wholesale trades
firm of Glasgow,
Mr
;
the author's thanks
such loaves to Messrs Spiking
bakers to the Royal Family, Messrs
known
at competitions, but others
W.
Skinner
&
& Co.,
London,
Sons, Ltd., the well
A. L. Johnston, Wimbledon, the Chairman
PREFACE
lo
of the Educational Board of the National School of Bakery,
London, and
men
Mr
Mr
Peters,
R. Marshall, of Bellshill, Scotland, the two latter gentle-
being also particularly
known
as prominent prize-winners.
In conclusion, the author hopes, by reason of his having performed the duties of an apprentice of an operative sufficiently long for his purpose,
and
of an employer, subsequently to his classical and scientific training, to have
succeeded in here supplying the link between the bakery and the laboratory, in driving right
the miller,
when
home
in
flour
is
simple language, to the needs of the baker and of too often blamed for other faults
author hopes this humble
effort will
;
and, further, the
earn a reception by his clientele no
worse than that accorded to his other productions of a more evanescent and desultory character.
OWEN SIMMONS. 360,
COLDHARBOUR LaNE, LONDON, S.W.
THE ILLUSTRATIONS nPHESE
which are distributed throughout the book are
illustrations
largely self-explanatory. hibition prize loaves,
and
We
have before published diagrams of ex-
at the time, four years ago,
asked
for
photographs
such as these, but were told that such would be far too expensive for the usual journal, and, moreover, at that date the present excellence could not
have been attained.
However
to admit that never before
prize loaves originally cesses,
illustrated
in
critical
readers
may
be,
they will be forced
have they seen such a complete collection of
The
such an excellent manner.
no conception of the number of experiments with different pro-
conducted at great expense of money and time, that would be
necessary to produce the plates in their present condition.
and proof
after proof has
been rejected as
produce these
illustrations
expense incurred had to be anticipated.
It
may seem
by an
entirely
sacrificed,
Trial after
insufficiently satisfactory.
of the highest authorities on colour photography in the to
author had
new
trial
One
kingdom undertook
process, but the great
the result being less perfect than
strange to those unaccustomed to this work, that
THE ILLUSTRATIONS
12 one of the chief
difficuhies has
been to reproduce the whiteness of the crumb
of the loaves, and that being so, preference for nearly
been given to the ordinary photography. photographically correct, of exactly perfect as
The
it
possible for
is
them
The
full size,
to
all
of the sections has
loaves are
and the colours are as nearly
be by any process at present known.
representations will at any rate answer a very large
spondents,
who do
now produced
number of
not appear to visit the exhibitions, and write to
style of loaf required in various classes,
and as to whether
corre-
know the
their
own
is
anywhere near the standard.
The in
1st illustration is that of
an excellent
tin loaf to
which we recently,
agreement with other judges, had the pleasure of awarding a
The 2nd The
a section of the same
is
3rd
a section of a
is
first prize.
loaf.
2 -lb. loaf
from South Wales, being worse
than the above only in texture.
The
4th illustration
is
that of a pan loaf with
crumby and greased ends
from Scotland.
The
5th
is
a section of a similar
The
6th
is
a prize English crumby loaf from Liverpool.
The
7th
is
a section of the same.
The
8th
is
a prize batch loaf from Belfast (Ireland) with greased sides.
The
9th
is
a typical Scotch square
loaf.
—the national loaf of Scotland.
THE ILLUSTRATIONS
13
The
loth
is
a section of the same.
The
I
ith
is
a section of a Scotch square, or crumby, or plain, that
the championship at one of the
The
1
2th
a splendid
is
"
London
won
Exhibitions.
Crusty Cottage" from London
;
made by one
of the most regular of prize-winners.
The
13th
is
The
14th
is
a coloured section of the same
loaf.
a beautiful bromide photograph (in the Edition de Luxe)
of another champion cottage, after being exposed in the prize case
all
the
week.
The
15th
is
a photograph in tilting,
so as to
The its
1
6th
a cottage loaf from Wales. full size,
show is
It
is,
like all the other plates,
and the peculiar appearance
is-
due entirely to the
the top.
an English Coburg or Brunswick, selected as the best of
class in a recent competition.
The graph
is
17th
is
a section of same.
In spite of the hole, which in a photo-
rendered exceedingly conspicuous, the loaf totalled more points than
other poor loaves sent.
The
1
8th
is
a fancy or crusty brick.
The
19th
is
a section of a typical French loaf from Scotland baked in
Observe the notches.
a shallow pan.
The
20th, 21st,
and 22nd are photographs taken
at
The British Baker
THE ILLUSTRATIONS
14 office,
by
its
received from
all parts.
The 23rd The
24th
awarded a size,
photographer, of various shapes of bread that were recently
own
a disreputable so-called fancy brick taken at same time.
is
a typical Irish batch, plain or turnover
is
prize at last year's
now
but reduced
The Brown "
25th
is
to exactly half,
26th
Exhibition.
is
London
was
that
Originally taken
full
because too large for the page.
a section of the loaf that
class at last year's
The
London
loaf,
won
first
prize in the
"
Malted
Exhibition.
the usual wheatmeal loaf supplied by a gentleman of
distinction doing a first-class family trade.
The
27th
is
a section of a
milk
loaf
supplied
from
the
same
establishment
The first-class
28th
is
London
exhibitions.
a collection of Vienna bread ordinarily supplied by a firm,
which
is
also distinguished in this department at
SECTION
I
INGREDIENTS AND THEIR USES " Content,
The
if
here
th'
learn'd reflect
unlearn'd their wants
may
view,
on what before they knew." Pope.
MALT AND MALT EXTRACT A
/T
ALT
consists of barley or other grain, such as maize
been steeped kiln
;
and
is
in
water
till it
and
rye, that
has
germinates or sprouts, then dried as on a
interesting to bakers because of
its
use for making
home-made
or patent yeasts or barms, and,
more
various kinds of extracts from
that are supplied to the baker in a con-
it
particularly of late, because of the
centrated form.
Although the use of malt by the baker has greatly lessened in districts owing to the admirable supply of ready-made yeast, it is still much used in others, such as in Scotland and the colonies, with which the author has much correspondence. Not only is the quantity
some
of malt,
when making
better, all things equal,
The
character.
one that
is
less extract,
and the stronger the
best for bakers
is
yeast,
a short, crisp, and pale malt, and not
hard, steely, dark, or highly coloured
and
is
—the more the malt the —but also the quality and
patent yeast, of importance,
worse colour
for the bread.
;
the latter often contains
A
baker requires a malt
that has been slowly dried or kilned, not being overheated, but well ventilated, so that its it
moisture would be well removed by the draught, enabling
to break up in the hand
easily.
If too quickly dried,
current of air to carry off the evaporating moisture,
it
and without a good will
be hard
;
but
if
THE BOOK OF BREAD
1
the superfluous water be driven off from the start, and the heat be gradually and slowly raised, it will be more mealy, as it should be, whereby more small
granules of starch, in proportion to large ones, are present, and also more
very much
diastasic properties, the strength of the latter varying
in different
malts. If the
malt should not be good the subsequent mashing must not
be above 158 or
166 degs. F., and the heat must rise slowly, other-
wise the starch would become scalded, which takes place at 10 degs. below this,
and the barm immature.
Some
prefer the malt
the mass would more easily keep porous distilleries that
we have
but
we have
noticed that
visited use a finely-ground malt,
About a ton namely, 2240
better for yeast growth.
be obtained from 10 quarters, namely 3360 extract, the malt should
;
ground coarse, because
lbs.,
lbs.,
some
and consider
it
of malt extract can
When making malt
of malt.
be moistened for two or three days, the water being
thoroughly mixed with the malt
:
then should be spread out and kept fairly
it sprouts, that is, its germ begins to grow in the same sown in the fields, and pushes a sprout through the side of the grain, feeding on the interior starch and other bodies. Something of the same thing happens when wheat at harvest time is left in the fields after being cut, and cannot be carted because of wet weather and the growth and the damage will be more if the weather be warm and sultry than if colder.
warm, whereupon
way as
it
would
if
;
During the malting or sprouting,
special ferments are
the starch of the grain into sugar.
The
developed and convert
ferments and sugar are wanted in
and the growing of the germ must be stopped at the products formed will be consumed. else moment, or the right This growing is stopped by heating which, however, must be high enough to kill the germ without killing or weakening the ferments, the one with which we malt, but their formation
are concerned being called diastase.
When
the growing of the
stopped and the conversion of the starch into sugar originally
is
germ
complete, the
raw grain has become commercial malt, and must then,
purpose of extracting
all
is
for the
the soluble matters thus formed, be well steeped in
water, this then, after being strained, would be an extract of malt
The
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Section of Prize Tin Loaf (ACTUAL
SIZE,)
MALT AND MALT EXTRACT portion of water present, however, by reason of
and expensive
..venient
for
its
bulk
is
17
naturally incon-
purposes of transport, and such would render
This would
unprofitable or else bad value.
same way as
interfere with its sale in the
in the case of patent yeast, that
finally, in spite
of advertisements,
similar circumstances
used often to be brewed
necessary therefore to concentrate the extract by driving off
water by boiling, but boiling ture of 212 degs.,
would
in
kill all
now are. much of
It
the
the ferments and diastase contained therein,
placed in a
is
pressure being reduced,
it
will boil
which should not exceed
1
vacuum
pan, in which,
and concentrate
at a
by the
air
low temperature,
30 degs. F.
two separate
really
and
the usual way, which would be at a tempera-
therefore this thin extract
There are
have done
at a central place
carted round to bakers, as the brewers' thick and the dried yeasts is
it
classes of malt extract obtained according
mashing or manufacture. One is more expensive than the other, even when made from the same malt, and should be used by the baker in different quantities and for different purposes. The one is, where the mashing to the details of
of the malt has been conducted at a low temperature, say at 65 degs. F.,
whereby good colour is obtained and also a good amount of the ferment the other is where the mashing has diastase in its most active condition ;
been conducted over a longer period, at a higher temperature 150 degs.
F.,
whereby
practically
to convert or
change
all
1
30 to
the constituents of the malt are rendered
the starch into soluble matters such as maltose, but
former the starch
in the
is
practically
former, or cold water extract, will yield
very much
and
and lower
sell.
in
It is
less
unchanged.
It is
proteids,
bulk of material, therefore costs more to marra-
strong in diastase and proteids, or nitrogenous matters,
maltose or sugar, and the extract obtained at the higher
and high
in
makose
or malt sugar.
As
baker depends on the purpose for which
at once
obvious that the
namely, extracting at a low temperature,
temperature, although from the same quality of malt,
to the
say,
In the latter case the diastase becomes exhausted by being required
soluble.
facture
all
of,
be seen
how
ludicrous
it
is
it
to is
is
low
which
in diastase is
better value
purchased, and
to indiscriminately
and
it
will
buy these comparar
THE BOOK OF BREAD
1
modern products without knowing
lively
as
their constituents,
and using them,
many
do, without settled purpose, merely hearing that malt extract is a good thing, and without any consideration concerning the process of
fermentation employed, or the character of the
flour.
A little knowledge is a dangerous thing, and we cannot help again mentioning a rather old joke, because the circumstance has happened again to us during the last few days, namely, of a correspondent asking how much
diastase he should use as he
of yeast.
It is true that
are also used in what, by
yeast
is
a
was going to give it a trial instead both yeast and diastase are called ferments, and
its
action,
is
bakehouse a ferment but merely a soluble albuminoid, and
called in the
liviag plant, whereas diastase
is
;
a result of germination, possessing digestive properties.
It is
the strongest
and best known of the family of unorganised and hydrolytic ferments called enzymes. It is present naturally in malted grain, being largely and chiefly produced by the germination of barley, and to a less extent in wheat. It is
present in barley in quantities of less than
i
per
cent.,
yet
is
supplied
in tins, with other products, as a concentrated solution of a syrupy nature, of sufficient strength to necessitate the use of only 4 to 8 ozs. to a sack of 280 lbs. flour, according to the make, at a total cost of fourpence-half-
penny
These
to sixpence.
extracts that contain very
quantities
little
do not
refer to
of the active principle diastase.
some other ferments of its family, such as of bread in a very marked degree, one
exposed to
its
it
part of diastase in
in
in
Under favourable con-
converting most of the starch
and dextrine or goim. Its ability whereby a great portion of the product is maltose, and
also the close similarity of
The
succeed
on the starch good condition
influence into maltose sugar
to thus digest starch,
contained
will
Contrary to
invertase, diastase acts
being able to convert about 2000 parts of starch. ditions of temperature
some commercial malt
human
its
action to that of the digestive ferment, ptyalin,
saliva, is the
main cause of
its
importance.
formation of maltose sugar, with small quantities of dextrine, gives
a characteristic flavour and moistness, and indirectly improves the size and colour (as noticed in
some
instances)
by reason of the stimulating action
MALT AND MALT EXTRACT which maltose has on (where the time
is
yeast,
19
which therefore more quickly and thoroughly
limited) does
its
work of
aeration.
During the stages of
fermentation yeast feeds on maltose for the purpose of supplying alcohol
and carbon dioxide, as
is
seen by the decrease in the specific gravity during
the progress of a malt wort. of obtaining
its
much work by
yeast,
have a
is
therefore evident that
maltose by starch conversion, has saved.
On
yeast, instead
supplied ready for use,
cells that are
Starch
scalded or gelatinised.
temperature than 149 to 153 degs.
less
it
if
accompanied
the other hand diastase, unless
unable to have action on starch
is
their contents
much
It is
is
not cracked, nor
not gelatinised at
F., therefore, except as
regards the few starch cells that become cracked or fissured by other means
than hot liquor, diastase has generally been considered as being as a yeast stimulant,
often accompany
it.
the diastase to attack itself is killed,
use
beyohd the amount of saccharine matter that might Although starch gelatinises as above, and thus allows it
we must remember
at that temperature,
or ceases to
act,
when above
degs. F., and, moreover, works at It is therefore
degs. less.
little
its
that diastase
the temperature of 175 or 180
height in a temperature of 40 to 50
seen that the margin of time at the disposal of
diastase for this conversion during baking,
is
the time that would be neces-
sary for the loaf to ascend from the temperature of about 145 degs. F. to that of about 180 degs. F., or through a
We
have referred above to the
minimum
of 30 degs.
different constituents of malt extract
according to the method of preparation, and also to the period at which diastase can attack the starch
â&#x20AC;&#x201D; subjects on which
questions are frequently
asked.
Although one does not see much on these points
making
press,
.
we have an immense amount
in the bread-
of papers concerning them,
written by the most eminent men, and produced in the Chemical Society's Journal.
We
have just been reading some of these papers by Morris and
Ling, and the following short particulars give good information on several points that have just been discussed.
When
diastase from well-grown, low-dried malt
starch paste or soluble starch, the starch
is
is
hydrolysed
allowed to act on in
about i| hours.
THE BOOK OF BREAD
20
whilst after forty-two hours the products are substantially those of maltose, and in
such a solution nothing but maltose can be detected.
Diastase prepared from malt grown under abnormal conditions (such as small quantities prepared in the laboratory) and diastase which has been slowly heated to 1 1 to 120 degs. do not hydrolyse the starch completely to maltose, even if
allowed to act 115 to
1
in large excess
Neither the kilned
diastase which has been rapidly heated to
:
20 degs. produces a more pronounced final
(considered
accordance with Kjeldahl's is
a criterion of
is
heated above 65 degs.,
"
;
this
the
behaviour towards starch. its
quite different to that of a
60 degs.
" diastatic
power " determined in law of proportionality " by Lintner's method,
nor
alone),
its
When
reaction with starch
solution which
shown, not only by the
is
effect.
temperature at which a sample of malt has been
a diastase solution
paste appears to
be
has not been heated above specific
rotatory and
cupric
reducing power of the dissolved matter, but also by the presence of dextrose
among
A
the final products of hydrolysis.
number of estimations of the
" diastatic
power " of malt were
carried out in order to test the accuracy of Kjeldahl's " law of proportionality."
It
was found that the law does not hold
low-dried malt
when
their extract
the ordinary temperature.
be misleading, since
in
The
is
either for green malt or for
allowed to act on a solution of starch at
" diastatic
power "
as usually estimated
order to meet the requirements of the
"
may
law of pro-
portionality " only very dilute solutions of diastase should be employed.
When in
yeast
is
allowed to act on a solution of starch-conversion products
the presence of active diastase, the quantity of matter fermented
in excess of that
which can be fermented by the yeast alone
;
is
greatly
and when active
diastase and yeast are allowed to act conjointly on the so-called stable-dextrine,
which, under ordinary conditions,
mentable by yeast, It is
it is
now shown
is
neither degradable
by diastase nor
fer-
entirely fermented.
that a similar action takes place
when
certain ungelatin-
ised starch-granules are submitted to the joint action of malt extract yeast, the quantity of starch
decomposed by the
and
joint action being about
MALT AND MALT EXTRACT The
three times that dissolved by malt extract alone.
the presence of yeast
21
increased action in
not due to the removal of the soluble product,
is
maltose, from the field of action, and the consequent greater activity of the
No
diastase.
increased diastatic action takes place
in
the presence of yeast
if the fermentative power of the latter is checked by chloroform, neither does any increase of action take place when the malt extract is submitted to
and the
fermentation,
removed, before the addition of the
yeast-cells
starch-granules.
Precipitated
behaves
diastase
in
same way
the
as cold water malt
extract, but to a less extent.
The combined
action of diastase
and yeast only occurs with those
starches which are attacked in the ungelatinised form by diastase, such as
barley or malt starch.
same authors
The
granules of potato starch, according to the
above referred
as
to,
are not acted on by diastase even in
the presence of yeast. It is
following
therefore seen that the constituents of malt-extract vary, but the is
an analysis of one that has attained popularity
:
Nitrogenous matters (including diastase)
.
Maltose and glucose
.
.
.
.
.
Dextrine
.
.
.
.
.
Ash Water
13-39
.
...... ....... .
50-95 6.61
5.36
.
23.69
100.00
When
a malt extract contains a large degree of diastasic strength, 4 ozs. per sack of flour, as sometimes used, will have as much effect, as regards
mellowing the diastase
flour,
and high
as
would
in maltose.
in the later stages of fermentation
able by yeast,
is
i
The ;
lb.
of another sort, which
was low
former, by acting on the flour,
and the
latter,
by being
best, as a rule, in the prior stages.
is
in
best
directly ferment-
If only
one stage, the
user must be careful to add no excess, whereby there would be undesirable quantities of maltose
and dextrine, which would make the bread sticky and
THE BOOK OF BREAD
22
clammy and
difficult
This
bake.
to
however, would
stickiness,
often
decrease as fermentation was allowed to proceed further, being consumed
by the the
yeast, as
dough
have an
can be proved by adding excess and baking portions of
at varying periods.
effect
Practically
on the degrading of the
therefore quickeners of fermentation. useful in mellowing or peptonising
all
the extracts on the market
flour or the feeding of the yeast,
As
have mostly been found
such, they
and ripening harsh and strong
with soft flour and a long process there
usually quite enough,
is
and are
flours, if
but
not too
much, weakening already.
Instead therefore of any further weakening it would be better, on the contrary, to give more salt, more labour, and something of an astringent nature, such as was once supplied by alum when the wheat was soft and malted in the fields.
The
ferments produced
in
wheat when sprouted or malted
in
the
or in any raw or imperfectly malted grain, are of a weaker and
field,
lower order than properly prepared diastase, and cannot be placed quite in the
same
class
action on gluten.
by having
less action
In soft flours there
is
on soluble
starch, but they
have
thus sufficient soluble matter without
further adding about 6 to lo per cent., as
would be done by malt extract
during the bread-making process, some of which would be consumed by the yeast.
Flours at one time were nearly
were too harsh now, ;
at the present
harsh, they can be improved
too soft
all
;
a few years ago
moment, they are about normal.
by a judicious use of malt extract
many
When
in flavour
too
and
moistness and also sometimes in bloom, because they can well do with the characteristic action of malt extract, namely,
their soluble matters increased.
malt extract prevents sour bread
The is
having their starch reduced and
statement, as sometimes made, that
risky,
because with speed increased,
and the time not shortened, the opposite would be the flours
to a
and short processes, the best way
little
scalded
flour,
and then
stir in
case.
to use malt extract
With harsh is
to
add
it
yeast and strain into trough for
With long processes, it is best to keep or dough stage, because in such processes as
incorporating with rest of batch.
the malt extract out until last in
Scotland any such quickener, where there
is
already a lot of soluble
MALT AND MALT EXTRACT matter, would require If
used
much
and the quickening allowed Although found that with less
in
the
those stages should be increased,
in
for subsequently.
are quicker than barms,
yeasts
distillers'
Scotch process they
when used
because
effect,
watching, or would be likely to produce harm.
proportion of flour
earlier, the
23
will
the
stand
process
frequently
is
it
more malt extract considerably
often
is
decreased in time, and has not the soluble and malt principles as would
And
be the case with the barm. case of Parisian
also
barm than compound.
more can often be used in the Although in the greater portion
of England, with most of the malt extracts on the market, to use about | to
some
tests that
lb.
i
per sack of 280
were made
for the
we
lbs.,
is
it
customary
were recently concerned with
purpose of demonstrating the value of a
kneading machine, and conducted by American bakers, who added 3
lbs. to
The
the batch of one barrel (196 lbs.) or less than three-quarters of a sack.
two cheapest constituents of malt extract are glucose and water, and the
amount used per sack and the value must depend largely on these. A rough guide concerning concentration and quality can be obtained by seeing to what Glucose being a cheap extent it will run to fine threads when pouring. sugar, and a yeast food of less cost than malt extract, is in some cases added
amount
largely,
and should not exceed about one-quarter or
of maltose
;
the
amount
that
one-fifth
the
would be naturally present being
less
rather than otherwise, but according to the process.
One
As
in
is
the
often asked
case
if
is
a good substitute for potatoes.
advantages or disadvantages
of the
according to the class
malt extract
or the
manner of
its
use,
so
is
of it
malt
extract,
with potatoes.
In the case of a sponge or dough they can be easily discontinued with or
without a substitute, but
in the case of a
ferment (not the modern short
one of just half an hour or so merely to start the yeast, but the larger and longer one for the purpose and absolute necessity of increasing a small quantity of yeast in order to do subsequently the work of a larger quantity), it
is
not reasonable to suppose that
those conditions, be the same
all
i
lb.
of liquid material
round comfort
as, say,
will,
under
the previous 14
lbs.
THE BOOK OF BREAD
24 of potatoes.
It is just
the difference between a piece of beefsteak and a cup
One may be an
of Bovril.
extract from the other
and possess
all
the
nutriment, stimulant, and good constituents in a handy and more convenient form, but it has not the bulk of matter, it is more readily consumed, digested and forgotten and has not the same amount of stay or lasting effect. An extract of potato or an extract of flour would not make so good a ferment ;
when
required to be long and steady and progressive, as would the bulk
of potato or bulk of
and an extract of malt on the same
flour,
lines will not
The
take the place of the crushed or entire malt, or other bulks of material. extracts should be
made more steady and
added to them portions of scalded and
filling in their effect,
also
raw
flour, in
by having
order to represent
the cells of the potato that had been scalded during cooking.
The
principles affecting flavour, moistness,
and yield of bread are
dis-
cussed under their respective headings. Malt, and the matters extracted from
it,
is
j.
very old acquaintance of
the bakehouse, and should therefore be better understood by the average
baker than
under notice
it
appears to be in
in its
new form
its
new
form.
When
first
it
came
baker was asked to pay a royalty to
the
the patentee, and to buy the utensils for the purpose of making
it
himself
under the patented process, but the manufacture, although easy enough when understood, requires skill, plant, space ard knowledge, and like wheat buying, yeast brewing and biscuit making, al of which were once in the hands of the baker to a very much greater extent, has passed largely into the hands of more distant specialists.
During the interval between writing *-he above and the reading of proofs, we have come across three very lon'j articles, which we wrote over ten years ago,
in
a very
politic for the present
book.
much more advanced style than is considered Some of the^ same ground has been covered
in the present contribution, but a
summar)' of those
adds to what has already just been as follows
said,
articles in so far as
it
can be advantageously appended,
:
The embryo (germ)
derives
its
food from the endosperm (starch), the
Section of
Good Commercial Tin (ACTUAL
SIZE.)
Loaf>
MALT AND MALT EXTRACT
25
The resting being merely a dead storehouse of reserve material. embryo contains no diastase ("of secretion"), but the latter appears during
latter
germination, and
secreted by
is
epithelium cells
tTie
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;by
them only
â&#x20AC;&#x201D; and
accumulated for the most part in the endosperm (from the nitrogenous matters of which the grain. cells,
produced)
first
is
it
The enzymes
and the resistance
Embryo can be
of the
depends on the "condition" of the grain. separated from the endosperm, showing there is no
easily
The
under the bran contain digestion.
in
)
to their action
organic connection.
human
embryo degrade the starch the same manner as the diastase of malt,
(diastase, etc.
making them "mealy"
proportion to the development of
in
The
aleurone
and
fat
cells
oil,
starch and
(sometimes called gluten
therefore
its
much
cells)
nutriment, but resist
envelope of cellulose are dissolved
enyzmes or ferments, the amylo-hydrolyst The word diastase, like the word gluten, (diastase) and the cyto-hydrblyst. The more highly active form of diastase should is often used ambiguously. respectively by
two
distinct
be called "diastase of secretion," and the other
The
distinguished as " translocation diastase."
germinating embryo,
is
less active
form should be
resting embryo, unlike the
often said to contain " no diastase"
containing none of the powerful diastase of secretion, but
by reason
of
its
nevertheless
it
(although for a long time overlooked) possesses the properties of the less active translocation diastase.
opposed is
to,
During the developing of the embryo
and, of- course, preceding
its
produced, and the unused residue of
resting embryo.
The
diastase of secretion
difference
is
(as
germinating) translocation diastase it
constitutes the diastase of the
between these two diastases
is
that the
and
to erode the
unable.
These two
easily able to liquefy starch paste
starch granule, whereas the translocation diastase
is
diastases might also be respectively classed as the diastases of raw and
germinated grain, or also barley diastase and malt diastase
works worse latter.
at high temperatures, but better at
When
cane sugar
the embryo must
first
is
;
the former
low temperatures than the
present the epithelium
cells secrete
no diastase
use the cane sugar or any other easily absorbed food
before secretion takes place.
Cane sugar promotes
better plant growth
THE BOOK OF BREAD
26
than dextrose, maltose, or milk sugar in the order named. sugars increase, but starch decreases during germination.
The amount
of
POTATOES npHE
potato tuber, which
is
often spoken of in the trade as "fruit," has
been a friend to the baker for generations, and although being now, with good reason, rapidly forgotten has still some supporters. The author, practically throughout his
life, has been strongly against their use and well on their discontinuance costing him services of an excellent foreman, who was the first he ever employed. They are not convenient and are not as cheap as they seem, they have no properties that cannot be as well supplied in other ways, in fact modern methods are
remembers an
insistence
such that there
is
not found as good,
no need it
is
for
them.
Where
substitutes are tried
and
because they are not properly understood, and
an instance of this is considered under the heading of malt extract. Whatever advantages potatoes may be considered to have are outweighed by disadvantages.
Millers spend thousands of pounds in order to
remove all and impurities from the flour, yet the users of potatoes, even if they carefully clean them themselves better than the odd boy would do, put in a considerable amount of dirt, as can be seen by comparing the colour of the dirt
potato liquor with that of clean water.
Dirt
is
always present and often-
times disease as well, especially in bad years, and the most careful overhauling will not always eliminate it. The supposed cheapness does not
pay the trouble and labour. The best that can be bought, such as one would use for the table, are the cheaper, as there is less waste, and better result.
They should be
of
good
size
and mealy, and not too watery or
and should not be of the class known as " Bakers' Potatoes." Let us see the difference in price and convenience between scalded potato starch and scalded wheat starch or flour. Do raw potatoes per pound cost more than flour per pound to buy ? There is not the difference spotty,
POTATOES The
27
75 per cent, water, 17 per cent, starch and sugar, 5 per cent, albuminoids, and about i per cent, each of fat and ash. The flour, on the other hand, consists of about
there
used to be.
consists of about
potato
and sugars, 12 per
12 per cent, of water, 73 per cent, of starch
and
albuminoids,
The
similar
potato
the
as
quantities
of
cent,
ash
fat,
of
and
and albuminoids are not only useful foods, but also are more profitable to buy than water, and it is clearly seen above cellulose.
starch, sugar
how much water
is
bought
in
solid matter in the potato all finds its
to
come out
left
of
and
it,
if
Not even
a potato.
insufficiently
way
cooked there
worse
still,
this
will
is
the skin
be a quantity of potato
waste and skin
some potatoes get bad and
In addition,
per cent, of
to the bread, as there
adhering to the skin after straining, and
that 25 per cent.
the 25
all
come
off
are discarded, or,
are not, and the price of the dirt bought with them, and the cost
of removing
it
which arrives
when bought, shows all
a great contrast to the pure, clean
ready for use without waste and with but
can be instantaneously cooked. flour as regards the soluble
stances of to-day, compared
The
slight
little
flour,
water, and
advantage the potato has over
albuminous matter
is
nothing, under the circum-
to the advantage of flour over potato as regards
starch and everything else.
The way
to see the truth of the
from the potato
settle,
pouring
above
is
to let the matters extracted
water or evaporating the
off the superfluous
whole to dryness and weighing the sediment, which
much
less
pared
in this
than anticipated.
will
be found to be
This sediment can be bought already pre-
manner under the name of potato
and contains the whole
flour,
of the matters of the potato, the starch as well as the nitrogen, as against
potato starch which contains only what
its
name
implies.
Potatoes vary in
strength according to season and also according to age, but the soHds of
such a potato flour when refined and purified would contain nearly 99 per cent, of starch, and about ^ per cent, of mineral matter and { per
A
pound of it would equal as ordinarily purchased and would absorb about With the addition of raw flour, scalded water. cent, of albuminoids.
fully 10 lbs. of potatoes J
a gallon or
flour
and malt
5
lbs.
of
extract,
THE BOOK OF BREAD
28
no better yeast food
and trouble and
in colour
The
purposes would be wanted, and the saving
for ordinary
risk
would be
great.
boldness in the loaf attributed to potatoes
is
only due to an
increased vigour of fermentation by the food they supply, which in cases, according to conditions,
way.
might be missed
If a sufficient quantity of yeast
used
is
it
some
not supplied in another
if
will find
plenty of oppor-
making gas, which, in conjunction with gluten is what makes boldness or bulk. When yeast could not be bought cheaply in a concentrated form, but had to be grown more largely in the bakehouse, the circumstances were different. The tunity of getting food and
and proper management,
moistness claimed
wheelbarrow
is
due to
their scalded starch cells during cooking.
a handy thing in which to carry a
is
cannot walk, but
it
not needed
is
if
A
man home when he
a better conveyance can be obtained
;
the simile applies with force to the purpose once served by potatoes and for
which they have now been superseded.
Not only they are recently
wonder is
are potatoes said to have deteriorated in quality because
cultivated
from
tubers
been traced to them if
by-and-by any food
attributed
to
and
cases
not from
be
will
an active principle
left
known
but there have and one begins to
seed,
of poisoning,
unassailed.
as
solanine
This poisoning
which can be
extracted from the potato fruit and belongs to the poisoning class. is
is
certainly present in the potato fruit but
present in the potato
itself.
It
may
it
is
more
difficult to
say
occasionally develop in the skin,
It if it
and
found also just under the skin, and
will sometimes give a rank and bitter have known many cases where there was a bitterness in the bread, that has been traced to the ferment being left too long, and where is
taste.
We
brewers' yeast or hops had not been used, and where the bread was the picture of health and did not
show the
such as referred to in another place. ferments, especially at
Bank
slightest signs of over-fermentation,
We have also known on the other hand
holiday times, that have stood a surprisingly
long while without taking any harm or bitterness, but the precaution, be it noted, was taken to strain the potatoes and set the ferment without the skins.
SUGAR
SUGAR npHIS
well-known sweet crystalline substance
cane,
and
is
and other
also the beet, maple,
obtained from the sugar-
These canes are about an inch thick, and grow to a height of lo or 20 feet, the hottest places producing the best canes, and 100 of them will yield about 70 lbs. of sugar. The canes are first crushed and the juice squeezed out. The extracted juice
is
mixed with quicklime, and top and are skimmed
float to the
The
uncrystallised.
way
wheat
also boiled
;
plants.
during boiling the impurities
the crystallised
off;
is
separated from the
crystallised or crystals are ground, in
much
the
same
ground and refined into flour, into various grades of commercial sugar, one grade differing in colour very much from another from the same crystals, such, for instance, as castor sugar and icing sugar, merely from as
is
increased fineness.
would be the sugar.
As in The
flour,
the whiter or lighter the colour the purer
uncrystallised, or the sugar that crystallises with
difficulty, is sold
as treacle, or golden syrup, and is very sweet, containing sometimes as much as one-third glucose to two-thirds cane sugar. Small quantities of treacle, or golden syrup, can be
sugar
known
as "pieces"
is
added
to
containing more water and being worse colour. sugars contain as much as 99 per cent, of suo-ar. So-called cane sugar
irrespective
of
its
distinguish between
is
The
highly refined
class with the
Moreover,
it
is
same
practically
characteristics,
impossible
to
pure sugar from the beet of France and that
the
from is
The
not necessarily sugar from the juice of the
any sugar of a high source.
bread.
a lower grade, corresponding to a low grade
flour,
cane, but refers to
brown
the cane of the West Indies it is only when the beet sugar not sufficiently highly refined that any difference can be noted, and then ;
by the taste. Cane sugar is very stable, and not therefore directly fermentable by yeast, but must be inverted into glucose. Glucose, as discussed under a separate heading, from soluble
starch, etc.,
is
a lower form of sugar, and can be produced
by acid as well as
yeast,
and
is
then cheap.
There
THE BOOK OF BREAD
30 is
a difference of opinion as to whether glucose or cane sugar
Sweetness
which
is
sugar,
is
is
the sweeter.
not necessarily an indication of sugar, because saccharine,
is
often used for sweetening, being very
much sweeter than cane
associated with coal-tar, and has no connection whatever with the
carbohydrate family of which sugar
The
is
so important a member.
cheaper grades of cane sugar sometimes have rather considerable
portions of glucose added, and the presence of the latter can easily be discovered
by
well-known action on Fehling's solution, whereby a red coloration or
its
precipitate
formed, according to the amount present, whereas pure cane
is
sugar gives no such coloration.
when bought and
I
lb.
at glucose price,
per sack
known
is
one of the best sugars
suitable for average results.
is
known
tained in malt,
This glucose, sometimes called grape sugar, for
adding to bread,
There
is
sugar con-
as malt sugar or maltose, also sugar contained in milk,
amount of other sugar added per sack must depend on whether malt extract or milk be used at same time, and also on Anythe process of bread-making, and the quality and character of flour. as lactose, therefore the
thing from i
lb.
to 2 lbs. of total sugar per sack can be added, according
above conditions, but too much will often make the ferment or sponge and i lb., as in the case of glucose, will usually be found enough. In
to the fret,
the case of making buns, the whole of the sugar required for the bun
put in the ferment
will
when
sometimes have a restraining instead of a stimulating
by reason of being in excess, and it is best to divide the sugar equally between ferment and dough. A quart of water, when cold, will dissolve and hold in solution about 5 lbs. of sugar, and more when heated, the specific
effect,
gravity of sugar being about 1.6
per
cent., or one-third, will
;
but a solution containing anything like 30
hinder yeast sown in
it,
and should not exceed
5
or 10 per cent.
The cent., in
sugar naturally present in good average flour
and maltose and,
in
is
from
2
to 3 per
about equal proportions of cane sugar, sometimes called sucrose, ;
some
the softer and less stable flours will contain cases,
will often contain less
also
glucose,
more maltose,
and the harder and stronger
maltose and more cane sugar.
flours
For the purposes of
GLUCOSE bread-making
not necessary to consider the various changes that take
is
it
31
place in the character of sugar during boiHng to different degrees, as required for the various
scum
the original juice, a
worse
will often rise,
and the greater the amount of
When
be the quality of the sugar.
will
oven, sugar produces caramel, or caramelises
substance
is
boiling, as in the case of
goods of the confectioner, but while
it,
the
heated to about 400, as in an that
;
is
to say, a
dark brown
formed.
GLUCOSE /""^
LUCOSE is
made from flour during fermentation but it can also be converted or made from starch, maltose, and dextrine, by acid without yeast. The acid usually employed a low stage of crystal sugar, and
is
^-'^
;
is
sulphuric or hydrochloric (or muriatic, as
it
is
sometimes
and
called),
this
acid sometimes contains arsenic, as has been the case in the recent north-
country beer-poisoning cases. substance
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;
glucose
or rice, than to
make
it
is
cheaper to
make
this
fermentable
ordinary commercial starch, from maize,
from wheaten
flour or barley malt
by the gradual
Glucose being a Substance produced by change,
action of yeast. fore,
It
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;by acid from
according to
its
percentage
precipitate formed
is
there-
a substance, a guide as to the amount
in
When
of change that has taken place.
is
tested with Fehling's solution, the
of a bright red or brick colour,
more so than
in the
case of maltose, the amount of precipitate being in relation to the amount
In the volumetric estimation of glucose, and also of invert-
of glucose.
sugar, the author finds that the final point can be observed
readily
if
the saccharine solution
alkaline
is
advisable, after the inversion of cane-sugar neutralise solution.
it,
or render
it
fermentable,
a
acid.
It
is
therefore
by means of hydrochloric
acid, to
alkaline, with potash before titrating with Fehlino-'s
This substance is
and not
much more
good yeast
moisture, to malt extract,
very soluble
is
food.
but
it
is
in
water, and being
directly
It has a similar effect, as regards sugar only, containing none of the
THE BOOK OF BREAD
32
It is sold in
nitrogenous matter or ferments, such as diastase, of the malt. solid or liquid state, is
and
The
very cheap.
is
although a higher price,
liquid,
preferable to the solid.
SCALDED FLOUR TIJ^LOUR,
or starch,
said to be scalded or gelatinised when,
is
tion of water of certain specific temperatures,
covering swells and then bursts, soluble so as to form,
mass.
when
cool
This change of state
mange, which
is
is
and
familiar to
most people
and
is
in the
a
jelly-like
form of blanc
altogether different from the result of mixing
Ground
being soaked, and several other starches, used
be likewise treated so as
to
for this
or whole
rice,
can also
to the bread
of temperature within which the substances
purpose becomes scalded,
according to the class of substance, and
from 120 to 160 degs.
is
quality
its
and condition, the
larger cells or granules bursting, as a rule, sooner than the smaller.
and
rice,
however, both burst before
second smaller.
flour,
the
first
Potato
being larger and the
In order to avoid a very frequent disadvantage, namely,
lumps, the flour or other material that especially, should
after
rice,
in special instances,
become a yeast food or be added
The range
for other purposes.
be used
and becoming
interior
sufficiently concentrated,
starch with water of a moderate heat.
F.,
cellulose or outer
merely the starch of maize, commonly known as corn-flour,
after being scalded,
likely to
the
liberating
its
by the applica-
be
sifted,
warm waterâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;-no more
of
it
we know
to
be used,
in the
Midlands
then mixed to a perfectly smooth batter with than necessary
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;and
not hot enough to scald,
but as near the scalding point as possible, so as to simplify what follows.
Divide the water with which about to scald into three portions, adding to the batter in three instalments, stirring vigorously stirring
and gradual adding of water
neglected by those not accustomed to
understands this work.
The
first
all
the time
;
and
is
the important part which
it,
but never by the Scotchman
is
this
often
who
portion of water should certainly be
p
't
f
"^^,
>m
<
O
W
D K>«
en
.'.i.>^
X ,^^_^j.*?'„'
SCALDED FLOUR boiling, and, perhaps, also the others,
but
^3
the quantity and heat of the
if
batter be known, the remaining water can be regulated to keep the nicely
above i6o
degs.,
and beyond that there
is
no advantage
but,
;
whole on the
other hand, the soluble albuminoids, or the diastasic properties of the flour,
become coagulated, like the white of an egg, and lose their action, and the whole degraded more than necessary. When well stirred, so that all the starch becomes burst and the whole smooth and cool, some malt extract can be dissolved in other water and added, whereby the whole will become sweet. Raw flour would help to cool and also have some small effect like malt extract. By the time it has stood a little it will be cool enough for the yeast to be dissolved in other water and added. When added to the other liquor of batch,
it
should be strained through a fine sieve, so that nothing,
unless thoroughly dissolved, can find
its
way
to the loaf
Other
details
must
be arranged according to the utensils and process employed and the amount requiring to be prepared.
We like not
2 lbs.
or 3
recommend anyone
lbs.
to
of scalded flour to a sack of flour, and should
exceed 10
lbs.,
which
is
too
much
for
most
we recently had 13 lbs. per sack in a tin loaf that was good, light, and sufficiently soaked. The amount advisable depends on the care and skill exercised and individual circumstances, and should circumstances, although
always be very small at
first
trial,
The
being increased gradually.
larger
amounts require more care than usually given as a permanency, and if they do not show in the crumb in respect of lumps, they must, especially in conjunction with malt extract, reduce the quality and strength of the flour.
Where
the flour has no quality to spare, and the whole process
is
conducted
with no more care than often-times, and also with the least possible labour,
show the added material, when in good quantity. Although short eating when well baked, this crust will be grey, dull, and poor, as in the case of over-ripe bread. With a short process, best grade of flour, plenty of yeast, and gas to aerate, extra salt to toughen, and the dough made up into tins, one, of course, can more easily get the advantages of scalded the crust, as well as the crumb, will
materials as regards moistness, whiteness, and increased yield without the E
THE BOOK OF BREAD
34
disadvantages, according to quantity used, of heaviness, general poorness,
We once received a most satisfactory loaf from merely average country flour from an inventor of a special method in this con-
and crumbliness.
nection, who, as advertised at the time,
process so as to avoid the
pitfalls.
had succeeded
The
in
perfecting his
scalded material should be used
and not allowed to get sour. Further information bearing on this subject be found under the headings of dryness, colour, crumbliness, and yield.
fresh, will
GLUTENâ&#x20AC;&#x201D; THE CHIEF CONSTITUENT OF FLOUR ''HE gluten of a
'
flour is its
most valuable and important constituent, as
I
it is
the one substance that distinguishes the characteristic properties
ofwheaten stance that
but
it is
flour is
from the
flours of other cereals.
chiefly responsible for the bulk
and the lightness of a
also of a very nitrogenous or nutritive value.
the interior portion of the wheat berry, but in flour in its characteristic state until
into dough.
It
it
water
not only the sub-
It is
loaf,
throughout
It exists
does not seem to be present is
added and the
flour
made
cannot be separated from flour as an adhesive and sticky
substance without being wetted, although the indication of
be obtained by ascertaining the nitrogenous ratio
its
presence can
in the flour
by chemical
There is a layer of cells just immediately inside the bran, or outer coating of the wheat grain, which are called gluten cells these, however, do not contain gluten in the same sense of the term as it is now universally used. At one time it was customary to class all albuminoids or nitrogenous matters
reagents.
;
together, under the term of gluten, whether they were soluble or insoluble.
These
so-called gluten cells,
phates,
fat,
When
cerealine, flour
is
sometimes called cerealine
cells,
and soluble matters, but none of the
contain phos-
insoluble.
wetted into a moderately slack dough, and allowed to
stand about an hour, and then washed between the fingers under water, the starch of the flour will flow away, leaving in the hand the adhesive
GLUTEN
^5
and tenacious substance known as gluten. to free
it
from
loose water, a
its
If
be squeezed so as
this
good average and
suitable
bread-making Within
be found to contain about 35 per cent. (30 to 40).
flour will
certain limits, the higher the percentage, the better the flour for bread-
making purposes, but sometimes there
is
of 50 or even 55 per cent., which
not desirable.
is
found a very abnormal percentage
A
sometimes be obtained from badly-matured grain, but that
soon gets
it
and
soft
sticky,
good bread-making purposes. from the its
known
flour, is
as "
and has not the
big quantity can
its
quality
is
such
elasticity as desired for
This lump of gluten, when freshly extracted
wet gluten."
In order, however, to ascertain
percentage, apart from the water absorbed,
slow oven, preferably one heated, as
it
in laboratories,
should be put into a
by a jacket of boiling
water at ordinary pressure, whereby the heat does not vary, and does not get excessive. freed from
its
In about
twenty-four hours the gluten will be entirely
and then be known as "dry gluten," which
water,
about one-third of the wet, but varying slightly according to
Dry gluten
is
always
its
water
cent., and reThere are wider differences than these, as mentioned in the case of the wet gluten, but a fair average for soft flours would be from 6 to 9 per cent., and for strong
capacity.
in
flour can
vary from 6 to
1,5
per
present flours that are serviceable for various purposes.
flours
from 9
to 16 per cent.
Quality, however, of the gluten in flour quantity, stituents.
is
just as important as the
and the quality depends largely on the percentage of It
was
at
its
con-
one time considered that gluten was an elementary
substance, having no constituents of which one need take particular notice.
The all
percentage of these constituents
the
differences
in the
is
now found
to account for practically
bread-making qualities of
similar percentages of total gluten.
flours,
although of
These constituents are usually now
named gliadin and glutenin, which are comparatively new terms. The students who, some years ago, attended the early classes in bread-making, will remember the author drawing special attention to them as glutm and fibrin. Not only are there wide differences in the percentage of gluten in different
THE BOOK OF BREAD
36
according to the
flours, but,
will
be given
for
skill
and method of the operator, varying
one and the same
flour.
This
is
results
particularly noticeable
when people first begin to use this test, and think they know all about it. The differences noted, according to the time the gluten stands and the amount of its washing, when estimating the total gluten, are, however, wider and more important when separating total gluten up into its constituents. Many of the analyses conducted by recognised authorities and men of the highest
skill
are conflicting, as the following will show.
Fleurent's estima-
and gliadin differ remarkably from those of Osborne and Voorhees, who were the first to make this separation in this particular form, and to use the terms "glutenin" and "gliadin." While Fleurent looks tions of glutenin
upon one part of glutenin to three of gliadin as being the normal for flour, Osborne and Voorhees give the following figures for spring and winter wheats respectively
:
Spring Wheat Flour
.
.
.
Winter Wheat Flour
.
.
.
That
is
the gliadin.
to say, in both varieties of
In
Glutenin.
Gliadin.
4.683
3-963
4-i73
3-9io
wheat the glutenin
some determinations made by
is
in
excess of
Jago, and published in the
British Baker, the gliadin was extracted direct from the flour by treatment
with alcohol, and gave the following results :--
GLUTEN the lower, but
gum,
ceptible to the action of moisture
water than glutenin, which
and more
The
stable.
that binds the flour
and
insoluble in water
is
The
centage.
latter
very similar to gliadin, and
The absence
of this
more
is
it
is
sus-
alcohol, also harder
is
gliadin
due to the
decomposed,
easily
is
is
albuminoids, and acts on the starch in a similar way. is
;
gliadin
and soluble ferments, and more soluble
porosity and lightness of a loaf
pasty and elastic gliadin.
mucin
The
a very high proportion of the whole.
still
the tenacious or sticky part, like
in
37
sometimes included
in
substance in
right proportion
its
soluble
like
The
soft
per-
its
in
flours
possessing a large percentage of gluten, accounts for the otherwise un-
explained differences in the behaviour and strength
The
gluten are the same.
a flour
way
is
artificial
when percentages
removing of part of
this gliadin
found to considerably decrease the bulk of a loaf
as too
of
little
it
naturally present in the flour
much
other hand too
of
it
will
often cause soft
extremes either way being undesirable, and
in
new
would
the
in
affect.
from
same
On
the
and sticky dough, the flours
it
is
in a
Cases have been noticed where the flour was
soluble condition.
of
more dis-
its percentage of gluten, and was afterwards found and where, on the other hand, gliadin was in excess, the and afterwards collapsed in the oven.
appointing, according to short in gliadin
;
dough rose well, Mr David Chidlow, the well-known American authority, with whom the author has had the pleasure of comparing notes, found that the percentage of gliadin in gluten was in Winter American Patents about 80 per cent., and in Spring American Patents 70 per cent. In Spring Wheat Clears, or Bakers'
known
here, the percentage was found to be 60 per cent., was 60 to 70 per cent. He further found that in patent flour each part expanded twenty-one times its volume, in Bakers' Grades each part expanded sixteen times, and that two flours possessing the same
Grades, as they are
and
in
Winter Clears
it
percentage of gluten, but differently divided into glutenin and gliadin, the
one containing a bigger percentage of the loaf.
It is
of gliadin
;
therefore seen
and on
this
how
necessary
it
latter is
to
always making the larger
have the right percentage
account there are certain processes that claim to
THE BOOK OF BREAD
38
convert glutenin into gliadin, and to adjust any excess of one or the other,
whereby
is
it
claimed that the gluten
per cent.
When
blend.
is
It
flours are
this
increased to an equivalent of 20
is
blended together the respective glutens also
difference
in
the percentages of glutenin and gliadin
that accounts for the differences between low grade, or bran flours, that
contain larger percentages
often
bread-making
than other flours of better
of gluten
and between the highest-priced
quality,
flour in the world,
namely Hungarian Patent, which does not contain a large percentage of
what there
gluten, but
is
of
it
is
good.
Gluten, as seen by the differences above in wet and dry,
water absorber of gluten
;
nevertheless, there are
some
poor water absorbers
that are
;
flours with
and
it
is
is
a large
high percentage
quite possible
for
10 per cent, of dry gluten to produce a larger yield of
a flour with
more water, than one containing a higher percentage. Neither does excess of gluten increase the volume of the loaf in the same ratio, and when in excess, and not well matured, the loaf is frequently of bad shape, and also dry, but if there is too little the loaf will be small and flat. When the gluten is dried in the water-jacketted oven, as above
bread, retaining
described,
it
does not increase
without being burned
(it
four times
done its
but
would often be
protected from too rash a heat, in oil, as is
in size,
The
it
will
heated at a high temperature,
an ordinary baker's oven), when
or, better still,
in the aleurometer,
original size.
in
if
when placed in a tube and
boiled
then expand enormously to three or
relative expansions of the gluten
these conditions are carefully noted as a guide to
its
quality
when
under
tested in the
Although gluten is composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, it has been found that, although there was no visible effect when exposing flour to the fumes of sulphur, that when attempting to wash out the gluten^ the latter was a slimy and sticky mass, and had none of its proper characteristics, washing away with the water without any laboratory.
nitrogen, and sulphur,
cohesion. sticky
and
The
difficult to
to the sack,
made from a flour thus treated, was very handle, even when containing only 9 gallons of water just half the quantity that is used in some parts of
dough, moreover,
which
is
GLUTEN Lancashire for
tin bread.
39 impossible to wash out any
It is also practically
become
gluten from a dough that has
ripe in the ordinary course of fer-
mentation, although, up to a certain point, fermentation renders elastic
more
is
acted
and tenacious.
Speaking of fermentation, one on by alcohol, the glutenin can be dissolved by
and demand of strong on the purpose
for
tartaric,
in
flour
desirable for bread-making,
in its effect
market is
it is,
manufacture of several kinds of reduced
and
but
precipitate,
The
dilute hydrochloric acid.
flour must depend on the relative supply
flour in the
which the
reminded that when gluten
is
thrown down as a grey
is
acetic,
commercial value of gluten
is
it
for
bread-making purposes, and
required to be used.
to the proper
on the contrary, injurious
biscuits, and, if
At
by extra sugar.
Although gluten
present,
the present
is
moment
required to be gluten
is
more
than usually valuable, strong wheats and strong flours being relatively
â&#x20AC;&#x201D; sometimes the contrary
is
should be mentioned that gluten
is
scarcer than softer varieties
In conclusion,
it
the case.^
much
in
demand
the case of persons suffering from diabetes, because not only does the body with nutriment, like lean meat and casein of milk, but nutritious than starch, and starch its
being changed into sugar
fermentation.
whatever,
is
is
is
it
in
supply
also
more
prohibited to such patients because of
in the digestive
system the same as
it is
by
Gluten bread, which, however, should contain no starch
usually
made from dry
gluten that has been ground into powder,
then worked up sometimes with bran, ground almonds, or other flavourings, together with eggs. factories
Much
of this powdered gluten comes from the starch
on the continent, but much gluten bread has been made by extracting
dough (putting the residue of starch into one's other batch), whereupon the gluten, as in the tests above, would expand by its own action, which it would not do when once it had been dried. Some people seem to maintain that diabetic food should not be entirely free from starch, and some so-called gluten bread that the author has seen from
the gluten from a piece of unfermented
America has contained a considerable proportion of 1
It
has
become
so since.
starch,
merely a portion
THE BOOK OF BREAD
40 of
it
We
being extracted by, apparently, punching the dough when under water. append, however, an analysis of an excellent sample of gluten bread
supplied by
Messrs Bonthron
specialists in this department.
&
Co.,
of London,
who
are well-known
SALT and evaporated, leaving the
salt
behind.
41
Evaporation being an important part
of the process, the price of salt not only depends on
its
supply and demand,
but also greatly on the price of fuel and on the cost of the iron pans, which salt
Fuel being more
wears out very quickly.
taining
much more
now been Salt,
demand, and brine con-
in
than sea-water, the extraction from the latter has
salt
discontinued, at any rate at the favourite haunt above mentioned.
as referred to in detail elsewhere, has a considerable effect on the
At one time
flavour of bread, also on the speed of fermentation. to
be described as the bridle of the steed yeast.
used
it
checks fermentation
It
in
proportion to the quantity added, having a binding and preserving effect on the
flour.
bar of
We
salt for
below the
know
bag of yeast that was accidentally placed upon a some hours, and the bread made from it was considerably
warm
In
usual.
advantageous
of a
weather, or
when sponges
put about a third of the total
to
remainder in the dough.
are long,
salt
in
often
is
it
the sponge, the
long process, of quarter, sponge, and
In the
Scotland it is customary to add the salt in the three stages. England the almost universal amount is 3 lbs. to the sack {280 lbs.), which is normal in flavour; occasionally 2 J lbs. will be used, and if less, the bread will be insipid. With new or soft flour 3^ and often 4 lbs. is advisable, and this is the maximum usually ever heard of,
dough,
in
In
but in
use as low as 4I exceptionally,
4I
most
Scotland a
lbs. can,
lbs.
we know
usual
amount
when using of 9
lbs. to
half
is
6
sponge and
the sack, which
is
in
distillers'
Scotland
yeast, and,
very excessive.
Even
according to other conditions, be usually distinctly tasted.
small bread a normal
amount
in
England
is
J
of liquor, but in Scotland the general amount liquor,
Some
lbs.
which
is
5
ozs. to
the gallon, or 5
tabulated methods at end of book.
to the quart (2^ lbs.)
oz. is
lbs. to
In
i
oz. to
the sack.
the
pound of
See also the
THE BOOK OF BREAD
42
YEAST AT'EAST,
although sold and used
other forms,
in
baker most familiar when
century
This pasty mass
is
in
the twentieth-
to
is
a compressed
more wonderful than many understand, and
pasty mass. is
composed
of a conglomeration of countless and practically identical, yet for the most part wholly botanically disconnected, globular discs, usually
Each of these myriads
cells.
in the
is
as yeast
an independent plant, the smallest
world known to the botanist, about 4000 of them placed end on end
being necessary to measure cell
of cells
known
When
inch.
i
separated from the others, each
can grow, under normal conditions of proper food and temperature,
manner and multiply species usually by budding, but
rapidly in a characteristic
propagates
its
itself extensively.
also
Yeast
in exceptional cases,
such as practically never occur during bread-making, by producing spores within
itself,
sugar cane
known
technically as the process of
endogenous
The
division.
good instance of a plant belonging to the endogenous division which grows within or increases by internal layers. Even at the comparatively is
a
high temperatures
now adopted during bread-making
the formation of spores
would take more than a day, and the starvation of the be excessive, therefore
this
method of growth, although
cells
would have
interesting from
to
many
standpoints, can be dismissed from serious consideration as far as the baker is
concerned. In reference to budding,
singly, or in the
mass as
instance, a little sugar
scope, on one or
more
usual,
and
it
be noticed that
will
be placed or sown
flour,
a suitable
sides a swelling will soon appear.
and the new
attached to the old
before separating
A
yeast
cells,
either
medium as,
for
and examined under a powerful micro-
larger, the cell breaks, cell
in
if
cell,
or bud, for
itself
Tl;iis
becoming
some time remains
and growing independently.
commercial yeast that can be guaranteed as a pure species must thus be
produced from a single or isolated Pasteur, ^who watched two cells
cell,
grow
and according
into eight in
to a calculation
two hours, no
less
by
than
YEAST
43
The medium,
16,000,000 can be produced in a day.
or liquor, in which
the yeast thus grows will be found to have lost in weight, and to a larger extent than the increase in the weight of the yeast, showing that the yeast (all
the fungi to which class yeast belongs do likewise, but to a less extent)
decomposes or destroys more food than
it
requires for
sustenance.
its
In addition
solution, or wort, gets thinner, or attenuated, losing sweetness. is
produced,
up
into their
to loss in weight, heat, the monitor of all chemical changes,
gases are evolved,
many
of the
constituents
are broken
The
respective elements, and the complex bodies are resolved into those of a
more simple
Without heat and
character.
suitable food these
phenomena
could not healthily occur, but the yeast would shrivel and finally die. vitality lasts for
being mixed with a flour,
little
into a
Its
a long while, and, until actually starved, the yeast on
warm sugar
and gently
solution, or a malt wort, together with a
would be considerably revived
stirred occasionally,
normal and healthy condition.
Yeast, although possessing
kingdom,
is
now
recognised
some
of the characteristics of the animal
universally as
a plant.
consist mainly of an outer coat or envelope of cellulose, liquid of protoplasm.
The
cellulose
according to the age of the yeast, inlet or outlet, the yeast's
cellulose,
and thereby be
is
sac,
The
globular cells
and an inner slimy
although varying in thickness,
continuous.
Having, therefore, no
food must be drawn through the interstices of the in a dissolved condition.
It is hard,
according to
the popular idea of a plant, to realise that a piece of compressed yeast no larger than one's cells,
The
thumb
nail should,
by being composed of these countless
contain hundreds of perfect plants, cells of
all
which the ordinary foliage plant
merely inter-dependent, that
is,
They, however, are so related substance known
to
independent of one another. is
composed
when separated they
are, unlike yeast,
are unable to live.
one another as to secrete an important
as chlorophyll, the green colouring matter of plants.
substance under the influence of light and heat breaks acid gas contained in the
the plant's structure.
air,
down
This
the carbonic
and thereby obtains the carbon necessary
for
THE BOOK OF BREAD
44 a
If
plant
no chlorophyll,
secretes
alone ever containing chlorophyll, thereby the
Thus we
simple construction. tinct root or shoot,
the
foliage,
plant
merged
one
in
neither does
;
foliage
would be of very
yeast, although a plant, has
find
the two being
no
has
it
no
dis-
it,
like
the orchids that were recently kept healthy while on passage from abroad
by being supplied with them, require light for
light
from
Yeast,
nutrition.
its
accumulators
electric
therefore,
packed with
having no de-
velopment of root or of shoot, the root not being required by reason being no
of there as
sugars,
absorbs
starches,
their
decomposed.
sound
shoot etc.,
organic It
sustain,
to
lives
actually in
the
process of decomposition, and
before
constituents
on organic substances such the
latter
completely
are
cannot feed directly on stable or cane sugar,
starch, these substances
having
first
to
or on
be inverted to glucose or
grape sugar.
Of
the two great classes of plants yeast belongs to the cryptogamia,
and do not possess the sexual organs known as anthers and ovules. This class has four subdivisions the first, which is as far as we shall go, consists of thallophytes, which contain no leaves, having root
which are
flowerless,
;
and shoot merged, no vascular tissue, that is, pertaining to circulatory vessels, but only cells. These thallophytes, or simple plants, consist of (a) algse or seaweeds, which contain that important substance chlorophyll
;
(d) lichens,
which are formed by fungi weaving round seaweed and (c) fungi, which contain no chlorophyll, and to which section our commercial yeast belongs. ;
Fungi are divided, moreover,
into five
main groups
;
yeast, or saccharomyces,
belongs to the ninth section of the ascomycetes group.
Of saccharomyces
there are only three really true species (i) cerevisiae, consisting of two varieties,
and
(3)
according to Hansen ellipsoideus,
;
(2) pastorianus, consisting of three varieties
consisting of two
charomyces, such as conglomeratus,
varieties.
glutinis, exiguus,
Other so-called
mycoderma,
;
sac-
albicans,
we shall presently understand, are shown by Hansen Under certain conditions of growth and temperature these to be misnamed. species, in like manner as the top and bottom ferment varieties, can be made
etc., for
reasons which
YEAST to
45
resemble one another, but when again placed under the original conditions
will revert to their original character.
A
perfect yeast food should essentially contain a correct proportion of
and maltose
carbohydrate, preferably glucose (CgHiaOg) (prepared sugar)
(CiaHjaOn),
also
proteids
can
before they
nitrogen), which,
(containing
must be converted into a sub-group known as peptones also should contain phosphorus (P), potassium (K), magnesium (Mg), calcium (Ca), and sulphur (S), which These all more or less can subsequently be extracted from the yeast ash. nourish the yeast by percolating
its
cellulose,
;
constituents of food
make up
the chemical composition of the yeast in the
approximate proportions of 47 per
carbon (C),
cent,
hydrogen (H), and
(O), 10 per cent, nitrogen (N), 6 per cent,
many
This ash, though small, by reason of containing
ash.
mentioned mineral substances,
is
per cent, oxygen
^t,
very important.
3
per cent,
of the above-
Phosphorus, potassium,
and magnesium are herein combined with oxygen yielding fully 90 per cent, phosphoric acid (P2O5) and potash (KgO), with about 6 per cent, magnesia
(MgO) and about free
nitrogen
suitably
up
;
or 2 per cent, lime (CaO).
its
its
it,
as in the case of the
carbon from the its
CO2
of the
presented to
structure
is
chlorophyll-containing
To
air.
nitrogen, or stamina, best derived from peptones,
among
it
it
split
plants,
the same extent that
best derived from the
assimilate nitrogen in the form of nitrates. class
are
combined with oxygen, whereupon they are decomposed or
carbon for building up is
Yeast cannot assimilate
when they
or free carbon, but only
neither can
obtain
i
its
sugars, so
being unable to
The peptones
are the only
proteids that are diffusible through the cellulose, and therefore
available for the yeast's nutrition.
moreover, the influence
it
superfluous but injurious.
Iron
is
not required for yeast growth
has upon beer wort and boiling hops
Some
is
chemists say that beyond a trace
;
not only [it
exists
in traces in
some
Thus
brewing operations and other long processes of fermentation
for
yeasts in the form of iron oxide (FcjOg)]
it is
even poisonous.
any water supply containing iron. As regards phosphates (yeast contains three or four times more of the potassium than of the
scientists reject
THE BOOK OF BREAD
46
magnesium phosphates), Salamon says a
certain quantity of
them
is
neces-
sary for healthy yeast growth, but that an excess strongly retards fermentation, injures the yeast's vitality,
Yeast
and
in
every way does more harm than good.
amount of food in case of need, also secrete soluble ferments known as invertin and zymase, which, like the better known diastase, convert, when aided, starch into maltose and dextrine, and sugar into glucose, laevulose, and dextrose. The amount of zymase contained in yeast is very small, but sufficient for each cell if cells, in
addition to storing a certain
necessary to convert more sugar than required, thereby always assuring
sustenance as long
as
any carbohydrate remains.
its
Besides producing
maltose (sugar) and dextrine (gum) these soluble ferments, zymase and diastase, also convert the proteids into the necessary diffusible peptones
the dextrine
is
not directly assimilable, but
is
;
gradually converted or hydro-
lysed into maltose, thus providing of the latter in long fermentations a
Below the temperature of 140 degs. F. the respective amounts of maltose and dextrine formed by inversion or hydrolysis remain continuous supply.
amount of maltose being 81 per cent., and of dextrine, therefore, 19 per cent; above this temperature, until 180 degs. F., when hydrolysis ceases, dextrine increases its ratio, and affects the flavour accordingly. constant, the
In describing the various so-called varieties of yeast,
commence with
the
compressed.
it
will
All bakers' yeast belong to
be best to the
same
and differ from one another only in the same way as human beings, namely, according to their training and environment. The compressed yeasts of commerce, unless specified to the contrary, are the products of distilleries. Some brewers compress their yeasts in the same manner, but these varieties are always known as "brewers' compressed." Although we have distilleries in our own country, there being 126 in Scotland alone, many of the popular brands of distillers' yeast reach us from France, Germany, and Holland. The yeast in question is, during the manufacture of spirits, produced from malt and raw grain. The raw family, as seen above,
grain, with
and
rye.
due regard
The
to variation in value, consists of barley, maize, rice,
latter cereal enters largely into the
composition of the best
YEAST
47
European shortage of 28,000,000 more than three times the whole of the of quarters of rye alone United Kingdom wheat crop that these yeasts some little time ago varieties,
and thus
was, owing to a
it
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;
This mixture of raw grain is mashed for about three hours, commencing at a temperature of about 130 degs. F., and gradually At the end of this period the total increasing to about 20 degs. hotter.
advanced
in price.
amount of grain is increased by an addition of about 20 per cent, of malt. The mashing is continued until all the starch (CgHioOs) contained in the grain
is
change
is
As soon
made
case
yeast.
of those
as the starch conversion
is
complete, the
The
factories
now
object of the fermentation that cater for bakers, to
mash
addition of
of refrigerators, and fermented by the
cooled by means
previously the
progress of the
ascertained by the adding of iodine, which stains starch blue and
yeast light brown. is
The
converted into maltose (C12H22O11) or sugar.
set
up
is,
in
produce a healthy
and strong yeast as much as alcohol. For this purpose the wort must be well and frequently aerated, since air, or rather its constituent oxygen, is most essential to vigorous yeast growth. When the fermentation is most active,
the yeast
is
skimmed
removal of the husks, and
to drain therefrom into cisterns to settle.
settled, the surface liquid is
(occasionally
mixed with
starch),
off,
distilleries
in
in
bread-making
the preliminary stage
a baker's ferment,
dough
we
receive
it.
are, of course, variations in different distilleries in the
as there are variations
is
one stage,
known
in
different bakeries.
is
same way In some
as the bub, corresponding, say, to
dispensed with, and the yeast grown' like an offhand it
being
in
these cases contended that the yeast
thereby improved, particularly in keeping qualities. stage lactic acid
When
and the remaining yeast sediment is squeezed, drained, and pressed, and then
drawn
put into the bags ready for delivery, such as
There
conducted to sieves for the
off the surface,
is
In this preliminary
frequently placed and developed, so that an excess of
should check the growth of this souring ferment afterwards,
it
it
being well
known that these foreign ferments cannot develop when surrounded by their own products, in the same way that yeast cannot ferment healthily
THE BOOK OF BREAD
48
when surrounded by an excess sulphuric,
have similar
effect.
greatest importance, and thus
bottom of the
vat.
Other
of alcohol.
dilute acids, such
as
The presence of oxygen or air is of in many distilleries this is pumped in at
the
Concerning
this point,
Pasteur says
:
â&#x20AC;&#x201D; " To multiply
fermentable medium, quite out of contact with oxygen, the
must be extremely young,
of
full
life
owe
of the vital activity which they
and
health,
and
still
cells
the in
a
of yeasts
under the influence
oxygen which has served to form them, and which they have perhaps stored up for a time. When older,
much
they reproduce themselves with gradually become more languid
to the free
difficulty
when deprived
of
air,
and
and if they do multiply, it is in strange and monstrous forms." Although aeration by pouring from tub to tub, and also by fermenting in shallow vessels, has always been recognised in this respect, the pumping in of air was not so essential when the alcohol or spirit was of more importance than the yeast. Yeast was at one time considered only as a bye-product, and not turned to the same commercial account as now to replace the home-
made
yeasts
of spirit the
yeast
product.
in
of bakers
much
as
The
but
;
and the
bond,
;
now
there
is
an enormous accumulation
seem to keep working to get making it now almost a primary oxygen into the vat, which gives the
distilleries
anything,
as
of this
injection
appearance of boiling, with practically nothing else but a little extra nitrogenous matter, has enormously increased the production of yeast, and the same can be done on a smaller scale with air in home yeast-brewing.
Whereas itself
in the
way every pound
commercially to about
twenty times. will
ordinary
In the same
probably be
in
five times,
way
it is
of yeast
now found
more prominence, with
Low
reference to their products and action.
yeast
than high yeast, and not so suitable for bakers.
market
is
its
giving, in a concentrated form, a great
and matured
condition,
whereby
to increase to fully
special varieties of yeasts for bakers' use
the near future receiving
distillery yeast as sent to
sown would increase
it
is
The
slower
in
its
special
action
great advantage of
accurate and scientific preparation,
amount of actual yeast in a healthy work very quic)cly, and turn out
will
<Wi ?»",\
V
V
V,
•*
't->
--C'*,. *,t?.?.
>!vi.?i
^->
"^ \ >''H^ 'irt-.K
'}%4^^-
''
%
--^
i-
¥y^ (;,
<^l^'»,
:4
•V*
'*,;''
'•i
%
.*^,
15,
"sv.
:ir/. ,•;»>-
fe/
y
^v-,
A",'
.yr
'^^^ 'M *jS !*>. !»trJCj>-'','t.<:il! 1-,**%;-^*
-t^T^i^^ *^-,-
J%
\
^^i?'.
v:.^
'i?
^^iKi^
Section of Square (or Sandwich) Tin Loa£ ACTUAL
SIZE.
YEAST Not only
in the shortest possible time.
bread
49
â&#x20AC;˘
will
it
enable this speed to
be attained, such as cannot be so well provided by other commercial yeasts, but also it will generally produce better results if this quick-working tendency
That
be encouraged.
is,
make good bread in small quantities yeasts, it will make better, especially as rein larger quantities worked warmer over a
although
over a long period like other quired for the English trade,
it
will
short period.
vigour of yeast per pound not only depends on its origin and condition, but also on whether or not it contains such added matters It has been contended that quantities of starch, say up to as starch.
The
ten per cent., are not a fraudulent adulteration, that they are added for the purpose of making the yeast keep better, that they do not interfere with the
amount of yeast
cells or
This
the place of water. in
a glass
is
to
a given pound, because they merely take ingenious, and it may be said that even water
power is
some extent
in
a pile of marbles, that
like
is
with vacant
spaces between its molecules, but there are compressed yeasts that are starch free, and can be easily discovered by testing, and these are those If the yeast is dry and in good condition, as which should be purchased. some are without starch, it is in itself evidence of careful manufacture and delivery.
If
it is
admitted to contain a
little
starch, the little has a
knack of
getting large occasionally, and being not only dear at even sixpence per
pound, but also dangerous to stock, because -an ounce sold over the counter renders the It
costs.
yeast,
seller,
is
although he
strange
how
so
sells
it
many
as received, liable to prosecution
people,
and
when purchasing compressed
always ask for German, whereas the best-known brands are mostly
Dutch, French and Scotch, and
it
would be as well
to
remember
that a
highly respectable firm was recently prosecuted and fined for selling, in
good
faith,
a class of china,
known
in the trade as
same way according to the place in which which in this case had not come from that place. in the
may be nally
" a hass," but
it is
likewise
it
Dresden, taking
was
originally
its
name
made, but
The law, as Bumble said, very stubborn. The yeasts that origi-
came from Germany were not so
well
grown
for the baker's purpose,
THE BOOK OF BREAD
50 or so
and were
washed,
well
altogether
less
those
than
vigorous
of
to-day.
Brewers'
yeast, although
occasionally
being sold occasionally in a compressed liquid state or as " thick,"
compared with in all liquid
its
unworthy of
modern
a
state, is as
reliance for
One
rivals.
receiving extra- attention and
when
rule,
sold in the
modern bread-making as
unsatisfactory circumstance
is
that
yeast one cannot so easily gauge
contains, or
state of health
its
how much actual yeast the liquid and maturity. Some people attempt to get
over this by using even the liquid by the pound rather than by the measure, because froth is sometimes awkward to gauge. The real reason for brewers' yeast, although once so largely used, having deteriorated,
comparatively
little
attention or consideration given to
it,
is
the
the chief object of
the brewer being to produce beer, which he does by using less malt and
more
substitutes than formerly,
and
yeast, to
be strong, can have nothing
better than malt. Where yeast from the brewery is urgently needed, the brewer can give better quality than much of what he would consider was all he cared to sell in the ordinary way, namely, he could give some of
that which he uses to start his
own
fermentations, or also
some of
that
which oozes out of the bung-holes of the barrels when fermentation is being allowed to complete before finally corking. One rather curious feature about English brewers' yeast
is,
that before the laws
were quite recently
was exported there as being the best obtainable. Ale yeast is better than stout in vigour and colour, and the darkness of brewery yeast is due to impurities and other matters sold with it. The bitterness caused by the hops can be minimised by the baker, by adding bran, well stirring with extra water, allowing yeast to settle and altered in Belgium, a large quantity
pouring away the top liquor.
The
other alkaline substances for the
having considerable
The
bitterness
cesses
with
although
effect
would
smaller
occasionally,
yeast can also be treated with borax or
The
same purpose.
borax, although
on soluble ferments, has very
not, of course,
quantities
be so much noticed
of yeast
when compressed,
as
in
short.
possible
in
little
on
yeast.
in longer pro-
Brewers'
offhand
yeast,
doughs,
YEAST
51
and also often a sponge as well as wants much more nursing than distillers' yeast, and is not in warm weather although slower working, and even when
should, as a rule, at least have a ferment,
a dough.
It
nearly so safe
made with
plenty of malt
alleged flavour, is
when
is
not worth the trouble and risk in spite of
the distillery brands can be obtained, which, however,
not possible with some of our correspondents.
There are many ways of making patent yeasts, which term should include all variations of flour-barm processes and home-made malt and hop yeasts, and has quite lost, like so-called patent or best flour, any connection with the Patent Office. The one thing, in addition to the trouble, appliances and experience required for these yeasts, that made them unpopular and rendered them less and less employed was their irregularity and weakness, and this was due to the insufficient use of malt. This ingredient is, of course, somewhat expensive when good, but to stint
Too
economy.
yeasts, in the
malt and too
little
same way
as
it,
was often done,
much water was what
is
very
false
crippled these
as substitutes for malt in beer-brewing spoilt brewers'
Now
yeast for bread-making purposes.
that distillers' yeast,
owing
to the
is becoming scarcer, and therefore dearer, some inquiry for home-made yeast, and the growing the bakehouse by means of malt, and this has par-
large accumulations of whisky,
there of
is,
in
remote
distillers'
ticularly
yeast
parts, in
been the case from several correspondents
The
elsewhere.
in Africa, Australia
and
following process has been given to private correspondents,
and has received their expressed approval Take ^ lb. of best hops, boil in copper vessel or stew-pan (avoid any rust on iron pot) for ten minutes (not :
simmer
for a long time, as
hops, with their boiling water, into a tub, degs. F.
When
When
sometimes done).
making
liquor
at this heat stir in 8 J lbs. to 9 lbs.
not be boiled with the hops, as extra strength out of
it
effect destroyed, as its
by
this
is
sometimes done.
means, the malt
is
is
the
to 9 gallons at
crushed malt.
150 Malt must
Instead of getting
weakened and some of
its
albuminoids are coagulated like the white of an egg,
same substance, when at 180 degs. F. whole stand covered up for one and a half to two which
thus boiled, empty
up
Having added hours.
Then
malt, let
strain into
THE BOOK OF BREAD
S2
shallow tub, well squeeze malt grains that remain in strainer, and well wash
and rinse them with another gallon of water, making whole wort up
to
lo gallons. If regularity is desired, the density of this
wort must be tested, and
by variation in the malt, or in the completeness of its mashing, it should be weaker or stronger, that is, of lower or greater density (as shown by the hydrometer, which can be bought at
should always be the same
but
;
some chemists and opticians), then the be used subsequently must be varied. The best density
most instrument makers, or quantity that
is
to
if
at
30 higher than water, and, as water on most instruments is put at 1000, the density of the wort should be 1030, or about the same as good, pure
is
milk,
which varies between 1027 and 1032.
patent yeast
is
just there,
and
sufficient
One
secret of good, reliable
malt must be added to get
it.
There is more substance in some malt, weight for weight, than in others, and all operators do not get the same out of it therefore the result should be judged by density, all other points, of course, being equal. When all It is strained and in shallow tub, allow to cool to 75 degs. F. or 80 degs. F. essential that this cooling should be done rapidly, and refrigerators are ;
therefore used in big bakeries.
Stand
previous brewing.
it
this in
i lb. of salt
and
1
quart of yeast from
a room from 65 degs. F. to 70 degs. F.
pour from one tub into another, so as to for reasons as explained above, and it will be ready for
Stir occasionally, or, better
get air into
Add
still,
commencing bread-making stages in twenty-four to thirty hours. Purity and strength of the quart of yeast added and the purity of surrounding air and the tubs are, of course, important circumstances, but plenty of malt, plenty of pure air, and a steady and cool temperature have great this yeast to each sack (280 lbs.) of flour 5 pints, or 6 pints, of is for the ordinary bread-making process, which, of course, with this yeast, effect.
Take
longer than with quantities.
distillers' yeast,
Brew
to the latter being
owing
at least twice a week.
guiding lines must have more emphasis
and check disease ferments,
:
used
in larger
In hot countries the following
Malt strengthens, hops are antiseptic
salt preserves,
and coolness of the setting tempera-
YEAST Brew
ture keeps well in hand.
5s
as frequently as possible,
and do not use
One pound
beyond the fourth or
fifth
to the gallon
the better, although unusual, and even i^
wasted or
all
is
day
after
really extravagant as
however, be thought that malt
brewing
in
any
case.
some would seem
is
to think.
think, take the place of
any of the
Another good
lbs.
not
is
must
not,
anything but a food, and the presence of
food does no good unless properly used, and does not, as
allowed.
It
it
of malt
antiseptic
yeast, is
unless
hydrofluoric
some seem
to
more reproduction be acid, which checks
undesirable ferments or organisms but only very slightly affects yeast.
Respecting the quality of yeast the safest test for the baker
is
to
dissolve one's yeast, in the case of the compressed sorts, in exactly the
same accurate way each day, whereby almost unconsciously a reliable test is afforded by which anything wrong can at once be detected. If one does not wish to trouble to make a separate ferment by way of a test, there is almost always a small batch of some fancy-bread or buns to be made. The ferment for that should always be made with the same quality and quantity of flour, the same amount and heat of water, the same amount of sugar, etc., and put in the same bowl and position, etc., or a part of it dipped out and put in a graduated jar. By this means the height to which it rose, the rapidity of the rise and fall, could and should be carefully noted, together with the result in batches in the bakery register that ought to be regularly kept.
This
established.
is
most simple and the trouble not noticeable when once well
In laboratories, the power of the yeast
A
by the amount of the gas evolved. oz., is set
away
in
is
usually calculated
small quantity of yeast, such as I
a bottle with sugar or other special yeast food, kept at
a regular temperature specially arranged jars,
by
special
means, and then the gas collected
in
and the whole more accurately done than the baker, heavy order, could or would do. There are all these small tests of any sort, the author has no good to write down or even explain methods
especially during a night's
several details, and in
experienced that
it
is
without standing over the learner and seeing him do the work, absolutely reliable results are desired.
when
THE BOOK OF BREAD
54 The
author has kept one of these I ozs. of yeast going for three weeks entirely on sugar, adding more sugar and shaking up as soon
whereupon
the gas diminished,
as
came when
time
the
into gas
much
information
the
would no
yeast
and practice
with
once renewed, but
at
sugar
such experiments afford
teresting differences in the yeast in various conditions
which
with
microscope,
the
the
longer convert
Many
water was changed.
the
until
was
activity
in-
and stages can be
But here, again, a little knowledge is most dangerous concerning commercial value of yeast, and the author well remembers that just about noted.
twenty years ago he was doing a good deal of thought he knew nearly is
customary to refer
all
about
it,
it is
work, and
but has been learning ever since.
to distillers' yeast as
brewers' of round, but
this microscopical
impossible to
being composed of oval
tell
cells
It
and
the variety of yeast entirely by
shape as some kinds vary according to age and amount of fermentation,
and many samples have
different characteristics
under similar treatment.
Before testing in a ferment as described above, or by
weight of sugar, and four times of water,
much
by examining
When opening bag, when
weight of flour
i
oz.
in forty
yeast to half
times
its
its
weight
information can be obtained, in the case of compressed yeast
as most often used,
like cheese
its
in the
dry
the yeast must not be
state.
warm or sticky, should not smell
but have a pleasant, fruity or apple smell, and leave no acid twang
tasting
;
should break in the fingers with a clean fracture and with
a kind of click, not being on the one hand soft or clammy, and on the other
too dry or crumbly. white, in
and
The
colour, in the case of distillers', should be
in brewers' is darker.
warm weather
it
It
would be as well
to tear off the
press yeast tightly into a stone jar, where
We
are frequently asked
if it
creamy
should be kept in a cool, dry place, and
it
bags on arrival and
should keep well for a week.
could be exported to such places as Tasmania
where the journey is six weeks, but although cases of exporting to Madeira have come under the writer's notice as successful, it has been only at expensive rates
in
quick
liners,
and used principally
and although cases of keeping a month on the
in the
expensive hotels
liners are not
uncommon,
YEAST
55
such distant places as Australia can better
same may be
own
their
The
yeast.
where transport and distribution are yet
of Africa,
said
make
excessively expensive.
The
desiccated or specially dried yeast, or yeast mixed with starch
into yeast cakes as sold comparatively largely in
experience, very feeble
The
salt)
or
activity,
ammonium but with
addition of
being kept for twelve months
per cent, the effect
2
is
considerable
effect as
i
effect
than
active portion of the yeast-extract ;
common
per cent, of sodium nitrate
is
almost without influence.
The
salt.
marked rotatory power, and can be its
largest
more transparent and
extract contains appreciable quantities of
without losing
per cent, of
and most
separated at a low pressure and
is
further pressure separates a
The
its
per cent, of calcium chloride totally prevents fermentation,
2
Borax has a slightly less
liquid.
i
;
in
(common
per cent, of sodium or magnesium chloride.
2
although the same amount of barium chloride
opalescent
much
chloride to yeast extract only slightly diminishes
produces the same presence of
in the writer's
per cent, of sodium chloride
i
sodium, ammonium, or magnesium sulphate or
The
is,
Desiccated yeast extract shows practically
falling off of fermentative activity after
a stoppered bottle.
America,
takes a lot of growing before getting
it
commercial batches.
activity for
no
:
power of fermenting
silicic
less active
acid,
has no
filtered
through a sandstone
sugar.
The
filtrate
is
filter
from a ferment-
ing sugar solution was found to contain no zymase, but a small quantity of invertin,
showing that the former acts only within the yeast
latter partly outside
it.
The
hydrolysis of sugar by invertin
is
cell,
but the
a reversible
change, and the enzyme has a slight synthetical action on invert-sugar.
When it
compressed yeast
gets bruised or damaged,
it
is is
kept
in a
This action
is
liquefaction, and, as
the
usually
moist place, or
known
way
in
its own accord, warm water and added
as softening or autofermentation
one of the terms implies,
is
a feeding on
same way as wheat when sprouting or feeding on much warm moisture in the fields after cutting,
to too
when
apt to start fermenting of
without being dissolved in the ordinary food.
warm and
itself,
itself.
and In
by exposure
affects the quality
THE BOOK OF BREAD
56
of the flour, so does the softening of yeast affect
produce a bitterness.
its
Unless, however, a bad odour
can often be compensated by increased quantity. liquefaction of pressed yeast
is
is
emitted, slight
The
greatly diminished
whilst the rate of evolution of carbon dioxide
strength and sometimes
is
by
damage
time required for the rise of temperature,
The
greatly increased.
evolution of gas ceases as soon as the yeast becomes liquid and hence
is
small at 50 degs. (122 degs. F.), owing to the rapid liquefaction of the
mass (one
one and a half hours), whilst the
to
total
volumes evolved at
39 degs. (102 degs. F.) and 26 degs. (79 degs. F.) do not differ greatly, although the times required for liquefaction are, according to some ex-
periments by Messrs
Harden and Rowland,
five
and
fifty-three
hours
At
respectively.
14 degs. (57 degs. F.) the time required is sixteen days, the rate of evolution being extremely slow, and the total volume evolved
about 75 per cent, of that produced at 26 degs. Alcohol is produced simultaneously, the process being apparently a true alcoholic fermentation of the glycogen of the cell. Microscopic examination shows that as the evolution of gas proceeds the glycogen disappears and the vacuole of the cell
increases in size.
Finally, the vacuolar contents are discharged
and
the cell appears shrunken and irregular in outline, whilst the protoplasmic
contents are highly granular.
In the presence of oxygen, a process of
oxidation accompanies the evolution of carbon dioxide, a considerable rise
of temperature being produced and the total volume of carbon dioxide
When
exposed to a continuous current of oxygen, a sample of yeast was found to lose 26 per cent, of its carbon.
increased.
When
yeast
is
dissolved and used in the ordinary
bread-making, the best range of temperature
way
in
commercial
from 75 to 95 degs. F., and could be preferably put into a smaller compass by saying 80 to 85 degs.
The range
of
life
is
could be put from 50 to 140 degs., but during bread-
making there would be practically no action at 10 degs. higher than the minimum, and 10 degs. lower than the maximum would be as bad or worse. to
it.
The
effect of the
temperature depends on the duration of exposure
Such extremes of cold and heat on the one hand
paralyze,
and on
YEAST the other hand
It
kill.
is,
57
however, possible to revive yeast by gradual
warming and coaxing after it has touched freezing-point for a short time, and cases have been known of gradual and dry heating up to 200 degs. for Yeast
short time with subsequent action.
will not
stand being completely
when using
frozen for purposes of transit like frozen meat, and liquor for
dough-making
is
it
extra hot
first
adding some
lbs. flour
must depend
best to reduce the heat
by
flour before the yeast.
The
quantity of yeast to be used per sack of 280
bakehouse operations, and the This will strength, character and condition of the yeast as above indicated. also apply to the quantities of one class of yeast that should be substituted for the
on the time and heat to be allowed
for another, but
it
can often be taken that
i
lb.
of
distillers'
compressed
will
equal 3 or 4 pints of liquid brewers' and 1 2 pints of patent or home-made. Inasmuch as a really pure and distinct culture can only be guaranteed if
produced from a single
cell,
and a pound of yeast
only a reproduction of
is
same way that the present millions of people in the world have sprung from Adam and Eve, a sack of In fact it can be aerated flour can therefore be aerated by any quantity.
that single cell
by a matter of
by yeast without adding any
in
some
is
falling
from the
air,
as
time,
in
the
the ordinary way, because there
known
well
in certain so-called
is
always
spontaneous
processes of bread-making as will presently be considered under the heading
of barm, and also amongst the colonial methods, as tabulated in Section VII. In actual practice 4 ozs. up to
more
we have found good
per sack, and as dealt with under flavour they will no
5 lbs.
taste of yeast in the latter than the former.
about yeast not being able to reproduce is
loaves produced by adding from
itself in
a
Whatever may be stiff
said
sponge or dough,
it
a practical fact that the less added the longer must be the time allowed
for maturity.
We once summed up the position by saying
yeast to the sack would
was better
for daily
In batches of
make
work and
much
a good
loaf, half
the
1
amount
2 ozs.
of distillers'
could, but double
treble for exhibition or small batches.
less size,
it
will usually
per sack must be nearly doubled, because there
be found that the proportion is
less
comfort as regards heat
THE BOOK OF BREAD
58
retaining and also usually â&#x20AC;˘
more
surface, in proportion, for allowing gas to
Although we have always found the above relative proportions safe, which however must as explained vary according to conditions, we have just escape.
thought of consulting the opinions of others, and see Gribbin says the usual quantity per sack is a quart of liquid brewers' with ferment, sponge and dough,
and
sponge and dough, and that
also possible with also that
distillers',
i
lb.
this
would equal
i
lb.
of
of compressed brewers' per sack would be about right.
Kirkland says 6 ozs. distillers' will equal 8 ozs. brewers' compressed, depending on when added, and that the flavour can be obtained by adding the malt without the hops. Vine says i pint of patent to the bushelin a potato
The whole
terment.
question, however,
must be
settled
according to
circumstances and requirements. If it were otherwise the would not have, with traders throughout the empire, such an enormous and increasing correspondence, which, even with most complete and systematic classification and with increasing amount of assistance, is at times very exacting, every reply being of the fullest and most exhaustive individual writer
character.
Virgin
barm and
The
are the two leading types.
Virgin
barm
custom, but
is
set without
now very
barm,
Parisian
often
barm
left
I
lbs.)
popular
Scotch ones,
barm
(this
is
own
is is
that
and old
the typical
accord, whereas Parisian
is
allowed
stored or
over from a previous brewing.
For the former take lo (30
the
stored with old barm), therefore
to start fermenting entirely of its
started with
all
only difference between these two
yeast or
it is
of
lbs. malt,
water at 160 degs. F.
;
mash
ninety minutes in 3 gallons infuse 3 ozs. hops for a little time with it
gallon boiling water, then strain both these infusions.
Wash
malt grains with another gallon water just under boiling.
the draining
Mix
in
40
lbs.
scald this mixture with 7 gallons boiling water, adding it in instalments of two, three, and two, and stirring sharply between each. Leave flour
;
tub of barm uncovered for twenty hours, then well aerate by turning out into another tub, when at an average temperature for the year of
this it
about 80 degs.
F.
add
3
ozs.
salt,
10
ozs.
sugar, and
little
flour;
stir
YEAST occasionally.
It
is
should be stirred fermenting.
For
59
best used on fourth or fifth day after brewing, and every twelve or twenty-four hours while thus slowly
Parisian,
instead of adding the
above
salt
and sugar,
add
I to li gallons, according to time of year, of old barm about two days after brewing, and when the temperature of the barm is 80 degs. as above. Active fermentation will be over in rather less than a day tub ;
should then be
moved
and not used until after barm The "spontaneous" Virgin barm, owing to
to a cooler place
has dropped some time.
surrounding conditions considerably affecting the time at which the process would start and the rate at which it would ferment when started, the
has lost favour.
The
Virgin barm
instead of being allowed to wait
may be
until
either stored with old
starting spontaneously,
said to resemble Parisian barm, or else the
by us above in their
now
is
is
employed.
Some
barm
and thus
Parisian as described
bakers have discarded malt and hops
barms, and use flour and sugar solely
;
about two-thirds of the
would be scalded and the other third raw. Many other details, which will be found in the list of Scotch methods of bread-making given near the end of this book, have been furnished flour
in
various letters from our Scotch correspondents in the ordinary course
of consultation.
In his early days the author confined himself to a personal
acquaintance with merely the English methods, and closely study the highly interesting
and
when
first
proceeding to
instructive Scotch methods, he
was
much indebted to conversation and correspondence with Mr W. A. Thoms, of Alyth, who at that time was able' to take an active interest in such matters. The Edinburgh lectures of some ten years ago, and those of
Mr
A. Kirkland, of Irvine, have also been a valuable contribution to this branch of the subject, which, although chiefly of local importance concerning details, is also, as referred to in the chapter on methods of fermentation, of considerably wider importance with respect to the underlying principles involved. Mr John Kirkland, who hails from Scotland, but
is
now a very near
writer's,
residential
neighbour and acquaintance of the
does Scotland an honour by the way
in
which he discharges
THE BOOK OF BREAD
6o his duties as
head teacher
and
at the National School of Bakery,
ferring to the subject of Parisian barm, says
:
The
in
re-
thing about
essential
mixed with a strong decoction of malt. It is not usual to use any hops. For a small quantity 2 lbs. of malt may be mashed with 2 quarts of water at 165-170 degs. F., and this it
is,
that
it
consists of scalded flour,
allowed to stand for about three hours.
The
squeezed from the grains into a small
and about 8
soft flour
made
into a thick,
for scalding (about 2 gallons) this batter, 2
then kept
tough batter with is
quarts at a time, a
vigorously stirring is
in
all
tub,
till
is
man the
then thoroughly
lbs.
comparatively
The water
this liqtior.
then kept boiling, and
is
poured on
to
standing by with a long pole and
the time the water
an open tub
liquor
This liquor
being poured on.
is
when
following day,
it
will
have
thinned very much, owing to the diastasic action of the malt on the burst starch of the flour.
When
the liquor
is
down
cooled
to about
80 degs.,
barm from a previous day's barm will be ready for use. It is generally used for making half or quarter sponges, but it will serve equally well to make straight dough. About i a gallon of this barm may be used to make a quarter or half sponge to stand twelve or thirteen hours. If a quarter sponge, then it has to be made into a batter sponge in the morning with all the remainder of the water required to make it
is
stored or stocked with about a quart of
In about twenty hours from time of storing this
making.
This batter
dough, except about a gallon required to rinse out the tub. stand from one to one and a half hours, until
sponge
will
to turn,
when
If a half
it is
tipped into the trough or machine, and
sponge had been made,
it
is
made
just about
into dough.
sponge stage would be
this batter
left out.
Those two methods of making and using Parisian barm are the common methods followed in Scotland. "Parisian" barm is not now much used anywhere else. If the so-called compound barm is desired, one should boil 10 pints (Scotch) of water and add 2 ozs. of hops cover up and allow the liquor ;
to cool I
lb.
down
to 170 degs.
Now
throw
in
from
for winter, of malt to each pint of water.
12
ozs.,
Stir all
for
summer,
to
round thoroughly,
SELF-RAISING FLOUR and cover up once more
for four to six hours, so
that
it
6i
Now
may mash.
pass the whole over the strainer, so as to take out the mah, and cool in
down
to storing heat, namely, 86 degs. in winter, or about
summer.
together little
;
Put
in
-h
,a pint of old
cover up and
let
work.
it
bells of a greenish colour,
barm and 4 It will
mixing
ozs. salt,
soon be
all
let
it
80 degs. all
well
covered over with
and make a hissing noise
;
but
it
will
be
quite clear and placid in about twenty-four hours after storing, is
When
ready for use.
covered with clear bells
in
should be only round sides
add another time
fast
dropping
when
bells,
store
less
last
time
it
is
when it a healthy sign when
good mature condition the small, clear and not in the centre. If going too or have
lower heat.
In cold weather
barm rather than the heat very much. good range of temperature for barms in different seasons is 75 to 90 degs. F., and they should be made three times a week or not be more than three days old, having taken about two days to get ready. it
is
better to increase the
A
SELF-RAISING FLOUR A
LTHOUGH
good
flour
has a certain amount of natural expansion
when mixed with nothing but water and baked, it is said raising " when mixed with certain acids and carbonates in such
to
be
" self-
a
way
as to
react on one another, producing gas in sufficient quantity to render
goods, properly
The
acids
made
any
therefrom, well raised and light.
and carbonates, or chemicals, added to the goods should
neutralise one another, or be in such proportion as to neutralise other acids,
already in the goods, as, for instance, sour milk, so as to leave no residue injurious to health or flavour.
Most
disengaging gas immediately water necessary to keep them,
them with good dry
is
when mixed
flour.
If
kept
of
them have
action on one another,
added, but not before
;
it
is
therefore
before using, in a dry place, and
in a
mix
concentrated form, so as to be added
THE BOOK OF BREAD
62 in
varying amounts to different classes of goods as required,
dry rice flour or ground
it
is
best to
mix
Owing
with a
little
to this
immediate action on adding moisture, the gas evolved must not be
rice,
or other dry or dried starch.
allowed long enough to escape while the goods are being made, because,
although
it is
same gas as evolved by
the
no more can be produced
yeast,
without adding fresh chemicals, not being produced naturally and gradually as by fermentation.
Some chemicals
as, for instance, tartaric acid,
larger quantities but also
much
quicker than others
Others, such as bicarbonate of ammonia,
tartar.
give off gas not only in
or vol, give off their gas only by the action of heat,
as, for instance,
commonly called volatile that is, when in the oven
and not when being mixed with the milk or water.
Some goods
instance, as so-called " soda scones," or soda cakes, can be raised tion of a carbonate or base without
by the milk. all
any added
cream of
acid, the
such, for
by the addi-
gas being produced
action of bicarbonate of soda on the acid of the buttermilk or sour
In such cases oftentimes, however, there
the soda, and
flavour,
when
is
not enough acid to neutralise
the latter is in excess there is a
which would be counteracted by a
often an unpleasant smell and flavour
little
when
strong and unpleasant
cream of
volatile
is
tartar.
There
also
is
used, which, however,
has the advantage of being able to raise goods without other additions, leaves
no
solid residue,
and
small goods, and
cream
cheaper than
many aerators.
in the
of tartar
is
handy
for
very
centre with a nice-looking cauliflower top.
in
conjunction with half If
it is
mixture as a base to save accidents.
There are
degrees of refinement in cream of tartar purity can be easily tested
its
also best to
in
is
weight of bicarbonate
cheaper aerating agents, or any
of the numerous substitutes are used,
its
Although
the most expensive of the acids generally used, there
of soda, for the generality of purposes.
and
is
its
nothing more satisfactory,
flour,
Volatile
work only when in the oven, its power cannot be lost handling during the making of the goods, and also makes them
because by doing
by careless break open
is
also for putting into flour for supplying to housewives,
have a portion of
this
different prices for different
a similar
by adding,
way
as there are for
say, half a teaspoonful to
SELF-RAISING FLOUR
6q^
An
a glass of boiling water, whereupon there should be no cloudiness.
ounce of bicarbonate of soda
is
supposed
and magnesia, although more aperient,
really about three to four times as strong as
more gas would it
usually be lost,
as only twice as powerful.
like volatile,
and quick It is
and
many
instances,
added
weaken
for
or cheapen, as
supplying to housewives, by adding stances, but
it is
make
best to
required. Small things quantities of chemicals
and 4
lbs.
volatile
2 ozs.
soda
for
same
flour
of flour,
The
2 ozs.
;
is,
another would be 6
however,
lbs.
of cream, ^
lbs.
;
;
another might be 15
i
2 ozs.
oz. of
lbs.
cream of
of lb.
ozs.
of flour, 4 ozs.
of tartaric acid
;
tartar, h
another
an
or else the whole be sifted together afterwards.
flour,
strength than in
of flour would,
oz. of
chemicals must, of course, be powdered and sifted before
air-tight,
Another
about once a week.
there
;
lbs.
of sodium carbonate, with or without about 2 ozs.
mixed, they should be kept
damp
some cases when
in
same quantity of flour another would be 4
oz. of tartaric acid,
i
(ammonium), to flour,
soft or
done
another would be 2I
of soda to 8 lbs. of flour
of fine starch.
adding
be too powerful
will
want more than large, and scones more than cakes. The added vary largely. One recipe of 8 lbs. of cream of
of sodium carbonate, 2 ozs. of cream of tartar, lbs.
it
rather strong, so as to serve for the various goods
of tartaric, and 2 lbs. of soda to
be 14
safer to take
cheapness, and although,
of bicarbonate of soda to the sack of 280
to 3 lbs. of
of cream,
working
or 2 lbs. of salt per sack, or other sub-
i
within personal experience, be found successful
cream
would be
it
its
is
and should only be used in small proportions. no economy, when making for one's own use, to stint the quantity or in
quality of the chemicals, or
tartar,
cream of tartar, but by
in practice
It is often
for
Tartaric acid
not so strong.
breaking open some goods,
handy
about lo pints of gas,
to give off
is
4
lbs.
of
for
suitable recipe
ground
of course,
flour),
and
no
ij lbs. of
own
When
use should be prepared
would be 36 lbs. of flour (if a be added with advantage
rice could
useful
gluten
cream of
tartar,
;
in
rice,
f of
a
therefore
lb.
less
of carbonate
of soda.
When
these and other aerating agents are sold
in
a small
and concen-
trated compass, for the purpose of mixing with the flour afterwards
when
THE BOOK OF BREAD
64
about to be used, they are called baking powders, and as such are referred to
below under the heading of alum.
ALUM AND BAKING POWDERS 'IP HE use of
might have been
-*-
bread
this substance in left
is
now
it
out of consideration, except that one does
hear of one or two cases per
occasionally
so seldom heard of that
annum amongst
the
many
Also that there are certain baking powders and self-raising flours that contain it, and also some substances that appear to do so, by reason of giving a similar chemical reaction to the well-known
thousands of bakers.
one
The
cTiaracteristic of alum.
very
at all times a
difficult
determination of alum in flour or bread
and
is
delicate operation, so delicate in fact that
where the county analyst had certified the flour to contain alum, but the manufacturer, well knowing that he had added none, demanded an independent analysis, and the government authorities certain cases are recorded
and he was accordingly acquitted. It is now practically never found in flour as supplied by the miller, because the latter would get no advantage from it whatever, and the need of it by reason of its properties, which we shall explain, is now past so far as the baker
certified the substance as perfectly pure,
of bread
is
concerned.
It is
now
illegal to
powder, although until recently the article of food,
Alum
is
according to the Act. a compound of alumina, potash, and sulphuric acid, being
thereby a strong astringent gluten, retard
its
;
its effect
it
during fermentation
is
to
toughen the
decomposition, and check rapid inverting of the starch.
this astringency that is objected to
as
latter
add it to flour, bread, or baking was exempted as not being an
by some doctors, because
in the
same way
hinders decomposition of the flour during fermentation so does
it
the digestion in the body, and have other effects, such as constipation. effect in
fermentation was very useful in the days
when we were
It is
retard
This
confined to
* frWr
o
O ft:
u o
CO Q w
o o o to
N I—
Vi *j
i-»i:.
T>
sir
ALUM AND BAKING POWDERS the wheat from our too
own country
much change taking
in
bad and wet seasons, because
was undoubtedly a great used when there was
to be
is
less
wheat than formerly, and, moreover, owing to importation there
need to use even what there
less
prevented
but with smaller crops, and improved methods, there
else,
damaged is
It
loaf.
when using sprouted wheat, which had
nothing
it
already badly conditioned flour, which
place in
change would have caused a dark and close help
65
is.
With badly conditioned flour, alum has the effect then of making the loaf hold more water, and also producing it whiter and bolder. The recognised method for its detection in flour is to take 5 grams of freshly cut chips of logwood and shake up with 100 c.c. methylated spirit, then mix 10 grams of flour with the same weight of water and i c.c. of recently made tincture of logwood and flour will
c.c.
i
have a
ammonium
of concentrated solution of
slight pinkish tint fading to dirty
or dark blue, and
With
dried in oven the blue colour remains constant.
if
bread one can take
of tincture of logwood and 5
c.c.
5
carbonate dilute to 100 c.c, immediately pour stand five minutes and drain buff or light brown,
if
;
and
it
c.c.
ammonium
over 10 grams of bread,
pure the bread has a light red
the colours being the
larger the quantity of alum, It
Pure
carbonate.
brown, afterwards lavender
more
intense
also being accentuated
when
tint,
of course
then the
dry.
has sometimes been found that bread gave the reaction and coloration
alum although the
characteristic of
flour
from which
it
was made gave no
such reaction, the reaction being due to the sourness of the bread, and the presence of phosphate of alumina that exists
and
is
soluble
reaction with
by
acetic acid.
logwood
acid being added.
is
very
in
combination with gluten,
Flour naturally contains slight, unless the
this alumina,
but the
alumina be dissolved by acetic
In the case of bread, especially
when sour by prolonged
fermentation, acetic acid will be produced by fermentation, and the reaction characteristic of adulteration
tation has thus
by alum can sometimes be found when fermen-
been allowed to proceed
to sourness,
whereas
it
cannot be
same dough tested when fermentation commenced. Baking powders also give the blue colour characteristic of the addition
found
in
a piece of the
THE BOOK OF BREAD
66 of alum
when
there
A
none present.
is
solution of tartaric acid gives
it,
although tartaric acid the same as cream of tartar and sodic bicarbonate
This blue colour characteristic of alum
give no coloration in the dry state. is
produced by
when
iron, lead, copper,
and
zinc,
the coloration characteristic of alum
contain none, that
due
it is
and there
is
is
strong evidence that
given with baking powders that
to the small quantities of lead
and
iron that are
present in the ingredients used to produce baking powder, and of course in the
same way with
Small quantities and traces give purple,
self-raising flour.
and larger quantities give the blue. At Nottingham there was a conviction adding lo grains to the pound, and the reaction in bread has been known
for to
be given by natural causes, and not by fraudulent adulteration,
extent of representing about 650 grains to the sack.
how
intricate the
" little
knowledge
whole subject is
whereby alum,
is
now in
most
antiseptic
leading
the changes as
"ground
to,
its
chief effect, namely. Malt Extract, as
is
AND OTHER ANTISEPTICS
any substance that preserves from, or
amongst them being the common
chloride (NaCl), salicylic acid, the Salt and alum have been
tannin
fully treated
changes
resists
There are several
decay.
putrefaction or
of interest to the baker,
is
how curious are which was formerly known
cases.
HOPS, LIME A N
particularly in this respect, a
practically never used in bread, but has given place to a sub-
stance almost precisely opposite in
composed
be seen
It will therefore
a dangerous thing," and also
that time brings about,
hard,"
and how,
is,
to the
antiseptics
salt or
sodium
contained in hops, and borax.
under distinctive headings.
Borax
a compound of boracic acid (BjOj) (a compound of boron and oxygen)
and soda; boric acid (H3BO3) (boracic acid
2H2O, made by adding solution
of borax).
sulphuric acid
Borax
is
crystals containing 1^26204
(H2SO4)
to
a
+
hot concentrated
not soluble in water, but boracic acid
is
HOPS, LIME
AND OTHER ANTISEPTICS
67
and yellow turmeric paper brown. Hops are always used, chiefly because of this presence of tannin, and tannin is used occasionally in white wines when showing signs of viscous or ropy slightly,
and turns blue litmus paper
A
disease.
solution of tannin can
red,
kill in
two hours some bacteria that can
days in a solution of strychnine that would
live ten
These
kill
a man.
antiseptics, like ordinary salt, slightly retard the action of yeast as
well as that of the disease germs, although the action on the latter
After a recent inquiry conducted by a
greater.
Committee, extent of
i
was recommended that
it
in a pint of liquid or
to
on the
be used
and borax,
it
vessel.
Government Departmental
salicylic acid
be permitted only to the
grain in a pound of solid food.
shall
be lawful
to use in
Also that the only
cream be boric
acid, or
in
acid, or
mixtures of boric acid
proportions not exceeding 0.5 per cent, expressed
Also recommended that
in the case of all dietetic preparations
intended for the use of invalids or infants, chemical preservatives of
be prohibited.
much
mixtures
in
and margarine be boric
be used
as boric acid.
lb.)
amount not exceeding 0.25 per cent, acid. The amount of such preservative to be notified by a Also recommended that the only preservative permitted
in butter
to
i
and borax, and
acid
expressed as boric label
immensely
grain (there are 480 grains to an oz. and 5760 grains to a
preservative which of boric
is
Another admitted
fact is that 5 to 10 grains
as an adult should take of boric acid.
It
kinds
all
per day
is
as
was recently demonstrated
that 5-grain doses of boric acid taken every four hours
was sending a man
to his coffin.
Well now, salt,
is
;
is
well
that boric acid, being
more
tasteless than
was recently
man was fined for putting an excess into his waterand we know the exact quantity that a certain large firm of cake
makers put
a
in
which
it is
used.
only safe amount, and
make up an
have found that amount the preventing ropy cake, and we know of many other
into their cakes, saying, that they
best thing possible for
goods
known
frequently put into milk in hot weather, and there
a case where cress
it
oz.,
it
Therefore,
when
so small a quantity per day
does not take very
many
is
the
pinches of the fingers to
where people do not understand what they are doing,
is it
THE BOOK OF BREAD
68
not then a very dangerous tool that might cut both ways therefore here, as
some have suggested
or without expert advice on
all
it
If
?
recommended
to us, without studying the matter
the circumstances, would
it
not stand some
chance of bringing disrepute on the baking trade, the same as the arsenic
impure acid, that made the glucose for the brewers, brought on the brewing trade when an overdose poisoned Liverpool ? The brewing trade is strong, and strongly represented everywhere, and it is not so fashionable for it to be attacked in the papers even when it does do wrong, as it is for
in the
bakers to be attacked for adding things such as alum and borax that in the trade
have never seen.
vaccination
as to whether
;
The
it is
antidote of small
pox
is
many
cow pox or
wise to wilfully submit oneself to a mild form
of disease in order to minimise the chance of catching a worse one,
is
a point
on which there is much controversy. The writer has had very little effect from vaccination, but some people not only get very bad arms but seem quite upset and invalided in themselves. The moral of the above is obvious. Borates hold a large quantity of water of crystallisation, and therefore swell
up when heated
largely to this effect that cockroaches are killed
it is
;
Owing
borax, which soon diminishes them.
adding boric acid
to foods in
have been made, and
it
some
districts
was found
that,
by
to the recent prohibition of
on the continent, many experiments
although about half of the quantity
taken was expelled from the body within about twelve hours, the remainder disappeared but slowly, traces being found in the urine up to eight days afterwards, and that
up
set
it
retarded digestion, similar to alum, and was liable to
irritation in the intestines.
Lime may be mentioned will
as an antiseptic in
a good solution to sprinkle on the troughs well into the corners, and has no
afterwards is
at
more than one form.
preserve eggs by stopping the pores of the shell.
;
it is
ill-effect
it
;
;
it
Bisulphite of lime
does not require removing
further considered under the heading of troughs. in
bread
personal experience with
it
in in
some
it is
a thin liquid, and
Carbonate of lime was
parts of Scotland, and
other districts.
is
can be swished with a brush
not like plastering with slaked lime,
one time used
It
It
we have had
was the foundation of
AND OTHER ANTISEPTICS
HOPS, LIME
69
a special process of bread-making that was not long ago pushed somewhat extensively and favourably received, particularly in Scotland, the land of the
We
inventor.
were reminded of
this the other
day by turning over some
pages of a trade journal and seeing an inquiry concerning carbonate of lime,
and the reply was that the substance was not known for bread-making use, and that probably carbonate of soda was meant. It is astringent like alum,
and has a
similar effect as regards checking diastasis, or changes
certain malt extracts, but
alum.
some
It is
it is
not in usual quantities injurious to health like
found beneficial with soft and unsound
of the effects
produced by
and tendencies of
flour
flours,
made from
and
for
minimising
be interesting to note
that,
although of the opposite character to
usual kind of malt extracts sold,
it,
by being astringent, makes the
hold more water, thereby increasing yield of bread. the form of clear lime water, the
breathed
into,
ventilation.
It
for five or six sacks of flour,
stir
already naturally contains,
will
and when,
in
1
when
Not more than
way
7 gallons
is
exists,
because by such means one
an hour or two, the remainder
may be
run off by a tap
man
per sack
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;that
is,
to
disturb the
about half the total
The
of preparing this lime water where the convenience
undissolved lumps or impurities, as careful
of recently
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;of the lime water thus made should be used.
above
the best
lb.
only hold in suspension about
syphon tube, which should not be low enough
liquor required per sack
A
in
water, according to the pro-
has settled to the bottom, the clear water on top
tank.
bread
have a tank containing
Into this put
The
thoroughly.
9 or 10 ozs. per 50 gallons,
sediment.
soft flour
:
burned quicklime, and
or by a
in
as that which turns milky
about 50 or 60 gallons of pure clean water.
it
used
mixed with the impurities of the air, as discussed under can be purchased at any chemist's or made on a commercial
wanting liquor
portion
It is
It
or
scale as follows If
same
growy must the more
the sprouted or
wheats of a wet season, or newly ground flour from sticky wheats.
will all
get in the bread no excess, nor any
such would sink to the bottom of the
could, however, for every sack of bread required,
take the same proportion of lime as given above (maximum,
li ozs. per
THE BOOK OF BREAD
70
a bucketful of water, and empty
sack), dissolve in
into the trough,
all
it
except any residue that settled immediately after stirring up.
however, be
and draw
much
safer
and better
off 7 gallons of
it
to put 2 ozs. into
would,
It
10 gallons of water,
The
for the sack (6 bushels) of bread.
unites with the gas of the air or the gas of the yeast,
and
results in chalk
or calcium carbonate (CaCOg), which, however, in these quantities
All water contains small quantities of this
injurious.
carbonate, and hard."
its
presence makes water what
This temporary hardness
is
is
The
boiling has precipitated.
be
boiled.
It
is
not
chalk or calcium
known
as " temporarily
destroyed by boiling, since that
our boilers and kettles furred by a deposit of
lime
we
find
carbonate, which the
this
lime water prepared as above must not then
has just occurred to us
that,
He
ours spoilt a batch by adding lime.
some few years ago, a
friend of
overheard the writer casually refer
and straightway, without further thought, commenced its use. The failure consisted in the fact that he had added a great excess, stirred it up, and used all, instead of decanting merely the clear liquid without sediment to
it,
but even this could have been no worse than the plaster of Paris which, according to the papers, has recently been added to French
There are
also
here be mentioned.
many
other antiseptics, of which, merely, a few need
Hydrofluoric acid, (and the fluorines) in small quantities
arrests the action of lactic
and other foreign germs,
slightly retards the yeast or alcoholic fermentation.
brewers, and could also be added
Alcohol
is
an
flour.
antiseptic,
familiar antiseptic, but
and so
its
It is
when making patent vinegar.
is
but, like hops, only
home-made
or
Carbolic acid
fumes are not nice
used largely by
in a bakery,
is
a strong and
and are
flour
forgotten to mention that salicylic acid
often used in fruit juices
to retard
any undesirable fermentation
alcohol are usually its
effect
added
turpentine,
are,
starting,
and that
to 25 gallons of juice, or
on the human system
germ destroyers
is
essential
and camphor, varying
is
oil
2 ozs.
bitter
and jams
dissolved in
40 grains to the gallon
injuriously depressive.
of
liable to
We had almost
be absorbed by such ready absorbers as
and bread.
yeast.
almonds,
in strength in the
;
Other powerful mint,
eucalyptus,
order named, even the
HOPS, LIME camphor
killing
AND OTHER ANTISEPTICS
more than
being particularly strong.
half of the organisms in contact,
The
best thing to keep
goods, instead of muslin covers, oil,
the
same as recommended
is
to
first
and wasps away from
have a few drops of some eucalyptus
for influenza,
else a spray of essence of lavender.
flies
and the
71
on a piece of wool
in
a dish, or
SECTION
II
THE GOOD AND FAULTY POINTS OF A LOAF "
Not sowing hedgerow texts and passing by, Nor dealing goodly counsel from a height That makes the lowest hate it, but a voice Of comfort and an open hand of help." Tennyson's Avlmer's
Field.
FLAVOUR WLAVOUR can be defined as the quality of a substance which pleasantly affects the taste or smell.
In speaking, however, of the flavour of a
one must consider something more than mere can be conveyed by a condiment. One can hardly consider
loaf of bread,
taste,
such as
flavour, apart
from the freshness and moistness, and the "pleasantness" and relish experienced during eating, and the ease with which it is masticated, or conduces to digestion.
Further,
when
receiving bread at various times from almost
parts of the world, one has considerable difficulty in judging the flavour, because of the various characteristics that are liked or disliked according to
all
the district.
Taking two extreme types, namely, the long quarter sponge system of Scotland, and the short off-hand doughs that are now becoming so popular. A Scotchman frequently says, and undoubtedly believes, that there is no bread
in the
world so sweet, as that
made from
his,
excessively long, process
by Parisian Barm, but when making such a statement he cannot possibly 72
FLAVOUR
73
Conhave tasted bread from such a process as the four hours' system. sumers, however, who are accustomed to the short process never fail to at once say, that the long process
undoubtedly sour.
It is
loaf,
which a Scotchman
calls
sweet,
is
quite obvious that with the long process, there must
be some acid produced, and very much more than
in
a short one
;
acid cannot
possibly be sweet and will be liked or disliked according to the taste acquired for
it,
a person
without.
who
has become accustomed to acids not liking similar foods
Local customs and individual tastes, even of different people in
same district, are such important factors that one often safer when judging a loaf of bread to entirely ignore the the
difficulty is that flavour
and as
is
feels
it
would be
flavour, yet the
unquestionably a most important element of a
loaf,
essential as the wheels to a coach.
In order to taste the flavour of dough
it
necessary for
is
it
to
be baked,
much information can be acquired concerning the flavour of flour before made into dough. The aroma of flour is volatile and can to some extent be criticised when the latter is in its natural state. When heated, by even holding in the hand, the aroma or smell evaporates very much more quickl)', giving more indication of what it would be when baked. Still more information can be obtained by taking a series of flours, some with which one has already been acquainted in the baked loaf, placing them in cups or glasses, pouring on them hot water, stirring and smelling immediately. Any oldness but
being
or characteristic will thus be immediately and rapidly given to the senses,
When
off,
and conveyed
and can be accurately gauged by means of the known samples.
examining a loaf much information concerning flavour can be
ascertained by observing the physical signs denoting changes or ingredients
such
as
discussed
elsewhere.
Much
information
be obtained by the smell even without tasting, but in
a
critical
test,
it
is
added
can also
always safest
although not possible when judging several hundreds of
loaves at the exhibitions, to eat two or three pieces in order to neutralize
any conflicting flavours that there might be in the mouth. Then proceed to carefully chew a piece, moving it about with the tongue and getting it on to the palate, noting carefully the readiness with
which
it
breaks up
in the
THE BOOK OF BREAD
74
mouth, and the series of sensations that â&#x20AC;˘
swallowing
and the
;
and carefully note the
Anyone noting
after taste.
out while eating,
will,
if
will
be experienced during gradual
final taste as
the piece
is'
disappearing,
the different sensations, thinking
unaccustomed
to doing so,
them
be surprised at the
variations that are experienced, which will be unnoticed when eating in the
way without
ordinary
and
in the effort of
dency will
for the
be found
mass to
same
differences in the sweetness
chewing, and of the roughness or smoothness, the tento divide
or cling into a
itself,
be very great
accurately judge a large the
The
closely studying.
;
and
number
ball,
rankness or otherwise
after a little practice
one
will
of loaves almost by instinct,
be able to
and without
close application.
The
differences
and
peculiarities
of the individual tastes of persons
are undoubtedly the sheet anchor of a family business, and the salvation of the small
trader in close contact with
wholesale trader
number party,
who must have more
of customers with
the grocer,
usually
whom
he
his
customer, as
against
the
uniformity and neutrality for a large is
not in contact, the intermediate
buying by the eye and not by the
palate.
The flavour of bread must depend on the degree of fermentation, on the quality of the flour, on the condition of the latter, and whether or no it has become contaminated accidentally, and on the amount and character of
added substances.
As
a rule the conditions that tend to produce
a high percentage of gluten during the growing of the wheat act against
The
flavour.
conditions, however, that tend to a high percentage of gluten
usually result in a better maturity of the flour, and the flour
is,
the less
The milled.
its
more matured the
flavour will deteriorate on keeping.
best flavoured
flour, all
other things equal,
Flour becomes stale and loses
its
is
the one that
Is
freshest
flavour quicker than those
who
have not looked into the subject would credit. We recently tested this matter more by accident than by anything else, having before thoroughly done so
by two parcels of the same brand of flour that had arrived at an We gave out portions of them for domestic interval of about nine months. purposes, merely asking for the two to' be used separately, and for any personally,
FLAVOUR
75
They were exactly the same make of flour, but we were told that one worked much drier, took more water to mix it, and that the children, who had no intimation that they were being be noted.
characteristics to
experimented upon, immediately expressed their dislike to the flavour of
some of the goods made. The older sample, which was nearly twelve months old, was more pronounced in flavoiir than the one nine months younger, although both were sound, and had
been properly kept.
must have
distinctly noticeable as nasty at twelve
months,
aroma
who has a
long before.
not everyone
It is
keep better than others, and well that
flours
used must be about twelve months time
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;perhaps
all
the winter
it
it
is
old, especially
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;coming, and then
If
lost its fresh
critical palate,
and some
when sometimes flour when it has been a long
so,
rests for
good periods
in
granary and bakery over here.
The way
to see the important effect of fermentation
on flavour
is
to
com
pare a loaf raised naturally by the gas produced by yeast with the loaf that is
raised
by
gas,
which
systems, or with a loaf that fermentation, rather than
pumped in, as in some by adding chemicals. The extent of the
prepared outside and then
is
is
its
raised
rapidity, will
be the ruling factor
in the various
between these two extremes. The presence and change, as developed during fermentation, will strike the palate,
differences that there will be
of acid
and give the sensation known as otherwise by other substances.
flavour, in proportion as
For
it
is
concealed or
instance, salt not only has effect
on
by steadying fermentation, but has a flavour of its own, which, according to the amount added, makes itself apparent, or hides, or counteracts flavour
other
effects.
would
If
added
in
normal quantities, which
be about 3 lbs. per sack,
quantities the bread
would be
had been developed customary
;
if
it is
insipid, unless
added
in
in Scotland, the loaf will
the other hand,
it
in the
South of England
if added in much smaller some other flavour, such as acid,
not tasted
;
quantities of 5 or 6 lbs. per sack, as
have a
distinctly salt taste, unless,
on
should be largely covered by an excess of acid often
produced by long processes. commercial vinegar, or acetic
In exactly the
same way
it is
possible to add
acid, in certain small proportions that
it
cannot
THE BOOK OF BREAD
76 be
Although not
tasted.
must counteract some of the which otherwise would convey, by means
tasted, its presence
natural sweetnesses of the flour,
known
good flavour. Much importance is placed by some people on the kind of yeast used, but on the same principle as the salt and vinegar, the yeast is not In added in sufficient quantity to give a direct flavour of its own. fact, any flavour is chiefly due to the amount of fermentation that
of the palate, the sensation
as
When the system by time or heat, to produce. of straight doughs first came into vogue with large quantities of yeast, it was frequently remarked by those who were counselled to use it that such large quantities of yeast would taste, and it was frequently futile the yeast
is
allowed,
The
for the author to point out the fallacy of such a statement.
table proof to the contrary, however,
made
frequently
much
taste
as, for instance,
the customary
oz. or 2 ozs. of
i
is
of yeast to the sack,
whatever when properly managed,
If another proof were wanting,
much
5 lbs.
in fact, not nearly
of this so-called yeasty taste as in the case of very
under other conditions, time.
given by the fact that bread
for special purposes with even
and has no yeasty so
is
indispu-
much
less yeast
with a small quantity worked a long
it
is
only necessary to calculate
yeast to a quart of liquor
how
when making
small batches of buns, or fancy bread, would be to the sack, noting the
absence of the taste of yeast.
The
difference
between the
different so-called sorts of yeast as
used
commerce, such as breweis', patent, and distillers', is chiefly their degree of concentration, and the condition of fermentation necessary to in
suit
a
them.
In the case
of brewers', however, there
very strong decoction of hops
distinct
from the yeast
themselves noticeable.
itself,
A
is
usually present
and other matters, which are quite
and which are
sufficiently strong to
similar bitter taste to that obtained
yeast, that has not been well
washed or
purified, is
make
from brewers'
sometimes noticed
in
when they have decomposition known
the case of continental, or other compressed or dried yeasts, deteriorated during keeping, or undergone a partial as softening.
Some
people are so wedded to the idea of brewers' yeast
FLAVOUR making good-flavoured bread, contrary
;
.that they
its
cannot conceive anything to the
would, however, be just as reasonable to suppose that good
it
meat never decomposes, or good fruit
77
fruit
reminds one that the degree of flavour
appreciation as different sorts of
Speaking of
never becomes rotten.
fruit,
bread
in
many
is
just as varying in
of which require an acquired
taste before being valued, and personally this has been particularly so with
The
other foods, such as tomatoes. extract, glucose,
addition of milk, sugar, lard,
and kindred substances, must,
like salt
malt
and other ingredients
and the stage of fermentation Some of them are directly fermentable by yeast,
mentioned, affect according to their proportion, at
which they are added.
consumed before the loaf is baked. The flavour of a loaf can sometimes be judged by physical signs that tell the amount of fermentation and the degree of change in the flour, but it is not always so. We have had loaves to examine that have been the picture of health, evidently made from the best flour, in the best possible manner as regards its degree of change, but the flavour was distinctly bad and surand
if
added
at early stages are
was afterwards discovered that the ferment or prior stage, in which practically no flour had been placed, had been allowed to stand a very It had thereby developed bad flavours long time under bad conditions. which, like an excess of vinegar, were not afterwards hidden when added
prising.
to the
It
main batch.
stages, such as in
bad flavours or sourness developed in the prior the above ferment, be not in excess, they can oftentimes If the
afterwards be counteracted so as not to be 'noticed in the instance of this
The
is
in the case of
leaven bread, as
made on
piece of leaven, which leaveneth the whole lump,
previous day's baking, and
is
absolutely sour
;
loaf.
this
A
good
the continent.
over from the
is
left
is
mixed by gradual
stages with the fresh flour, which, being in such large proportions to the original leaven, hides the sourness
same thing
is
seen in this country
and makes good palatable bread.
when
The
a sponge has been over-ripe, and
largely counteracted by the sweetness of the flour which
is
used
is
for the
dough stage. Any sourness, moreover, would be very much less noticed if the dough were made larger than originally intended, that is, if the dough
THE BOOK OF BREAD
78 were, as
is
it
because the original order of bread
stretched,
called,
quired was subsequently increased. stances this
make one suppose
that a long sponge
sponge as small as possible
Under
In the
if
effect
on the
gases, products or sourness that
according to
is,
effect
one's circum-
necessary,
best to have
is
the heading of crust, dryness, and baking
have considerable
more
same way where
its
however, a prejudice
in
we have
referred at
Shorter baking in a good heat
flavour, especially in driving off the stale
would have been present
The degree
treatment.
on the loaf than the
it is
one wants good-flavoured bread.
length to the varying effects of a quick oven. will
fuel with
much
There when burned on the is
heated.
sole of the oven, as in several country districts, particularly in
as ever,
dough,
in the
of baking will have very
which the oven
favour of wood, especially
and other parts of the continent.
re-
Nevertheless, although
wood
is
Germany as cheap
and coal and coke during the last few years have been dearer, one
from personally traversing the country, that wood-fired ovens are
finds
giving place to externally heated ones, especially of the steam-pipe kind.
A
loaf of bread, like flour,
with which
it
is
particularly absorbent of flavours or
shown, moisture, alcohol, and gases are being driven cult to see
aromas
comes into contact, but while in the oven, as has already been
how
off, it is
therefore
a loaf can absorb anything at the same time as
it is
diffi-
exuding.
Nevertheless, there was recently a case in France where poisoning of certain
oven had been heated with old and painted wood obtained from some demolished houses, and,
people, by the bread,
further, there is
was traced
now an
to the fact that the
edict to prohibit, for ovens, the use of such painted
wood, or anything that can possibly be contaminated.
Whatever may be been said on
said to the contrary,
this subject, there is
and we are
fully
aware of what has
undoubtedly a considerable difference
in the
flavour of different flours, not only according to the characteristics of the wheats,
but also according to the
way
in
which they have been milled.
If
an analysis
be made of the moisture that has evaporated during milling, as might happen
when will
good condition or had sweated, there be found therein phosphates and various volatile oils of characteristic the wheats had not been in a
FLAVOUR The Hungarians
flavours.
79
claim that by carrying the intermediate products
of mining by hand instead of by a greater use of elevators, as this country, that
they thus preserve some of these volatile
germ by
old stone mills, undoubtedly, heating the
produced an aroma that permeated the whole
We
general in In the
oils.
during milling
friction
flour.
is
now
can
get a
same way by taking separated germ, heating it and passing its fumes through flour that was not milled at the same time. -As an instance of the characteristic sweetness and nice flavour of a freshly similar effect in the
ground
flour,
in this country, as
from a nice selection of wheat,
from harsher wheats, or those taking months to that
it
arrive,
it
may
against those
be mentioned
has come under our personal observation that mice are great dis-
We
criminators in this respect.
know a
case where they consistently always
elected to eat into a certain grade of flour in a baker's
They never
loft.
touched anything else when that grade was there, and they always attacked it
sooner after
was noted it,
its
for its specialite in
When
was always attacked
They
the
first,
in
first
when
;
that
was out of
same
mill,
on
The
stock, but
and afterwards
so persistently attacked these two flours, and especially
preference to
all
other grades in
loft,
that the baker frequently
refused to order large quantities, unless he was going to use solely
which
the two arrived together,
not before, the mice attacked the other grade from
the others.
mill,
flavour, also supplied another grade similar to
but not so choice or special in flavour.
the first-named
The same
any other.
arrival than they did
this account.
Absolute
them
rapidly,
fact.
absorbing character of flour has already been referred
to,
and we
flour come under our notice. We know of was rejected because it was contaminated by knew of other flour that had a most objectionable
have had many cases of tainted a cargo of Vienna
flour that
the smell of oranges. smell,
and
We
baffled all attempts at finding out
afterwards transpired that the flour had been
what
it
was
for a long time.
made from wheat
It
that had been
shipped in a vessel that some years before had carried Guano manure.
Unless one could personally vouch incredible.
We
know
of cases
where
for
such instances, they would seem
in a
consignment by railway of only a
THE BOOK OF BREAD
'8o few tons of
flour, all
milled together, and
same
the
all railed in
some
truck,
of the consignment was considered unusable by one customer out of several
who had
same consignment, whereas no one else noticed anything unusual. This had been caused by the flour being covered by a newly dressed tarpaulin, and the few bags on the top that the sheet touched flour out of the
We know of cases of paraffin contamination through flour
absorbed the smell. being put
in
tact of the
a truck that some time before carried the
was not the con-
It
oil.
but merely the smell arising from the dry floor of the truck
oil,
and permeating the
therefore, often filled with
the curious thing
New
sack.
sacks will often convey a smell, and are,
wheat
offals before
being
with
filled
But
flour.
perhaps, that such contamination, like a plague of red
is,
ants in bakeries, disappears almost as rapidly as
it
Where
comes.
only
it is
a dry contamination, such as from the mere efiluvia of the dressed sheet or the dry
floor,
there
is
no need
to
worry or
worth keeping at a small discount.
to destroy the goods,
The smell
soon disappears, and,
we have known many cases of such rejected another man without the package being changed,
of
and they are
this,
flour
in
proof
being used by
or anything whatso-
ever done to the consignment, and
without the slightest indication that
anything had even been wrong, even
in cases
been told that the
flour
had been found tainted and rejected by
'Flour that, in underground places, has
water has been
We
know
all
where the new recipient had
right inside,
if
come
others.
with the worst of
in contact
shot from the sack before becoming musty.
of shipwrecked cargoes of Vienna and other flour
that
have
returned handsome profits to the buyers because others were afraid of the
supposed excessive damage. stand
in
water
it
if
first
week or two
that sacks of flour
seems that the soakage into the sacks
about one inch per week. interior to
For the
If the
become unsound, the damage
is,
wheat
is
frequently passed through water or
and
also occasionally
to the extent of
of coiirse, permanent, but not so
merely the outside, or the bran, has become wet.
cleaning,
is
wheat has got thoroughly wet, causing the
damped
for
''
washed
In modern mills "
for
purposes of
purposes of easier milling.
If
the sacks of flour have been packed in a truck on wet straw, or the latter
m^
Section of
Crumby
(ACTUAL
S'ZE.)
Loaf. '
COLOUR
8
has afterwards got wet, any smell or dampness from the straw will quickly evaporate if suitably stored, and, particularly, during baking. Many instances of this have been afforded by the fact, that where one baker has complained of a strawy smell, the flour has been removed to another, and found to be thoroughly desirable. Bad flavours often evaporate in exactly
the same
way
The Way
as the
good flavours of
fresh-milled flours
do during storage.
Points have usually been allocated at Exhibitions.
THE BOOK OF BREAD
82
than anything actual, and varies according to the conditions under which
For
transmitted.
is
different people
instance, the
which
is
well-known
according to the surroundings, as
and
case between daylight and
The
finer the flour
is
or character of the light, such as
In the side,
refraction,
conveying to the brain
This gives what we
light.
is
call
better
the absence of colour or no
same way two loaves of bread from the same dough, and therefore substantially the same, will sometimes
be considered of different colour, one looking whiter than the other. one, as will often be noticed in a tin loaf as
compared with a crumby
by proving more has become more porous than the porous one by absorbing more
On
the other hand, a
colour than
it
really
the
dressed or ground, the more the globules are open
colour, although, of course, in reality white all.
is
artificial light.
and the more complete the
and baked side by
and also on blue or white paper,
in the case of colour blindness,
by means of the eye purer or whiter colour at
appearance to
different
in the case of flour
amount
also according to the
to the light,
same thing has a
it
is,
more
of the rays of light silky loaf
loaf,
whereby the more
other,
appears to be the darker.
sometimes appears
according to the position
The
in
to
which
be of better
it is
held during
The colour of a flour depends on the percentage of its conThe whiteness is the result of starch, which is the largest portion
examination. stituents.
of the flour, and depends on the degree of refinement and removal of
Although whiteness
commands high
is
often spoken of as
price, there
good
colour,
dirt.
and good colour
can be an excess of starch, dead white flour being
of worse value for bread-making purposes than a flour possessing a yellow cast.
The
some other
whiteness can be obtained by adding a highly refined starch from cereal,
such as corn-flour, and can be obtained for less money.
Flour made from good red wheat would be better than that made from a
common
white.
If flour
be too highly refined
it
will
be approaching too
near to pure starch, thereby losing the bulk-giving and moisture-retaining characteristic of gluten,
and the bloom
of yellow indicates the presence of portions.
The
characteristic of sugar.
good
class gluten freed
The
presence
from the coarser
patents of the flour will be yellow, but the lower grade,
COLOUR
83
although sometimes containing a higher percentage of gluten, would be browner, because of coming from nearer the bran and containing more
The middle
impurities.
skin of wheat contains most of the colouring
matter of the bran, but the inner layer contains some of the brown that
ground up flours
in
low grade
practically absent,
is
The germ
flours. is
and
yellow,
it
or
modern
of wheat, which in its oil
is
would, of course, have
where present. The whitest flour is usually from the centre of the berry, and white can usually be taken to represent flour either from strong wheat highly refined and not so much strength left in it, or else
some
effect
flour
from a
soft
wheat poor
in
brown would represent strength
gluten.
Yellow represents
quality,
and
would be
of lower character, while grey
poor.
The changes
in
colour of flour would be most during the
after milling, after that the
that
would evaporate quickest, becoming bleached
exposed in a
change would be very slow.
to light
and
dry and natural
fortnight
the yellow
is
proportion as
it
was
tints can be seen when the flour is when pressed on a board and dipped in water
These various
air.
state,
the differences are very
in
It
first
but
much more
acute.
Various changes occur during
and the
flours can be best compared when they have been allowed become again thoroughly dry by natural evaporation. When some flours are thus pressed and wetted up together, much information concerning their
drying,
to
general commercial value can be obtained. ever,
is
various
tints,
particularly,
according to their behaviour during bread-making
it
The
maker.
wants
Considerable experience, how-
necessary in order to gauge the value that can be placed on the
will
be seen that the whitest flour
safest
way
is
always to
is
;
here, very
not always the best bread
test the flour
concerning which one
same time as other leading types with which one might be acquainted. Types vary considerably from year to year, and therefore any attempt to standardise them is often very misleading. to get information at the
very popularly supposed that fermentation always increases the colour of the bread, but fermentation can darken as well as bleach. In the case of the Scotch process, which is usually conducted with a considerable It is
THE BOOK OF BREAD
84 amount of care
very long period, bleaching or whiteness
for a
precautions, not only
the yellow destroyed, but a dullness and darkness
is
when a dough from a strong
produced, just as in the case
flour
is
A
immature.
into loaves will often
and then
particularly
In the case, however, of long periods of fermentation with less
noticeable.
is
is
will
or low grade
dough during the process of being made become darker on the exterior if not covered up, piece of
be seen
in the
form of streaks when turned inside
in the
The effect of time and fermentation on colour, both of can be settled beyond dispute by making a dough, cutting
process of moulding.
crumb and
crust,
off pieces at
each hour over a long range of time, for baking and noting
separately.
The
colour of bread
Brewers' yeast with will
its
is
also affected
by the ingredients that are added.
attendant impurities, and potatoes with their dirt
darken, while scalded flour will whiten.
Occasionally there are quite
foreign colours found in bread, such, for instance, as red spots
(known
as
bleeding bread), which are attributed to a very small organism with a very long name. They may be due to an insect or mould on the grain which is too small to be removed during milling, and the small
amount of colour
present in the dry state spreads considerably on being wetted. tion does not
seem
bread-making.
We
which have been
likely to
This colora-
be due to anything that has got
have occasionally found
less noticeable
when
in
violet patches
the loaf;
in
in
during
the dough
we have found
this
when the wheat contained garlic, and although this no direct evidence of garlic being the cause, or of the cause being different
repeatedly to be present is
to the case of the red spots
present
when
spot was
garlic
is
mentioned above,
than otherwise.
noticed in the crumb,
and
On
it
seems
to
be more usually
one occasion a greenish-blue
was the dye of which had
after considerable
found to be caused by a piece of coloured string,
difficulty
it
spread.
The
condition of the gluten
seems
to
have considerable
effect
on
the colour and character of the crust, because an excess of sugar does
not give that
same foxy or red
crust that
comes from a cold or checked
COLOUR The
fermentation.
according to the time that
is
it
brown If good
from
changes
gluten
85 a
fermented.
to
flour
a
paler
tint,
be fermented
quickly with a comfortable heat, the crust will be of a nice brightness if
the flour be poor or overworked, the crust will be slaty and dull.
;
and
When,
a short time ago, maize was so cheap that considerable portions of corn-flour
were
said, in the land of its production, to
noticed that
it
was more
be added to wheaten
obtain a
difficult to
there was a distinct shortness in the eating.
the crust,
all
crust colour,
it
the part that
first
pulls
and also
is
it
is
sometimes, however, in the case of a cottage
;
away from
ordinary course, be most coloured, top parts from the bottom
was
intensity of the colour of
things being equal, should be in proportion to the time
exposed to the heat of the oven loaf,
good
The
flour,
is
not
the bottom which should, in the so.
When
this portion
where the
variegated or unevenly browned, the circum-
stance can almost always be taken as a sign of irregular fermentation or too
much is
due
change.
Sometimes there
to the loaf
is
seen to be a red ring round the crust
;
this
on the boards when topped, and allowed to get Therefore when the loaf is raised, on being put into the
being
dry on the surface.
left
oven, the top pulls from the bottom, exposing to the heat the surface that
moist through being in contact with the bottom
on more colour than the
A
;
the
dry, the acute division of the
damp
is
surface taking
two leaves a
line all
some Scotch places by wood when intense colour thus obtained shows up the dry enough not to smoke colour of the crumb to advantage by contrast. High colour is also, sometimes, obtained by washing the loaf with water or grease when coming out of the oven as well as when it was being placed therein. round, or a
throwing
ring.
salt
high crust colour
on the furnace, and
also,
is
obtained
in
sometimes, by putting on
;
The will
bloom, or colour which a loaf takes on the crust during baking,
be affected by the quality, character, and grade of the
other
ingredients that might be added, by the
flour, by any amount of fermentation,
by the condition of the surface of the pieces of dough, when being set into the oven, and by the amount and character of the heat to which they are exposed.
Highly dressed
flour would, all things
being equal, have a higher
THE BOOK OF BREAD
86
percentage of starch than a coarser
and as such have less in it that would attract the heat or bloom. In the same way the addition of sugar or malt extract would facilitate more colour than a pure flour, while the addition of fat would have a contrary effect. A good instance of fat reflour,
when
hot-cross buns are crossed, as
they are in some parts of the country, by a
strip of paste containing butter
pelling the heat of the oven
or lard
neath
;
seen
is
same heat as the bun undertake very much greater bloom than the strip
of course the paste has exactly the
it,
yet the bun will
of paste.
Fermentation has considerable
any way under-ripe there which, however,
The
a desirable colour.
is
is
almost impossible certainly
The
is
over-ripe,
in the latter case to
no bloom, which should
condition
oven
set into the
of the
is
dough be
in
as bloom,
and
is
a blemish, whereas the term bloom applies to
loaf that
brown or healthy-looking
light
the
if
known
is
on the other hand,
bloom, and in the case of a sour loaf the bloom
and
;
be an excess of colour of a reddish hue,
almost distinct from what
is
usually called foxy, which
less
will
on bloom
effect
is
will
take
entirely absent.
It
get any brown coloration whatever,
a bright and
really be defined as
colour.
surface
of the
dough when the case of bloom
piece of
of primary importance in
beingas,
if
the surface be really dry or skinny, there will
be no bloom, no matter from what ingredients the dough has been made, or to what extent it has been fermented, or to what extent is
almost as
difficult
for a dry
in the case of a sour loaf
might
it is
.surface
to
to
be baked.
take bloom as
it
It
would be
no matter how intense the heat of the oven
be, but, of course, the hotter the
greater would be the bloom.
afterwards
It is
on
oven under other conditions the account that the pieces of dough
this
while proving on the boards should be kept covered, whereby no skin
would be allowed
to form, or the surface
become
dry.
The
pieces can be
covered up with a thin sack or flannelette, either dry or wet, but preferably the
latter.
Objection
is
sometimes made that the cloths
use begin to smell, but this need not be so
;
after
some
little
they should be dipped in water.
COLOUR and well wrung
out,
because
if
87
they are too wet they cannot be
we have seen
loaves sufficiently long without sticking, and
on the
left
pieces of sack-
ing sticking to loaves in the prize case at the Agricultural Hall.
The
washed and then dried quickly, and damped again when being required for use, and they will keep wholesome until worn out or fit only for making scuffles for cleaning keep
cloths will
in
good condition
frequently
if
the oven.
A
good bloom, and also a gloss, will be obtained by proving a loaf in steam, and also by injecting steam into the oven whereby the, moist surfaces are kept moist also the smoother the crust is moulded the better will be the bloom, all other things being equal, and likewise the greener and ;
without too
much
cones, the better condition will the surface
moister, that
is,
be
purpose of taking bloom.
in for the
loaf with a
Of
course
it
smooth surface with a slack than with a
is
therefore here, as throughout
of
skill,
all
and there should be very
is
harder to mould a
tight dough,
and bloom
the other details, resolved into a question
little
excuse
for the large
with sickly crust and without bloom at the exhibitions.
amount of bread
The washing over
of loaves even with water, to say nothing of milk, egg, or scalded flour
wash,
is
and can
certainly be called faking, that
A
not.
a very poor substitute for the proper method of getting bloom,
loaf in
called
making
good health and properly cared
purpose of a proper bloom.
The
is,
Much
bread
is
for
baked
a loaf appear
what
needs no washing in
too cool an oven.
large majority of high-priced flours, in the straining after
good
it is
for the
what
is
colour, in order to appeal in the dry state to the buyer's eye,
have a marked tendency when doughed against taking a healthy crust bloom in the
baked
milling.
There
are specially quality,
loaf,
most of the bloom-making
are,
however, individual
made
combine bloom,
to
flours, well
indicate.
in
known
removed during
to the author, that
and moisture with general both crust and crumb than the
flavour,
and which give a better colour
unwetted sample would
qualities being
THE BOOK OF BREAD
88
TEXTURE AND
PILE
'X^EXTURE
can be defined as being the disposition or connection of interwoven threads or fibres. In a loaf of bread texture seems to
be usually associated
in one's
mind with
holes, but the presence or
of holes does not constitute the whole difference between texture.
A
tin one,
good and bad
loaf having a hole can be of a better texture than
and a loaf without
absence
one without,
made and then over-proved and therefore of bad texture. At the
holes, as, for instance, a badly
can be coarse and crumbl}-,
moment the writer is facing and finely woven and of soft feel,
present
a pair of lace curtains, exceptionally
well
therefore of excellent texture, but at
some
future time they will, unfortunately, have rents or holes
at the
laundry
they
made
them and still in
good textured curtains, some other cheaper and coarser ones, although possibly good repair, in another room. If a thin slice of bread be cut and held up the window, whereby the light goes through it as through a curtain, the ;
will
obviously be
still
better textured than in
to
texture can be seen perfectly, and far
more pronounced than
any other way. unevenness or streaks, or hard, or close layers, or cores, which are blemishes in texture, will obscure the light and show up like the closer in
Any
portions or pattern of the curtain.
Although the absence of holes does not constitute a good textured loaf, good textured loaf would be all the better when entirely free
nevertheless, a
from the larger hollow places or cavities known as
holes,
ing the latter at considerable length under their the
principles
governing the
and should be consulted, holes
down of texture.
When judging
present
subject
own
will
and when discussheading,
be
many
of
found detailed,
really being the absence or the breaking at the last
Annual Bakers' Exhibition
at
London, "texture," was allocated a maximum of twenty-five marks out of one hundred, the othef three quarters being equally divided between flavour, colour, and volume, as against formerly twenty out of one hundred. This large proportion of marks clearly indicates the imthe Agricultural
Hall,
u. ''W^^
TEXTURE AND
PILE
portance of texture, and the guide or index that
it is
to the
manufacture, holes being merely taken as a section of
A
loaf to be of
mesh, but also of
good
texture,
soft, pliable,
89 whole process of
it.
must not only be of
and springy crumb, that
is,
fine
and regular
not coarse to look
nor hard or unyielding to the thumb when pressed, nor yielding too much,
at,
more in some places than others, with'out quickly recovering the indentation. These characteristics, the same as pile, as elsewhere described, are or
not so
much
of such vast importance per se as they are the physical signs of
A
the state and history of the loaf
atmosphere of a room
is
similar case
is
where the purity of the
gauged by the amount of carbonic acid gas present,
not because of any poisonous action of the latter by
where
(except, as should be noted, in bakeries it
is
it
is
itself,
but because
otherwise produced),
usually present in strict proportion to other deleterious products of
combustion or exhalations from the lungs.
The above by
obtained (2) well
(
i )
desirable
proper
made and
system
well cleared
of
dough
;
and
(4)
good and firm handing
re-expand or recover, but not enough to allow them to get
ramp along
at
any period, must not be
the gluten becomes broken
weakened.
down
and folded over
until its threads are fine
too long to
itself
is
the^m fine
out, or in
and
re-expansion
too
and the vesiculation even, and able have time
The
after
com-
labour in
and folding each piece over when
handing up once, then again, closes up the meshes, making
close. is
web
preserved and well stretched
throughout the whole.
well kneading, or in pulling asunder
whereby
itself,
at frequent intervals, according to
to hold, without breaking anywhere, the gas that should
pression to evenly distribute
The dough must
too much, or the threads or
must have gentle labour
It
left
the speed of fermentation, whereby the gluten
throwing
be
good materials
with
opened again too much, or thus producing coarseness. not
to
then enough proof to allow the closed-up
then suitable moulding,
interstices to
;
and
thoroughly aerated dough, well
(3) it
of
indicative
fermentation
changed, but taken with some spring in up,
are
characteristics
If then,
however, put into hot oven, before a gentle
allowed, the loaf will be close in
M
some
parts, but burst out
THE BOOK OF BREAD
90 by struggling uneven hand,
gas,
where exposed
texture,
in
to heat, in other parts, that
unexpanded here yet holey
be allowed too much recovery,
it
it
will
nor holey there, but, although regular,
there.
be even
will
all
is, it
will
be
on the other
If,
over, not close here,
Two
be uniformly coarse.
extremes to be avoided.
A
mesh
fine
will
almost universally, with only a few exceptions,
in-
dicate a long steady process of fermentation with considerable changing of
the constituents of the flour in the trough, and also a slow and small
of proof after throwing out
;
whereas a coarse mesh
almost always indicate a quick and short process quantities of yeast, out,
which
tin bread.
will
on the other hand,
in the
trough with larger
and also a rapid one, therefore more proof
be particularly noticeable
Fineness
in quickly
after
blown up and
fermentation or change and labour
is
amount
will,
throwing
little
handled
coarseness
;
is
and often, therefore, lack of labour at the finish, same thing, a greater proof after labour. Ramming one's fist into the dough when in the trough, and letting the gas out, does not put in texture, except that, to some extent, it checks the dough ramping towards too much change, but the dough should be well spread and folded over. A spongy texture usually indicates a desirably lively fermentation and good flour, and thereby, within limits, a sweet and moist loaf; a hard aeration rather than change, or,
what amounts
to the
texture usually indicates unripeness, or else tightness dicates in either trough or loaf stage over ripeness
;
a
;
a crumbly texture in-
soft, pliable
indicates a slack dough, but not entirely so, because a sloppy
often
makes a hard and
Blemishes
in texture,
texture often
brown dough
close textured loaf.
namely, variations throughout the loaf in the groupino-
of the smaller interstices (which although small spaces or holes are distinct from the larger cavities styled "holes'" as discussed elsewhere) include, to
commence
with, a hard layer,
which can at once be seen and
the top and bottom of a cottage loaf
meant
the latter
in this case stretches right across the loaf, is
is
is
cut.
felt
between
The
layer
hard and thin like a cord,
that, when the head is pulled off from the bottom, the layer, seen to be discoloured, can be easily detached, skinning off like the
and so tough which
when
TEXTURE AND PILE
91
outside layer of a boot sole that has been partly loosened by wear.
This
tough layer can only be caused by the top and bottom having been stood separately on the boards, instead of being topped after moulding, and by
not being kept moist, and by being stood on cones or dust and thus contracting a dry skin.
When
the separated pieces are then topped, the two dry and
chilled surfaces get pressed together,
gas can
aerate.
Sometimes, and more
there will be in the
which by
its
forming a tough integument that no
same place a
softer
greater closeness can be
be detached from the loaf
often, instead of this
and wider
and has
felt
layer,
effect
hard thin core,
about
h
inch thick,
on colour, but cannot
same way as the other when the top is This is often due to the same cause, in a modified form, namely, by the outsides getting chilled and thereby not expanding when in the loaf in spite of being then in the centre of it but it often comes even when the tops and bottoms were joined, as they should be, immediately after moulding. in the
removed.
;
then due to too
It is
much compression
in
proportion to the state of the
dough, either by a big head weighing down the bottom too much or more usually
by too much weight of the hand
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;too
much
pressing
down
â&#x20AC;&#x201D; when
topping or bashing.
The
undue pressure can be easily tested by cutting the loaf in halves and then pressing the top, and watching the compression will be effect of
.
;
seen to come exactly in that spot where this layer and compression always
and not come
any other part of the loaf
same extent. be more noticeable, that is, thicker and more discoloured when using low grade flours, which discolour or oxidise on exposure to the air more quickly than more starchy ones and it will be much more often present with long slow processes than with quick, and the difference has been noticed in two such loaves from the same baker. The softer layer, or streak, as referred to in the is,
The hard
in
to nearly the
layer, or core, first referred to, will usually
;
second place,
made with
will
very often be seen
in
highly refined and delicate
plenty of yeast.
This
layer, or streak,
good bread, as at the exhibitions, and by a quick process with
flour, is
obviously the result of insufficient
re-expansion, and although exhibition bread will usually be given time and
THE BOOK OF BREAD
92
proof after moulding- for the purpose of this re-expansion to a greater extent
than at other times, nevertheless, highly starchy in
it,
flour,
is
usually fermented to
and also usually more
difficult for
it
tight.
the loaf to recover
itself,
made from
usually its
delicate
utmost to bring out
and
there
all
is
These points combined make it more and to re-serate the portion where the
pressure most comes, to the same extent as the rest of the loaf from which the gas was pressed out
used
A
less.
highly refined and delicate flour, as usually
such cases, does not grow or expand much of
its own accord, and good coloured background in the loaf shows up any imperfections very readily. Other streaks will be found in other parts of the loaf, and are usually the results of the pieces before moulding getting likewise chilled and dry, and then during the course of moulding being turned into the inside. A too liberal use of cones and dust during actual moulding will have a similar effect. Cones, and dust, and skin can be very frequently seen inside a baked loaf Pieces of skin turned in will make a core
in
a
similar to that as described
The
between the head and bottom of cottage.
writer once closely watched two
one moulded and placed the loaves
men moulding
a batch of cottages
.
him, the other moulded on
in front of
another table and threw each loaf across, falling
flat on its bottom with a bang on to the table of the other man. The writer suspecting this rough usage would make a concussion and a layer just where the head joins the bottom in the same way as severely bashing would, marked each loaf, and saw
the expected result after baking.
Sometimes a
suitable
oven and suitable
access of heat to loaf will partly correct this layer of heaviness by helping to
lift
and re-expand
it.
This
effect of
oven
particularly noticeable in
is
the folds, and the layer of closeness at the sides, in tin loaves. will frequently
become
chilled
by having a warm,
sensitive in this case, put into a cold tin.
The
free dough, tin
is,
more well
and
this
is
usually on the side that
closely set to another
expanded by the
tin,
the other side,
sufficient heat.
is
which
is
sides
more
of course, usually as
cold on one side as the other, but the layer of heaviness side of loaf,
The
is
only on one
the less baked, by being
when
correct,
having been
TEXTURE AND PILE Sometimes in the tin a
side
is
this
same
come from
layer at the sides will
the loaf proving
long while and getting cold at sides, but there again only one
often affected for
same reason
on the other hand, a long while
;
will usually
make
insufficient
baking at the sides does not set the
proved,
making when put
into
an oven which
It will
lift it.
drop
crust,
in
is
which collapses or loaf that
too cold for
is
very
will often
it,
close spots, because the heat in
in tin
a recent example,
same way a
In the
a close layer.
making thereby
collapse in places,
great enough to
Sometimes, as
the other parts coarse,
shrinks at sides, fully
93
was not
oven either by the over proof or the
constituents of the gluten, as elsewhere discussed, not being able to with-
stand the strain
opened
to put
may
it
;
something
sometimes drop by the oven door being
also
soon after batch had been
else in too
opposite course of action, namely, putting the loaves into a hot
underproved also
of
is
shape,
fully discussed
as
this
The oven when set.
under the respective headings of holes and
course
more
often
leads
to
distortion
than
to
contraction.
heat
The above instances of the heaviness at sides being due to insufficient have come under the writers' personal observation, but when recently
talking to a Scotchman on was due, on the contrary,
this subject, the latter said the layer of heaviness
to too hot
usual plain or batch bread, and he
He was
an oven.
may
referring to the
be perfectly correct
because the extra heat by causing extra expansion
in that case,
may jam and compress
the close packed sides too much against one another, although, as
in
the
case of tin bread, the extra expansion ought to result in driving the loaf higher.
Further reasons, similar to those already discussed above for other
varieties of bread, like
were also given, such as too much highly refined
Hungarian, too much
salt
and overwork
in
the quarter.
depending on many of the same conditions that favour good surprising to find that no district in the world
textured bread as the
A
loaf
is
and stretched
West
said to be of
flour,
Texture
pile, it is
not
makes on the whole such
fine
of Scotland.
good
as to enable a thin
pile
when
its
gluten has been so changed
and bright layer of crumb
to
be skinned,
THE BOOK OF BREAD
94 or pulled facility
from
off,
This flakiness or the
side without breaking short.
its
with which layers can be detatched from outside crumby sides
is in
very close relation to texture, volume, quality of flour and correctness of mentation, and the loaf
is
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;what
much value
has gone through.
it
crumby
the side of a
hand
not of so
is
loaf,
just enough, and,
is
it
the index of what
In order to get off this layer from
the gluten must have been changed on the one
on the
gluten, which, of course,
in itself as
is
other, not too
much.
the webbing of the
Unless mellowed, the
loaf,
and
all
that holds
together, will not be in a condition to stretch, will not be pliable
the other hand, elasticity
To
changed by fermentation too much,
if
and break
fer-
it
will
but,
;
have
it
on
lost its
off short.
get good pile and texture, not only must the gluten be thus
properly matured and be in a condition for stretching, but the stretching
must be done, the fibres must constantly be stretched and folded over one another whereby they become finer in themselves, their length increased, and the mesh that they make be of smaller interstices. This, of course,
means
labour,
and
pile
when make
the flour
look,
and no amount of labour
is
Pile
pile.
cannot be obtained without labour.
good, and the gluten of is
it
But even
changed, labour will not always
the well-stretched gluten that gives that silky, glossy
applied after the flour
is
will
put in that appearance
changed too much
has got too ripe in the trough before
for
If,
it.
much work
is
if
the labour be
dough no amount of
for instance, a
put into
it,
cutting back or handing up or braking, will then give the pile a silky look. It is too late. It is for this
A coarse
reason that
texture will not give the pile or silkiness like a
many complain they cannot
with an off-hand dough as with sponge and dough.
handing up twice given
earlier.
will not
If a
fine.
get such an appearance
The
cutting back and
always make up for labour that should have been
sponge has gone too
far,
no amount of labour would make
pile or silkiness out of that particular portion, but
such a sponge
is
often
saved, and the pile obtained from a sponge and dough because the lightness (a necessary item in pile) is obtained in the sponge,
made with
and then the dough
is
half the total quantity of flour reserved until that stage, which not
TEXTURE AND PILE only levels up possible mistakes
in the
95
sponge, but necessitates more labour,
and labour at a proper period, amalgamating stable gluten with the weakened.
more heard of in Scotland and Ireland, because in those parts there is more close-packed or crumby or plain bread than here, and it is on the close-set bread that pile is, of course, more noticeable, but the texture and pile that is seen on the outside crumb must, to a certain extent, run through Pile
is
There
the whole loaf
We
is
have seldom, just of
in its
another point about pile that might be mentioned.
had a good chance
late,
to
judge the
pile of a loaf
perfection so far as such relates to the pulling off or skinning off the
layer from side of crumb, according to the well-known test in such cases.
Many
of the loaves received
have been through the post
twice,
skinning off must, to a large extent, depend on moisture.
and
this
According, of
course, to the baking, the time for testing pile in this way, should be about six or twelve hours after leaving oven.
steam
is
out of
unpliable
We
it
in
exterior, although moist
have referred to the generally good
making
which does not permit of
change
way
pile,
pile
that butter
puff paste,
it,
the
same
is
it
will
enough
pile of
be too
brittle
and
inside.
Scotland and to over
also true of naturally soft flour
yet the local wheats of Scotland are softer than
not be pile without ripeness but mere ripeness or
will
make
will not
the same
make
There
loaf will be too soft before the
order to get the thin layer, and
when dry on
ripeness of flour not
English.
The
without a good percentage of elastic gluten.
when
In
incorporated with flour in one manner will
and when incorporated
in
another manner
will
make
short
dough making affect the pile. We recently had a most conclusive example of this. In the same bakery with the same flour, and in fact with everything carefully noted to be the same, or it would not have been a fair test, several doughs were made in two different machines. One machine was of a very massive type, and having a full quantity of flour paste, so will differences in
added to the water before starting mixing, made with its usual quickness a firm and solid dough the other machine was less massive and of more gentle action and took more than double the time, namely, exactly fifteen ;
minutes.
The
flour in the latter case, instead of all
being added before
THE BOOK OF BREAD
96
was added gradually almost throughout the whole time of kneading and less of it was got into the dough, which by its gradual kneading and greater slackness recovered very quickly when placed in the trough. This produced a plain loaf of most excellent sheen, volume and pile and starting,
will spoil pile like unripeness,
because
the gluten has not only to be present but must also be stretched,
and the
points ahead of the other.
Tightness
dough wants to be thoroughly kneaded and firmly handled at all stages, must be taken with plenty of spring left in them. Inattention to these matters will mean on the one hand raggedness and roughness, and on the other hand smoothness and shortness and all the
pieces, although the
other signs of overwork.
we have just received two same man and from practically the
Since writing the main portion of the above loaves from Scotland, both
same of,
the
one from a half sponge system and the other from a straight
flour,
dough.
made by
Although the former
the latter
is
is
a
fair
average loaf and nothing to complain
without exaggeration the worst
North of the Tweed
;
it
we have
has absolutely not a particle of
dig into the crumby sides like a piece of cheese, which
with the other
loaf.
It is
ever seen from
pile, is
the finger nails
quite impossible
heavy, dark both inside and out, small, of hard,
coarse and uneven texture, and eating with a rawness, the whole fault
being a great insufficiency of fermentation.
VOLUME \ T the exhibitions and bread competitions held ^^^
tion
"Volume" has
assigned to
it
divisions of which are already detailed
necessary to see what the term includes.
in
London annually the sec-
a large proportion of marks, the in
this
chapter,
it
The word Volume is
is
therefore
derived from
the Latin voluhim, meaning rolled, and originally meant merely a roll, as of parchment it then came to mean that which the roll contained, and then ;
o < CD
z o Cu
< o X CO
H O O c/:
VOLUME the size of the thing contained.
dimensions of an
may
occasionally
article,
It
97
now would
often refer to the size or
but in the case of a loaf of bread, which one
hear described as "too large,"
it
mind of
possibly in the
a bread judge includes other points, especially as the other sections, namely, colour,
and texture leave some excluded.
flavour,
therefore,
possibly
it
includes
In addition to
and
shape,
proportion,
general
size,
outside
appearance.
Regarding
size,
it
is
hardly quite correct to
a buyer's standpoint, a larger equal, feres
is
better value for
a smaller, but
or qualities,
it
From
a loaf too big.
consumption,
article of daily
money than
with the other points
call
if
all
other things
the extra size inter-
should be the other points
volume as excessive. the materials and manufacture have allowed the other
that should be noted as deficient rather than the
In other words,
if
points to be reached with perfectitj-n, then the bigger or better
must be the connection
seem
better,
it
and be entitkd to
would be as well
to
first
place on that account.
remind competitors of a
to so often forget, namely, that 2 lbs. 4 ozs. of
dough
will
and ripe fermentation, and a
active
percentage of gluten of the right character. natural expansion of
because of
its
they
a bigger
flour
with a good
gluten not only has a
own, but also enables a loaf to be of good volume,
balloon-like
its
The
In this
little fact
make
loaf
Large volume
loaf than 2 lbs. without detraction of quality in other points.
presupposes an
volumed
connection with
the
gases
evolved during
fermentation.
Labour, as
in the case of pile,
has also a considerable effect on the
by the stretching and folding of the gluten, as seen in some sorts of bread, especially on the continent. Laziness and insufficient with in conjuction a good manipulation percentage of gluten will not give
volume of a
loaf
such good results tion
in
in
volume,
conjuction with
pile,
and lightness as judicious extra manipula-
a smaller percentage of gluten.
Moreover, the
more fully discussed under that heading, has more quantity of gluten, by reason of better holding the than the volume effect on gas and stretching with more elasticity. quality of the gluten, as
THE BOOK OF BREAD
98
Although a naturally
soft
or a flour with a big percentage of
flour,
starch, will usually tend to decreased volume,
owing
in the proportion of the constituents of the gluten
been found that
volume
is
if
starch be artificially
Ten per
not great.
added
to the usual variation in
such cases,
it
to a flour, that the effect
has
on
natural variation in the quantity of
cent,
two flours would be excessive, and would have a far greater result on volume than if lo or even 20 per cent, be artificially added, because in
starch in
the latter case the constituents of the gluten, namely, gliadin and glutenin,
would
still
be
been found
in the
that
same
ratio to
one another.
In the same
way
it
has
when the percentage of gluten has been artificially some of the starch, that the volume has not been
increased by removing
correspondingly increased to the same extent as flour naturally containing extra gluten.
It will
it
would have been by a
be further noticed, however,
that a flour naturally containing a large or an excessive will
amount of gluten
not increase the volume as compared with a flour with
amount,
in
a ratio corresponding to the increase of gluten.
The above and reason
a normal
facts are of the greatest importance,
and are the whole base
advantages derived from blending wheats and flours. In amount and character of the gluten, there are the further points of the degree of fermentation and the amount of proof and gas in the loaf when about to be baked. The gluten must be mellowed or peptonised by fermentation in order to stretch and expand, yet must not be too much changed or it will collapse. Fermentation is usually considered to increase volume, and in long steady processes, divided into several stages, as in for the
addition to the
Scotland, this will usually be found to be so
;
but
when fermentation
is ripe,
there will be a gradual shrinkage from that point, the meshes close up and tissues contract,
and a sour
found smaller than
if
loaf will,
all
taken sooner.
other things being equal, usually be
A
loaf cannot be of
good volume
without gas, and gas can be absent by the fermentation being excessively
young or immature as well as by the fermentation having past its normal and vigorous stage. Our remarks elsewhere on proving and baking show how volume will be effected in the same way as shape, which also is
DRYNESS A
99
and increase volume, young loaf would grow Water larger by getting better proof, but an overproved one would drop. in medium quantity, other things equal, will be better for expansion and volume than not enough, .but in excess will tend to closeness. separately discussed.
hot oven will usually
lift
In a cold oven a
according, however, to the proof.
DRYNESS TT^RYNESS ^-"^
is
oread
in
is
a defect of comparatively recent growth.
as absence of moisture, but is
a subject of very considerable importance, and
it is
not always
by a deficiency of
usually produced
so, for
liquid,
It
might often be defined
instance dryness or thirst
although some
for instance as sea-water, considerably increase the thirst.
bread, dryness
is
attributable largely to
liquids,
such
In the case of
under-fermentation on the one
hand, and over-fermentation on the other, and also as discussed under the
heading of baking, by being too long to
be moist
and,
all
it
is
things equal, a slack
than a tight one, but
it
is
dough
too slow an oven.
is
usually found to
of the chief factors in the retaining of water latter,
is
moister bread that
is
added
retained.
the gluten, not only
but also according to the varying
percentages of the constituents of which
it
is
composed, and which have
been considered under the separate head of gluten. to say that
make
much the amount of water way in which the moisture is
according to the percentage of the
suffice
In order for a loaf
amount of water must be added,
not so
that keeps the loaf moist, as the
One
in
evident that a sufficient
For the moment
it
will
glutenin will hold water better than the gliadin.
If
fermentation be incomplete there will be insufficient soluble matters formed,
and
if
formed
the fermentation has proceeded too will
have been consumed.
far,
the soluble bodies that were
It is easily
seen therefore that in either
case the result will be dryness, because the moisture of the loaf depends
more on the amount of water
that
is
combined with these soluble matters,
THE BOOK OF BREAD
loo
than on the amount of water easily evaporated or driven
There are
really
that,
being unamalgamated, would be more
off.
two kinds of dryness as the
result of the two different causes of under and over-fermentation, and they can be distinguished from one another on the one hand by the well-known characteristic of flinty
on the other hand, by a crumbly or sawdust dryness in the crumb, as discussed under the heading of crumbliness. Although steadiness and crust, and,
slowness of fermentation tends towards moisture, it is not true that heat always makes for dryness. One can have a dry loaf with a long, slow fermentation, or one can have a moist loaf with quick and hot fermentation.
The
merely the amount of change of the constituents and the extent to which they are allowed to be unconsumed, and the rapidity of the difference
is
change can have no direct effect but with the quick system where the changes are proceeding more rapidly, more precision is required, and any variation one side or the other would have more effect. Analogous cases can be taken of a fast and of a slow train, or of a man riding a bicycle or ;
walking,
all will
usually arrive at their destination safely and well, but
accident or irregularity will be proportionately
more severe when
any
travelling
at the quicker rate.
We
have mentioned above the broad fact that dryness is not only affected by the amount of fermentation and change of the gluten, but also by the percentage of the latter that
is
contained in the
It
flour.
has been found
by experiment that where the moisture contained in a loaf when made from a normal flour and tested twenty- four hours after baking was 38 per cent., when 10 per cent, of starch was added the moisture at the same period was found to be only 34 per cent, and when 20 per cent, of starch was added the moisture was only 33 per cent. Not only was the dryness thus measured, but the bread could be easily seen, by casually examining to
be dry and hard, which
bread
is
made from
is
it
a similar effect to that which
in the usual is
flour that naturally contained a larger
starch in proportion to gluten, such as
is
obtained
way,
when
percentage of
the case with flours produced from
very starchy wheats, that are usually reserved
for biscuit-making.
Moreover,
DRYNESS exactly the opposite result was seen
loi
when some
was washed behind was of
of the starch
out from the dough, whereby the percentage of gluten
left
course increased.
Exactly the same business,
effect
has been noticed
also, in
the ordinary
being the starch and product of maize, having none of the of
characteristics
gluten
contained
dressed product of maize, which
much
drier
and more bound
known
was
It
flour.
to
this
making bread
dry,
respect than fine cornflour.
wheaten starch with ordinary
dough these coarse cones had
When
flour,
mixing
finely
make a very
ground and dressed pro-
also found that
cones, as usually used in the bakehouse for preventing effect of
the
as cornflour, the
was found
loaf than the coarser
as maize
further
known commercially
is
as that from which blanc-manges are made,
duct of maize,
And
wheat.
in
same
same
of
highly refined cornflour has been added to the batch, the
when
cornflour,
the
way
this
where maize sticking,
had
less effect in
cornflour and also
no material difference was noticed
in
amount of water which the flour absorbed, the dryness therefore was the result of a greater amount of the water originally added being evaporated. Although starch, when thus in its raw state, has this effect of makingbread dry, it is not in all cases that decreasing the gluten would increase dryness. It is not found so when this starch is scalded, cooked or gelatinized, the
as is
it is
sometimes
The
called.
eff"ect
then
is
exactly the opposite, the dryness
decreased, the moisture being permanently increased, because of the starch
being rendered soluble and taking the water up into
This addition of scalded
flour will
its
own
be further considered under
heading and also under the heading of yield of bread, but
might be remarked
that,
constitution.
in
its
own
passing
it
according to the quantity used, the moisture of
the bread has been increased to a greater extent than
when using normal
quantities of sugar or malt extract.
There are percentage stances districts.
to
also
other substances
of gluten,
which
decrease
that,
although they decrease the
was seen
under
some circum-
make dryness, are used with satisfactory results in different One of these is lard which keeps the crust moist and short,
THE BOOK OF BREAD
102 but the use of exception. in
some
dryness
this,
particularly
used
It
is
largely
sorts
in
Scotland,
has
it
practically
or 3 lbs. per sack of 280
malt extract.
In
that
in
and
makes dry
this
quantities
this
country,
earned the
but
bread,
of lard,
in
than
of less
2
than
mention
,
dry
is
America with large
malt extract, and oftentimes other matters, has not
reputation
of
being
dry.
may be
It
however that
said
American bread is more often baked in smaller loaves than well crusted and more generally eaten when new.
The
of
subject
be as well to
also
made
bread
the
proportion
extent
say that American flour
popular to
is
present
an
is
smaller
a
to
the
England,
that quantity less effect
in
would
it
to
the
in
having
respect
it
respect
in
effect
lbs.,
and
America,
in
but
no
ordinary bread in
in
being
ours,
addition of lard seems to increase the percentage of glycerine
which helps
This glycerine
to retain water.
during ordinary fermentation
quantities
is
it
;
normally produced
is
added
in
this
in small
country to
cakes and found to keep them moist, and there are some in America that
add a pound of
it
to each barrel of flour, ten barrels (196 lbs.) being equal
to seven sacks (280 lbs.).
This glycerine
and added with the remainder of the similar results
When
liquor,
but
many
prefer to
get
out,
making the bread
stale,
the
not only seen in the dryness, but also in the hardness of the
is
loaf
When, however,
the above
matters are freely added, the
very much softer and moister to the
away
best dissolved in hot water
by adding double the amount of glucose.
the water of a loaf dries
result
fall
is
into such fine crumbs.
This
feel, is
loaf
is
and the crumb does not seem to
seen
in the case of lard.
Although
as said elsewhere large additions of scalded flour are apt to increase crumbli-
ness as soon as the water has evaporated, the degree of this evaporation according to the length of time of baking, or the heat of the oven, has already been said to be greater when baked for a long time in a cool oven,
than
when baked
affected
for a short
time in a hot one.
by the spacing of the loaves
crust, the
in the oven,
This
will
be further
namely by the amount of
moisture evaporating subsequently less quickly
when
there
is
crust
DRYNESS all
round than when a loaf
is
crumby
the oven very hot, the top will
advantage until the
to
it if
whole
is
On
set.
the other hand in the case
be very small and the crown of thus be baked quickly, and it would be an
where the top happens
of cottage loaves
103
to
drawn from the oven when baked, but by not being drawn
ready
it
naturally gets over-baked which of course
much water being expelled
of dryness in that particular part, too
volume and the coarser the
Up
course the greater will be the natural evaporation.
however,
it is
most
likely to
be moist
if
a cause
in the first
All
instance although leaving less to be evaporated subsequently. things being equal, the bigger the
is
other
texture, of
to a certain point,
pliable, as that is a sign
spongy and
To some small extent the amount
of good aeration and quality of gluten.
of the kneading will have effect because, with time for recovery, kneading
and well mixing makes the dough
A
dry.
The in
pliable
crumb often
pliable,
and a
pliable
crumb
not usually
is
indicates a slack dough.
presence in flour of germ, which contains
oil
and
fat,
has effect
keeping the loaf moist, as can be seen by getting some germ from one's
miller
and adding a small portion of
character renders
its
on keeping, but when added change.
Although one
any undesirable
it
to the flour.
Its soluble
removal by the miller necessary because
is
in a fresh state
always
far
it
it
and unstable deteriorates
has a welcome effect for a
too ready to blame the flour for
characteristic of the bread,
it
is
very frequently noticed
some cause or other foreign flour is very cheap and thus used in greater proportion, and although it may not be the fault of the flour, it is nevertheless then that we hear more complaints concerning dry bread. And recently on the contrary, when harsher flours have been less used, no matter what might be the reason, it is equally true that the complaints of Not only the condition and characteristics of the dryness have been less. also the way in which it is milled can have considerable effect, but wheat, when the degree of fermentation is the same in all cases. The fineness, referred to above, in the case of the cornflour is also seen in the fineness and Highest-priced flours when obtaining that price dryness of wheaten flour. that when, from
more on account of
their fineness or their small percentage of the total flour.
THE BOOK OF BREAD
I04
rather than on the differences in various qualities of wheats, often tend to
This
dryness.
is
seen in the case of high-priced Viennas, the highest grades
of which are often only a 5 per cent, patent, and bread made therefrom is usually dry and insipid, which would be particularly noticeable in the socalled
Vienna bread made
in this country, if
or other materials added, and
with too
little
The
it is
still
were not
for the shortening
more so when such doughs are made
water.
practice of
washing wheats
to render subsequent milling easier,
moisture in the
damp damp
it
flour, in
condition there
is
fact,
for is
removing
or
damping the bran
not done with the view of increasing
on the contrary, where wheats are milled
usually a smaller percentage of flour produced,
always a considerable nuisance
flour is
dirt,
in
In respect of dryness,
flour
from a good
it
will thus often
by themselves have
grist.
little
modern
roller
be found that straight run
grist of wheat, well milled, will
percentage of a worse
and
decreasing the capacity of
the machines, or in clogging the numerous spouts present in mills.
in
be better than a smaller
Large and small quantities of yeast would
effect,
the moisture depending, except for the
reason as given above in the case of heat, more on the amount of the fermentation and degradation than the speed. Staleness of
new bread
in
bread
is
not entirely a question of loss of water, the crumb
usually containing from 38 to 48 per cent, of moisture and the
crust from 16 to 24 per cent, according, of course, to the extent of baking.
When
the loaf becomes stale the inequality of the water between
decreases, the crust absorbing some which the crumb had.
dry crumb
becomes >
is
again put into the oven,
drier
it
If
its
parts
a loaf with a
would be found that the crust again
and the crumb moister, and although the loaf as a whole
would not contain so much moisture as when new,
would by the second baking seem very much moister thereby, although it would more likely, more so than before, soon again become hard and dry. A loaf during baking, according to will lose
from
2
its size,
to 4 ozs.
it
shape, and other conditions already mentioned,
on the
2 lbs.,
reasonable amount however being about
and more
2 J ozs.
in
What
exceptional cases it
;
a
loses after leaving
DRYNESS
105
the oven will also depend on the condition under which lose it
if
kept under good conditions fully
i
oz.
it is
per day for the
It will
kept.
two days,
first
more, naturally, on a hot dry day than on a cold and
will usually lose
and as a matter of personal experience a loaf taken out on the top of a cart during the afternoon in the ordinary course of serving customers moist,
has been found to be
2 ozs. less
on arriving home than when
starting,
it had previously lost some during the course of cooling. White bread, it is safe' to state, contains from 2il to 40 per sometimes more of water; that means about 12 ozs. water in a
even
although
The
cent.,
and
2-lb. loaf.
majority of this water,, will evaporate under natural conditions, and
The
could be driven out by special treatment.
very rapidly.
Some
time ago
we
first
few ounces
v/ill
be
all
lost
received by post a cottage loaf at 11 a.m.,
which was then probably twenty-four hours
old,
and which, from previous
When put on the scale was exactly full weight, fully keeping down the Being left there on the scale untouched until scale beam on its own side. 1 1 P.M. twelve hours the scale beam was seen to have changed position, the loaf having lost enough weight for the beam to rise of its own accord on its own side, and of course be depressed on the other, and more than Fifty hours half an ounce weight was necessary to again balance. had
experience,
on arrival
at
time lost fully one ounce.
in that
11
a.m.,
it
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;
after arrival,
it
was
i^ ounces short, although except for the
first
twelve
had been kept under best conditions for moisture in In many cases, such close contact with other bread and covered by a cloth. as when exposed to the draught, and oftentimes sun, on the top of a van, the hours after arrival
loss
it
would be very much more.
from 9 to 14 per
cent.,
The
natural moisture in flour will vary
and taking 12 per cent, as a good mean
for flour
milled in this country, that would be ^^\ lbs. or nearly 3 J gallons in every
sack of 280
lbs.,
and
usually, but varying
The term
to this, in order to
from 13 up
dryness as applied to bread
absolute, being a
mere
make dough,
to 18 gallons, is
a further 14 gallons
would be added by the baker.
therefore relative only
and not
sensation, because the driest of half quarterns
seen to be composed of about one-third of water. o
is
THE BOOK OF BREAD
io6
CRUMBLINESS /^"^RUMBLINESS ^-^
in bread, like so
many
other defects,
is
produced by a number of different circumstances, but, on close ex-
amination,
it
can always be said to be caused by the flour being unable to
withstand the strain to which
it is
The
subjected.
course, in proportion to the quality of the flour, in different ways, but crumbliness is
effect of the strain
and the
It is
more
fact that a loaf will crumble,
crumbs when
very seldom that heavy or
action
when once
when
the sharpness of
it,
it
as
if
the steam
is
out of
slices,
more, and in
it,
drag of the knife
and the way
in
face than
cutting a piece of cheese
;
which
it is
any attempt
in fact,
there are really no fine crumbs produced.
will
A
used. to
it
depend sawing
push the knife
such a loaf
jagged rather than a crumbled one, because, although spread
Also,
oftentimes not fair to test crumbli-
hot, as the
makes a very much cleaner
through
It is
light.
crumble, as borne out by the
will usually
stale than new.
ness by cutting the loaf
much on
it
of
to over-fermenta-
underproved bread crumbles, crumbly bread usually being very the drier the bread the
is,
be given
strain can
more frequently due
tion or overproof than anything else.
finer
said to be
is
is
a torn or
difficult
to
Crumbliness, like
many other features in a loaf, depends largely on the gluten, that is, the way in which the threads of gluten, that are present throughout the loaf like so
a net, are able to hold together the other portions of the loaf
Gluten
amount of fermentation and moisture before it is the perfection of elasticity and tenacity it then gradually loses its capacity for binding the loaf together, and anything that weakens or decreases the percentage of gluten on the one hand, or anything that toughens it on the other, must therefore have an effect on crumbliness. Labour and salt have a considerable effect in checking the weakening and peptonising effect to which gluten is subjected in fermentation. These points, together with the lowness of the temperature and the requires a certain
;
CRUMBLINESS
107
strength of the flour, are those which enable the long sponge process in
Scotland to be attended with far less effect on the crumbling of the loaf
when given under other
than a similar time parts.
Salt
binding
influence.
has
a
frequently noticed during flour testing that
if
is
one has two glutens, one exposed to the that,
when proceeding
fermentation
not only steadies the
frequently It
conditions typical of other
to
test
them
but
and the other under water,
air,
shortly
afterwards,
has been kept moist stretches most without breaking off short words,
it
become mellowed, and had
['has
its
one that
the
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;
in
other
properties developed, and
thus able to stand the strain better than the drier and unmellowed one.
This same characteristic
dough which on baking cracks and bursts, whereas a slack one, under the same other conditions, stretches and expands evenly. In the same way a tin loaf, that is not overproved, will have a nice, light, pliable crumb, and not be in the sometimes be seen
will
tight
in
least crumbly.
There
therefore no necessity for a tin loaf to be crumbly,
is
many
reason that so
moulded
first
and
are, is
set in last,
because they are usually,
and made
in
mixed
and the batches,
to subject themselves to the con-
venience of the remainder of the batch, and not only become more proved
much
than the remainder, but frequently too slacker the
always of
dough the
itself
less
crumbly
have a restraining
it
is
effect.
so.
Except
for
over proof, the
likely to be,
because moisture
Crumbliness
is
will
usually the opposite
of harshness. With more freeness in the trough than anticipated, an extra knock down or turn over before throwing out will frequently prevent the loaf
from being crumbly, because crumbliness can come from over-fermentation in the trough as well as overproof in the moulded loaf stage, either in the case of a tin or a cottage in texture, that
is,
it
loaf.
When
may have
a loaf
is
under proved,
as a fine texture in the rest of the loaf; but will frequently
nor
be of regular texture, that
fine texture,
some when a
large holes in
is,
it
it is
often irregular
parts at the loaf
is
same time
over proved,
it
have neither large holes It is this even or uniform
will
but have a uniform coarseness.
texture and coarseness that results in crumbly bread, crumbliness being
THE BOOK OF BREAD
io8
oftentimes the result of too holes being from insufficient
much recovery after moulding, as opposed to With loaves of the same evenness recovery.
mesh in the texture the difference in the crumbliness will amount of moisture, a moist loaf crumbling less than a dry of
may have
one.
It
is
and crumbly loaves, the same as dry very often be produced by baking too long a time in too slow an
here that the oven ones, will
often be the
effect,
'
oven. It is
sometimes said that
insufficient
soaking or baking to the centre
more usual. Of course, however, where the loaf is overloaded with water, and the gluten be overtaxed, it is a case of the load or strain being too much to carry, and is hardly normal in white bread, although it will frequently happen in brown. Loaves that have been made from long process are not only weakened in their gluten but, of course, require longer time for baking, and there can be cases where insufficient baking does not harden or hold together the particles as it should do, and allows them to become coarse. It was remarked above that anything that decreased the percentage of the gluten would have an effect on crumbliness, and we have in causes
this
crumbliness,
but certainly the opposite
is
far
connection frequently noticed that the addition of large quantities
when
of scalded flour have caused loaves to be crumbly
when
not so noticeably
still
moist.
We
have also
addition of lard in ordinary loaves has a tendency to
although
there
bread as made
are in
plenty
of
cases,
such,
for
in
noticed
although that
the
make them crumbly,
instance,
Scotland, or the tea bread from
they have been perfectly firm and solid
stale,
the
as
same
in
place,
cutting, but then the
French
where
dough
has frequently been considerably laboured and toughened by a brake or otherwise.
In the case of cakes, with which
concerned, crumbliness
is
we
are not so immediately
usually due to excessive lightness, and reducing
the chemicals or adding stronger flour has frequently been found to be a cure.
SOURNESS
109
SOURNESS "DREAD "^^^
cannot be sour without acid, but bread containing acid
necessarily sour.
baker
far as the
practically always the result of too
is
Before further going
a question of degree.
one can at once say that as
into the question,
sour bread
It is
not
is
much
is
concerned,
fermentation, that
is,
too long a process of bread-making, the time being in proportion to the speed.
The is
acids found in sour bread are lactic, acetic,
and
lactic
the acid of sour milk, and exists in sour bread to a greater extent than the
and
acetic
butyric,
and
is
bread, however, not only tastes sour, but
The
or without smell. will
smells
;
and
lactic acid,
perfectly odourless,
proportion and amount of these acids in sour bread
will often
The
still.
noticeable than
present
is
latter, its
90 per cent, by weight, where10 per cent, and the butyric very much
amount
as the acetic will only be about 5 to
however, by
to 85 to
its
objectionable character
is
far
more
weight would indicate, and the actual percentage of acid
not always an absolute verdict as regards the sensation of sourness
because not only are some acids seen to be more readily de-
in the
bread
tected
by the senses of smell and
salt
sour
is itself
be governed by the variations and extent of different systems of bread-
making, but the lactic
less
Sour
thus often said to be the cause of sourness.
although usually accompanied by other odours,
;
taste,
but also the larger amounts of
employed, and even the coarser or stronger flavour of some flours
counteract or hide the presence of the acid in different degrees. is,
The
butyric.
undoubtedly, always present
to excess, or
much
when
in
dough, and
it is
only
when allowed
on the
to get
the sugars and flavour of the flour are exhausted by too
fermentation and not replaced by some other flavour, that
strikes
will
Lactic acid
palate, giving
what
is
called sour bread.
its
acidity
This principle
Is
further dealt with under the heading of flavour.
In
some bread
there will not be
more than about
four or five parts of
THE BOOK OF BREAD
no
much more
acid in 10,000, but there must be
presence of
lactic acid is rather preferred
Scotch bread, where the
in
than otherwise, being liked for
action on the gliadin of the gluten as well as for
its
be awkward, in the presence of a powerful Scot, to
flavour
;
and
it
would
bread sour.
call his
one time one used to hear sour bread attributed to disease germs
its
in
At the
which could be seen by the microscope, but on the principle that a
yeast,
germ cannot produce its by-products when surrounded by an excess of them, the lactic acid germ sometimes is largely added in the preliminary stages during the manufacture of yeast, so that it should not produce so much acid afterwards. The lactic germ is smaller, yet quicker in its action than yeast
;
it
ferments glucose like yeast, but instead of producing alcohol and
carbonic acid gas, except in traces the latter gas),
it
makes
(it is
lactic acid.
stimulated rather than otherwise by
The sugar
a temperature of 90 to 100 degs. F., and
of milk
is its
best food in
checked by alkalies as well as
it is
strong acids.
Acetic acid, or vinegar,
is
produced from alcohol by the action of free
At one time it was thought that this combining of the alcohol the dough with the oxygen of the air, otherwise called the oxidation of
oxygen. of
the alcohol, was the cause of sour bread, by reason of the production of acetic acid, which,
however, we have seen above
of the acid of sour bread.
total
is
but a small proportion of the
This reaction
is
employed
vinegar, but the action takes place only by extreme exposure to for a long period, in the
tion
and
is
altogether too slow to be compared to the formation
bakery of acids by fermentation.
Like the
and peptonises or mellows the gluten.
trary,
making the air, and in
The
lactic, it
hastens fermenta-
butyric germ,
on the con-
does not want free oxygen, and hinders fermentation, and although
develops at
more than the
acetic germ.
rancid butter, in which
products and
The the chief,
it
best a temperature of 105 degs. F., or about 10 degs.
less, it likes
it
It
derives
its
largely exists, but
name from it
its
connection with
can be obtained from starch
lactic acid.
acids produced in bread-making are mostly organic, lactic being
by the
splitting
up of the compound starch and sugar
into
SOURNESS
1
produced by yeast
different products than those
;
it is
1
therefore not difficult
to understand the important fact that a vigorous yeast fermentation, provided it
be stopped soon enough,
acid or sourness.
This
a most effectual check to the developme,nt of
is
abundantly proved to be the case
is
in practice,
because nowthat short processes with larger quantities of yeast are more used,
and twangy bread than there used to be and amongst the hundreds of loaves we receive from all parts of the kingdom, we have had plenty of sour and nasty ones from long processes, but seldom any from a quick and short system. The whole purpose of this book is to there
is
certainly less sour
;
avoid long words, dry matter, or matter
had some hesitation
difficult to
understand
;
and we
to insert the following formulae, for the fear of their
looking too chemical or too advanced, but they are really very simple, and
much
so clearly summarise
of what has just been said, that they cannot
otherwise than help towards understanding. In healthy bread fermentation by yeast the starch
is first
changed into
maltose (and dextrine), and then into glucose, and then the glucose into alcohol as follows
:
CgHiPe = 2C2HgHO Glucose
Then
the alcohol
is
Alcohol
into
changed
C2H5HO
+
Alcohol
with
2CO2
+
and Carbonic acid
gas.
to acetic acid thus
o
H2O
=
Oxygen
into
+
c^up
Water and
Aldehyde.
Then
C^Up Aldehyde
The
+
O
and Oxygen
=
HC2H3O2
into
Acetic acid.
derived thus
lactic is
CeHiaOg = SCgHgOg Glucose
The
butyric
is
into
Lactic acid.
derived thus
2C3H6O3
=
C^HgOg
Lactic acid
into
Butyric acid
+
2CO2
and Carbonic acid gas
+
H^
and
Hydrogen.
Commercially we cannot exclude these foreign ferments
;
we may buy
the best flour, the purest yeast, have our bakery furnished throughout with
THE BOOK OF BREAD
112 glazed
tiles,
washed down, have
frequently
all
and troughs
tubs, tables,
scrupulously clean and pure by means of the live steam jet or the solution
we must make up our minds to have these aids to nature always with us. Twenty ruffians in Trafalgar Square without a policeman will be more dangerous than twenty thousand in Hyde Park under proper control. We cannot purge society of its blacklegs, so we make laws and appoint custodians of those laws. Likewise we cannot annihilate lactic germs from our bakeries, but we can decide upon rules, and of bisulphite of lime, but even then
place a strong cordon of yeast cells over the unruly.
It is
a question of roughs
The power
of one organism
V.
policemen, or yeast
to
overthrow or check another depends on the relative numbers of these
souring bacteria.
v.
medium
which they grow, and the temperature. Both yeast and the souring organisms will up to a certain point become
originally present, the
in
more
active with an increase of temperature, but
dant,
it
will still
more be so
if
if
yeast be in the ascen-
accelerated anywhere up to 95 degs. F., and
practice blames theory for saying that (as lactic, acetic, flourish best respectively at 95 degs.
and 104 degs. F.) sour bread
accelerated by the increase of temperature.
Some
theory of increased temperature producing sourness It
and butyric ferments is
thus
writers claim that this is
borne out by practice.
true a warm and free sponge or dough, by reason of its extra speed, more quickly run over the precipice if not stopped, but it is the neglect stop, and not the temperature, that has done the mischief With impure yeast (if enough of it and worked freely) and inferior flour, is
will
to
with
many
lactic
germs,
it
is
of yeast and the best of flour
long as the yeast
is
make sweet bread but the best no absolute immunity against sourness. As
possible to is
more vigorous than
;
that of the souring germs,
and thus
up a more powerful molecular motion (similar to the conduction of heat) on the area of the sugar and nitrogen supply, it has a first claim on these
sets
stimulants to the detriment of other organisms which are less numerous or
When
the yeast begins to
by reason of the harmful accumulation of its by-products, or by the consumption of the sugar and nitrogen in the form required, and has so changed this nitrogen to render less stimulated.
flag,
either
C/l
SOURNESS it
suitable for the lower organisms, these lower organisms no longer
their comparatively unsuitable food wrested â&#x20AC;˘
113
from them.
have even
But, on the contrary,
they have ample supply of less complex molecules of sustenance, and as their
consumed nor then hidden by other
acid products are not
accumulate apace, and their products taint their bed.
been stopped by baking at
elsewhere discussed.
all
the various conditions of fermentation
not strictly scientific to imply any battle of the
It is
germs, but the point desired to be emphasized with similar materials,
yeast,
is
far
worked sluggishly over a long
The
is
that in practice sour bread,
barely ever comes with a
vigorously for a short time, and
lot
of yeast,
more general with small
worked
quantities of
period.
yeast does not flag entirely because
quite possible, as illustrated personally
has no food
it
by experiments,
for
it
left,
as
to starve
it
is
even
Each organism becomes accusthese become unfavourable less proportion
the presence of abundance of sugar.
tomed
to certain conditions
;
as
of their specific products are formed.
goes changes as regards fermentation. suitable for
on
;
had
and the period
which the flagging of the yeast occurs and the acid products of the lower
germs accumulate, must depend on
in
If fermentation
mischief would be saved
earlier, all
flavours, they
its
own
When
it
its is
Yeast without nourishment under-
by-products very similar to that of putrid
under conditions of
growing and feeding on the food which protoplasm, decreasing
it
in
when feeding on
itself
is
not present,
it
weight and producing acetic
Yeast can produce a certain amount of acetic increased
moisture and warmth
acid,
or "softening."
but the amount
is
feeds acid.
largely
Acetic and lactic acids
more appreciably formed with free oxygen, but the butyric ferment is Butyric and acetic, unlike lactic, have both a characteristic smell, and the remark concerning the formation of acid when the yeast is weak, will apply more to these than the lactic. By reason of lactic acid having no smell, it would be possible for a dough to be sour to the taste without being detected by the usual test by the nose, if other acids had not been allowed to be produced at the same time. Although one has said the mere presence of these disease germs are
best without.
THE BOOK OF BREAD
114 will
not necessarily
grade
and
flours,
and
materials,
make bad
their
butyric.
The more
and dirty utensils more precautions would have
than
yeast,
in that case
prevent
more of them
there are
a loaf sour,
This
development.
particularly true
is
the yeast was impure the
more
it
in
in
low
better
be taken to
to
concerning the
would
likely to
be
not only because of the impurities but also because their greater
faint,
presence would often indicate a yeast of inferior manufacture in other respects,
and a greater quantity of yeast would then be required
to get the
same amount of vigorous fermentation. Some people reduce the yeast the next day after getting sour bread, or keep back a dough by taking it up cold when the sponge has dropped too much, but there is far more sour bread made by too little yeast and too low a temperature than by a lot of yeast. Extra yeast has never of
produced sour bread, but has often saved
itself
it.
For instance, with an overwrought sponge the right thing to do would be to add more yeast when making dough, and take it warm, and then throwing out and getting into oven quicker than usual, and into as hot an oven as possible.
It
would also be advisable,
if
possible, to
make a bigger dough
than originally intended, whereby the sourness of the sponge would be more distributed
which It
is
and
less noticed.
sour dough,
is
made
It is
on
this principle that a piece of leaven,
into a batch of sweet, crusty,
must not be forgotten that a sponge or a dough,
crisp bread.
pear or any other
like a
fruit, often takes a long while to get to maturity, but
and
when once
there
it
decays or gets rotten with inordinate speed. Irrespective of taste and smell, a sour loaf can usually be detected
the eye.
It
has been shown that
when
the dough has been over-fermented the
gluten has been so changed in character as to take very or healthy crust colour, even
if
by
baked
little, if
a hot oven.
in
The
any, bloom,
crust will be
grey, without gloss, without brightness, and have no roughness between top
and bottom, and be generally smooth and edges, particularly
where the heat has not
be sunken and skinny, and be too much, and the
crumb
dull,
and with dark or purple
much
in putty-like ridges.
will crumble.
The
access.
The
The
crust will
crust will splinter
loaf will be shrunk
and not
ROPY BREAD expanded by the baking.
well
and
be of close texture,
will
The crumb
The
little
resistance,
and
will
have gone back
places,
in colour,
and without small bright
but probably a big one here and there.
loaf,
head, in the case of a cottage,
with very
most
fine in
holes distributed throughout the
will
115
will,
when
pulled,
be often almost
come
falling
off in the
hand
The
shiny
off.
corners and dark patches further indicate the state of the interior, and the whole, even at a distance, is instinctively repulsive.
ROPY BREAD TDOPY
bread
shows
may be
defined as that bread which,
fine silvery threads.
not necessarily constituting
it,
when broken
asunder,
Characteristics that accompany, although
are a
soft,
wet, sticky
and clammy crumb,
and oftentimes, although otherwise of ordinary external appearance, a red and immature crust. Another feature usually accompanying is a characteristic
putrefactive smell, which, however,
is
not necessarily the work of the
ropy germ alone, but also of other germs which obtain the opportunity to function. When yeast acts on soluble starch and sugar, it is inverted into maltose (about 80 per cent.) and dextrin, then into glucose, which is finally, with traces of glycerin and succinic acid, changed into about equal weights of alcohol and carbonic acid gas. glucose, the result
a
gummy
is
When
a peculiar sugar,
the ropy or viscous
known
germ
acts
on
as mannite (50 per cent),
substance similar to dextrin (44 per
cent.),
and and carbonic acid gas
(6 per cent.).
Amongst the
first
the causes that have been suggested, dirty troughs are usually
named.
fully half
We
know
w^here the lining of a trough
was taken out and a bucketful of the usual evil-smelling slime was removed from be-
hind, yet the
owner had been there many
process, with brewers' yeast, which also
is
and had also worked a long often blamed, yet never had rope. We years,
have exhibited a loaf made entirely of such matter which had no yeast
THE BOOK OF BREAD
ii6 in
it
whatever to check the ropy germ,
under proved, and then baked ally to
came from an glazed tiles and movable Other men have
efficient factory of
troughs, still
also
etc., etc.,
made
all
and then
of the last ropy loaves
only a few weeks old,
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;which was
had ropy bread
slack,
of which are said occasion-
Some
and we have made good bread
antiseptics,
was
a cool oven,
in
be causes, but there was no rope.
received
clean.
it
we
â&#x20AC;&#x201D; with
said to be spotlessly
after cleansing everything with
in a
trough that was blamed for
the disease.
Uncleanliness
may
conduce, under favourable circumstances, to
the
breeding of the germs that give rope, but before bread can be ropy,
germs must not only be present, and also in large quantities, but also must have opportunity to thrive in the dough, by not being outnumbered or They must have strength, suitable temperature held in check by the yeast. the
and moisture
to develop
to work, oftentimes after
and make
their products after the yeast has ceased
going into oven.
It is
a case of germs +
medium
Sometimes the disease will have sufficiently developed to be discernible when drawing batch, but more usually it will not show itself The flour is sometimes given as the cause, until the next day or day after. and certainly flour from sprouted wheat would give a better medium. We know of three batches made all in the same way in every particular, excepting That that the third and only ropy batch was made with lower quality flour. + opportunity.
would perhaps convince some it was the flour, but in a certain large town very many people had ropy bread at the same time, but were not, of course, all
using the same
Ropy germs in
made
having come, as usual, from many
districts.
are often found in the wheat husk, and, of course, there
more of the husk still
flour, it
wholemeal.
in
cheap
flour
Ropy germs
than
in
the best flour, and, likewise,
are present frequently in malt, but
is
more
we have
and wholemeal ones as well, with an excess of malt extract which were clammy and sticky, and kept so for days, but were not ropy. Moreover when pieces of dough from the same batch were held over and loaves,
given more proof even the stickiness disappeared, the loaf of the series that
was baked
last
being quite free from the excess, the yeast having consumed
it.
ROPY BREAD same way yeast
In the
ferment,
will eat
up the
117
gum
formed by the viscous
The
the yeast be stimulated or fresh be added.
if
published
experiments of the celebrated chemist Heron show the ropy or viscous ferment to be present in practically all yeast. He rarely examined a sample without
it,
therefore one cannot lay the blame, as
many
do, of the
sudden
appearance of ropy bread to the variety or any particular sample of yeast.
Bread made without yeast (and
More
also,
of course, cakes)
is
also
sometimes
evil, more although seed cakes are usually most affected and are not so heavy as others. The same chemist found the ropy germ even in the shavings that had been " Invariably found them teeming with rope." planed off tubs and utensils. Some blame the potatoes. The viscous germ is sometimes called a potato bacillus, being so named because it was first discovered in a potato, and is usually present in the skin and eyes. But we get plenty of ropy bread without potatoes. With slack doughs, the loaf, of course, takes longer to bake, and the moisture left is more likely to be greater, and moisture helps development of germs like viscous ones, which withstand heat of oven better than yeast. Although the immature ones are killed, many of the stronger ones can live in the crumb after
affected.
of course,
loaf
aeration and
They have been known
baking.
baked
baking would help to correct the
the
centre
of a
to stand
does
loaf
not
boiling
much
for
exceed
in smaller loaves heat not only penetrates easier,
is
subjected
to
There are several
The
hours, and, boiling.
If
but more of the
the crust temperature, which would be approaching
double that of the crumb, and no germs grow in the very slowly.
five
sorts of ropy germs.
Under 70
bacilhis viscous flourishes best at
crust.
degs. F. they
grow
86 degs. F. according
and the so-called bactermm viscous vini best at 60 to 62 two loaves taken from same batch were placed after baking
to Schutzenberger,
degs. F.
When
to cool in temperatures of
and the other
not,
a
104 and 40 degs. F. respectively, one was ropy
warm
close
development of the ropy germ.
atmosphere considerably stimulated the Cases have been known with loaves from
same batch where some were kept
in
the bakehouse, covered over with
THE BOOK OF BREAD
ii8
and some taken up to the cool shop, being, as far as could be ascertained, the same in all other respects: the former were ropy, the latter were not. Bread that was made from specially grown yeast in a sacks,
laboratory was found to be ropy.
When
yeast
is
faint
having "softened," that
commenced
having
summer it is frequently so because having commenced feeding upon itself
in
is,
and
decomposition,
undergo
to
which the softened yeast was washed was found
the
with
water
contain a
to
of or
gummy
matter and an uncrystallisable syrupy substance. As ropiness sometimes does not develop until a day or two after baking, much bread is eaten but they are quite harmless to the consumer, being similar in that respect to many other germs that are expressly It is a well-known fact that certain germs are sown so as to cultivated.
with a
full
force of
counteract others.
germs
in
it,
At one time some used
from bacteria as a criterion of
commercial value; that
cases, but certain yeast manufacturers put acid
some to
its
to talk of the freedom of yeast
germs
may be
into
it
in
so
m
order
check subsequent development. Lactic
acid
germs are recommended by
authorities
on the Con-
where the leaven process is used, for checking rope. This may have some small bearing on the freedom of Scotch bread from rope, for although, of course, there are more important factors in that case really a very instance, although the Scotch process is long and slow, it is There is an immense amount powerful and well-conducted fermentation. tinent,
;
of yeast
grown throughout
its
long process, and although steady, the
very different to the differently handled, starved and halfdead doughs that favour rope it is like the slow working hydraulic ram, which has great force and cannot be easily checked. The fermentation is
fermentation
is
;
so complete that everything in the is
eaten up and dried out.
way
There
is,
is
accustomed
to
gummy matter
or a suitable nidus
moreover, the great bulk, and further
the very perfect aeration of the Scotch rule every precaution
of
loaf,
and a long process being the
be taken.
tion in the sense of being a faint or a starved
one
It is ;
not a slow fermenta-
it is
progressive
all
the
ROPY BREAD The
time.
the yeast of bread,
to is
germ
so-called native
of cheese and butter, the one corresponding
the lactic bacillus, and
is
done commercially, that the best way
to
rancid or tallowy flavour giving microbes,
of lactic germs
grown
is
in
a "ferment"
is
has been found, and
to get rid of as all
just like
to the bulk, so that the native or desirable
added
it
prevent the effects of mouldy or
but being unable to get rid of
latter as possible,
119
many
of the
of them, a strong crop
a baker's.
This
is
then
germs so outnumber the
undesirable ones as to arrest their action long enough to allow the cheese to ripen with the flavour as desired.
on
all
what
fours with
This
is
an uncontroverted fact and
is
required in the case of yeast in bread in order to
is
keep down rope. It
is
said
that sunstroke
is
not due directly to the sun, and
it
is
some people can stand a blazing sun better than others, and themselves stand it better at some times than at others, according well
known
that
to their health, but the hot
weather provides the conditions necessary for
the development of the sunstroke organisms.
It
the
is
same with two
people going into an infectious place, the one catching disease, the other not.
The germs
of
the conditions are
many more
diseases are always in the suitable
destruction than at others. fall
victims,
and there
is
When
for
their
but occasionally
development and powers of
they increase in the air
more people
an epidemic, there are then extra precautions
taken to decrease and prepare against them. botanical world.
air,
Grains of wheat can
lie
It is
the
same again
in the
on the table and elsewhere
They are not dead, although inactive, but when they are placed in the warmth and moisture of the soil they fecundate. It is therefore seen that in the study of ropy bread many principles are involved. When preparing to give a lecture on the subject we made a
dormant
for
long periods.
ways that are said to cause the trouble It was in the autumn and the germs but could not get a case of rope. For were evidently scarce, although cases have been known in the winter. series of loaves in all the various
we have never passed a summer without getting by correspondents whom we have never failed to relieve promptly.
the past ten years or so cases sent
THE BOOK OF BREAD
I20
In conclusion, then, there
is
seen to be really no one cause except the
When
triumph of the ropy germ over the yeast or gas. disease asserts itself one must
germs by clean
utensils
of checking
it.
It
is
take
all
serious
precautions to decrease the
and good materials as much as possible, and more
particularly increase the vigour
lightness,
first
this
and maturity of the fermentation instead
more gas, more ripeness, more and more dryness and more thorough
necessary to get
thereby less stickiness
baking, and then quick cooling.
HOLES /^^ONCERNING Men engaged
IN
BREAD
holes in bread there are daily in the handling of
who commit their thoughts
many dough
to paper are diametrically
conflicting opinions. differ
thinking
;
opposed
;
but
we
men think
the differences of opinion would disappear
if the different kinds of holes were mind, and the subject more fully discussed. Holes in bread may be divided into two classes those, on the one hand, which are more or less distributed in a loaf, being of medium size and numerous, and those, on the
kept
in
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;
other hand, which are very large, being only one or at most two in the entire loaf. There are many subsidiary causes, which we shall proceed to discuss
;
but the
first
class of holes, as
above, can usually be traced to
inadequate fermentation, inadequate proving or inadequate recovery after
more of the various stages. Holes will be minimised or accelerated according to the suitability of the moulding to correspond with the different degrees of ripeness of the doughs. The second class of holes, as above, will be caused where there is too much fermentation, pressure, at one or
thereby too
much degradation and
collapsing of the gluten webbing, or to folding in skin or cones, or to pieces of unbroken sponge, or to severe bashing. Sour
bread practically never contains the first class of holes, but occasionally, the making-up, will possess one of the latter class.
in
HOLES IN BREAD We
tact that they
it
remarked by various bakers with
do not use So-and-So's
holes are not the fault of the flour
the fault
;
bread
;
We
often find the use of a stronger flour than usual giving holes.
frequently hear
holes
121
one
is
lies in
flour
whom we come
because
it
makes
— the strongest flour can be
into con-
The
holes.
used without
using that flour for that particular method of making
using a stronger flour than the style of fermentation requires,
when one has learnt to use weaker is pure waste. Extra strong flour, when of good quality, and not of a low, coarse nature, is expensive to buy, wants more breaking up, and is only required by the old
and
to use strong flour
school of bakers for special sorts of large, highly fermented, highly silky, and fine-textured bread, such as Scotch. certain flour
accompanied by
or suitable to you
;
holes,
If then,
find the presence of a
you might discontinue
it
as not necessary,
but the real cause of the holes in this case consists in the
fermentation not being sufficient to mellow the all
you
flour,
and extra fermentation,
things being equal, would disperse the holes, but, practically,
to discard a flour than to alter one's process of fermentation
it is
easier
and the time of
one's work.
The inadequacy
of fermentation could, of course, be corrected by
more
more heat. Holes caused by insufficient fermentation usually Holes occur more often in off-hand dough than with sponge and dough. with in off-hand dough often appear when the dough is only to be given normal quantities of yeast about four hours to the oven, and has had a cut back to clear it at about two hours, which, of course, checks the fermentation In that case more total time and more between making in that instance. dough and cutting back is needed. In a sponge and dough process the holes, or
yeast,
—
—
when
more usually — no —not the result of
present, are
can be
made
definite statement covering contingencies
insufficient fermentation in the earlier stages,
but of insufficient proving on the boards after heavy kneading, or insufficient
recovery after heavy moulding
in the
hands of a clumsy moulder.
mentation has been slow and steady, loaves
will
If fer-
be a long time recovering
their spring.
After heavy and rough moulding, fermentation would be temporarihQ
THE BOOK OF BREAD
122
checked or subdued, the loaves would
feel
dead, and would not be evenly
put into the oven before they had recovered from the pressure. If unevenly inflated there would, of course, be holes, because the unevenly
inflated
if
distributed gas expands under the action of the
oven heat, and, being unable keeps the dough distended unevenly until baked. If the dough but sluggish, it should be moulded lightly, or holes will result if put
to escape, is ripe,
direcdy from the moulder into oven. texture
is
good even and the labour must be well
Fine, well-cleared bread of
not obtained without plenty of labour,
backed up by plenty of tissue or gluten in the flour, and plenty of salt to toughen this tissue but where labour has been given, and the dough is ripe, there has been plenty of time allowed for the dough to recover, and the ;
extra time has often destroyed the flavour of the flour, which then needs
replacing by
salt.
We
therefore usually find the counterpart, namely, that
bread of rather coarse, rough texture, merging into distributed holes, retains the flavour of the flour, and
is
But
sweet.
if
this labour, which,
under some
conditions, contributes to pile, be applied at the
over-ripe or sluggish dough, and the lose the
good texture
characteristic of highly fermented bread, getting the
holes without the sweetness.
mellowed and
moulding stage of ripe or dough almost immediately baked, we
As
inelastic tissues,
whether the holes are the result of unor the result of over-weakened tissue, the
network breaking down from small
to
interstices into holes like the
overweighted
net of a fisherman, as to which of these states produces the result, can be
ascertained by the nose.
At one
of the early Agricultural Hall Exhibitions
we remember
a loaf that took third prize, and would easily have taken
first
large hole just in the centre of the bottom of the cottage.
except for a
This loaf had
been made from ferment, sponge, and dough with brewers' yeast.
matured to perfection
seeing
It
was
it was not green, nevertheless perfectly sweet it having had a long, steady, fermentation, was not generating gas quickly was not baked in hot oven, which, under these conditions, would have pulled and distorted it considerably it was suitably moulded, but, never;
;
;
;
theless,
the hole was there, and could be clearly traced to the excessive
HOLES IN BREAD Two
bashing.
was so great
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;
123
had been pushed right down, and the compression being traced right to the sole of the loaf that, even with
fingers
it
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;
some time would have been required for the rebound, whereas, in this case, we learnt that the ovensman had taken it straight from the hands of the basher. Even with a medium oven the dough was bound to fly, or give somewhere, because the heavily compressed a rapidly recovering dough,
part would be temporarily
of
numbed
or subdued, and the gas pressed out
so as not to expand evenly with the rest of the loaf
it
when thus
invited
by the heat of oven gripping the head. The hotter the oven, and more sudden the grip, the larger would be the hole when the dough was unprepared to respond to
A
it.
dough allowed to expand at its own pace, say, on the boards, and unstimulated by heat of oven, will show no holes on being cut it does not rise until it is ready to, and whether under- fermented piece of well-wrought
;
or over-fermented, there strain the inelastic tissue
On so
same
the
many
lines,
Coburg
not being exposed to the oven on
By
cottages.
uneven pressure caused by moulding the
some
manner cases
aggravate holes.
on
different
out), are less usual
thus thinking of examples for ourselves
holes better than by letting others do clusions in a
uneven pressure
two hands, or by occasionally placing Coburgs
boxes or drawers, and leaving cottages
in
In
(this
surfaces as a cottage, or not being subjected to the
sized parts of cottage in
test or
to
on the one hand, or the rotten tissue on the other.
holes in a
of bashing, or to the possibly
prove
no considerable expansion of gas
is
all
we
than
to in
learn the causes of
the thinking for us, and giving con-
that often convey the opposite of that intended.
we have found This, of course,
the introduction of kneading machinery is
not the fault of the engineer.
The
same thing that occurs when dough is not in a proper state to be put into the oven direct from the hands of a heavy moulder. Tightening up in a machine is the excess of moulding, and when thus deadened, and not allowed to recover, it will not respond as pliably as
fault is
it
should
bashing
:
all
fours with the
when being it
must have
raised time.
by the oven, the same as with too severe In one of these cases, instead of extra time,
we
THE BOOK OF BREAD
124 recommended " reverse "
dough should be kneaded
that the
motion of the machine.
to a greater extent
by the
In that case the kneading takes longer,
and the holes disappeared. but it is more If the sponge is tight the fermentation would not be so far advanced in the same time as when slack, that is to say, if the amount of flour were Pieces of unbroken the same in each case, and only the water altered. lightly done,
sponge would be undistributed gluten. from the
flour
to that of is
A
piece of gluten thus separated
expands under the influence of heat from the
size of a
walnut
the dough unevenly into a hole.
When
a skin
an apple,
lifting
carelessly turned in there will, of course, be smooth, dull holes, as
two
and the least pressure of gas remember an Irish loaf sent us, made from well-wrought dough, but much rolled up, and the huge hole therein was entirely the result of two skins in the interior not adhering. We once received two cottage loaves made in same way and from the same ingredients one cut well, with a good face throughout, and the other had an exceptionally large hole in the bottom, and was also There was no sponge, therefore the hole was not holey in the top. caused by unbroken sponge and as the flour was the same in each case, not caused by strong or weak flour. It was well made and it was well cleared, as it was made in a machine and the crust was beautifully smooth, well finished, being moulded quite green, without any cones what-
skins will not readily adhere to one another,
must part the two
We
into a hole.
well
;
;
;
ever
;
and the whole loaf from the exterior had the appearance of being
turned out by a thoroughly good workman.
Both loaves might be said
to
have been made under best conditions, and none of the usually mentioned faults of holes
much worse
were present.
in that respect
It
might seem strange that one loaf was so
than the other, but, carefully looking at the
was evidently due to the moulder although the moulder might be looked upon by his fellow workmen as a good one, he was, however, not a good one in the respect that he had moulded the loaf in a manner unsuitable to that particular dough. He had moulded too heavily, His and therefore tightened up too much a dough that was already tight. matter, the fault
;
HOLES
BREAD
IN
125
moulding would not have been too heavy, and would not have had such disastrous effects, if the dough had been slacker, had been free either by reason of more yeast or more heat, or if the loaf, when moulded, had been allowed to stand longer, or had been set
in
a cooler oven.
But
in the
was not convenient, nor was a cooler oven, all things being correct, to be recommended therefore it was the moulder's fault in moulding dough in such a manner that it could The not recover itself under the conditions with which he had to work.
particular circumstances of that man's trade the extra time
;
fault
was not
that
he was a bad moulder
in the
ordinary sense of the term,
but that he did not suit himself to the conditions surrounding him.
The
man that moulded the loaf that was without the hole had adapted himself In other words, one man knew he had a tight dough, to those conditions. and that there was not much time for it to recover after moulding, and that it had to go into a hot oven, and he therefore moulded it lightly and made a big head for it, whereby the tightness of the dough and the conditions His lighter moulding and that were to follow were largely compensated. the larger head he
made
did not
make such
a pretty loaf to look at outside
;
it did not stand up so well, but what it lost in exterior appearances it more Had the dough been than gained by having a better and more even interior. made slacker, or had there been plenty of time after moulding, or had there
been a cold oven, then the man that moulded lightly and with a larger top
would not so
Many after the
easily
have made a better
loaf.
loaves are perfected or marred by the handling they receive
dough leaves the trough, and, although the mouldeF might often
blame the proving, or oven, it is he that should adapt himself to the oven, Although there are rather than expect the oven to be adapted to him. thus to be
seen
majority are, stages, that final
shape.
many
subsidiary causes
undoubtedly, caused by too is,
too
little
for
holes
in
bread, the
much hurrying
great
at the finishing
proof after the loaf has been moulded into
its
Proving on the boards, or at any previous stage, has no
desirable effect
if
the proof
is
again knocked out by the
docking, and not allowed to recover
;
moulding, or
but the better dividing of the time
THE BOOK OF BREAD
126 for proof
batch.
need not necessarily mean more
When
time, or thus delay the
total
the holes are caused by dry skin, or by excess of cones,
the latter can usually be seen, especially with a glass, sticking to the surface of the hole.
sometimes happens
It
has not an even consistency throughout,
it
in short
methods that dough
having been hurriedly made, and
not having sufficient time for the water, and even some of the ingredients, to
be evenly distributed throughout the whole.
Sometimes lumps of yeast or salt will cause a hole therefore the liquor in which these have been dissolved, and also for other reasons, The holes that are made by excess of cones should always be strained. ;
or skin on the surface, or by abruptly finishing closings, are usually of an
acute and smooth kind
;
whereas the holes from immaturity of fermentation
are usually of a dragging kind, that
them.
These dragging holes are very
in a tin loaf that has tin
too small for
it,
is,
there are fibres stretching from
often seen, and are of oblong shape,
been made from a very
whereby
it is
lively
dough, and placed
not proved long enough, and,
the oven, the gas rushes suddenly from the bottom to the
the dough
is
in
a
when put into Where top.
not well cleared there will be gas bladders that ought to
have been squeezed
out,
and which
In
under the influence of the oven. benefit, but the firmer the
will
expand
this
into holes
firmer
case
when coming
moulding would
moulding the longer must be the time
for
recovery.
There are some
cases,
of tin loaves, especially in
however,
brown
in
which over proof
breads, will
however, should almost be called
cavities,
make what
the
case
this
case,
in in
being so distinctly different
The cavity referred to is that which holes. been proved and risen to a greater extent
from the majority of so-called
happens when
the loaf has
than the flour would properly stand.
The crumb
then, before
it
becomes
by the heat of the oven, somewhat falls again, but the crust has by that time become set, and does not fall with it, the two therefore parting and leaving a cavity. Excessive water in the brown bread often helps set
to this result.
Tin bread, however,
as a rule, contains less
holes than
AND BLADDERS
BLISTERS not only
other sorts, because
other cases,
also, in
is
usually
is
it
127
and more
often slacker
moulded and placed
pliable,
into the tins
first,
but
and
Sometimes
yet set after the other loaves, thereby getting greater proof
the top crust of the loaf has been blown up from the remainder like a balloon, simply because there is a skin all round the exterior, and the
bash hole was incomplete or sometimes stopped up by a prepared wash, whereby the gas could not escape and had to lift the whole crust. In this connection
might be remarked
it
cause of holes,
it
holes, simply
no
is
although immaturity
that,
often the
is
young and have Big heads on cottages
possible for a loaf to be excessively
because
it
sometimes decrease holes,
has very
but,
little
gas.
on the other hand,
if
not set under con-
falls over whereby the loaf keeps largely, the falling and pulling over will make holes of its own type, and In the case of headless bottoms, excessive top heat will often add to these. however, there are not often large holes, the size depending on the speed its shape, but,
ditions
at
which the top leaves, because when the head
If the
closings of cottages are put
the latter
is
very
the
dough are more
that could be called, in
being
in
proportion to
all
is
when sponges
a law unto
itself,
many
are unripe.
blister,
flours in It is
thus
there being very few things
always
other conditions.
AND BLADDERS
Uneven moulding,
dough being under-ripe
or a blow or knock, will often
be the direct cause of the top layer leaving the next to
making a
when
In the Scotch system
be saved.
imperfections are caused chiefly by the
or under-proved.
sole,
cases, absolute causes of holes, the effect
BLISTERS nPHESE
off the force is relaxed.
broken sponges and use of hard
general, especially
seen that each defective loaf
is
upwards instead of on the
hot, a hole will often
cases of holes by insufficiently
on the contrary,
it,
and therefore
but these instances can be largely minimised by more
THE BOOK OF BREAD
128 proof.
Various causes have been given for the presence of these imper-
when analysed they all amount to the same thing, namely, They are immaturity, at any rate more maturity would get rid of them. fections,
but
by very cold sponge or dough, but it is obvious that such a sponge would be more ripe if warmer. They are sometimes ascribed to strong flour, but such flour would be more mellow if the fermentation was more ripe. The same applies when they are said to be caused by undegraded gluten. When the dough is particularly lively and wiry these blisters sometimes appear, and would be cured by the dough being again knocked down and given another half hour before throwing out. Extra slackness in the dough and more proof will usually stop these, but cases have come under notice where the correspondent has said he got the blisters with a slack dough and well -proved loaf; on further inquiry it was found that these blisters were in the loaves that were set just round the furnace, and not This may be ascribed to the excess of in those that were set elsewhere. heat, but it was merely that, of course, the loaf should have had more proof when going into a hotter place it was merely insufficient proof for the extra said to be caused
;
heat rather than the direct result of the heat
can be toned
down by
itself.
In the same
way
heat
a blanket of steam, and the effect of undesirable
moulding be minimised by better conditions of recovery therefrom.
SECTION
III
CHANGES IN FLOUR AND BREAD DURING STORAGE, FERMENTATION, BAKING, AND DIGESTION "
dew upon
Falling like
May make
â&#x20AC;&#x201D; A drop of Ink, a thought,
thousands think."
Byron.
CHANGES TT
is
a popular opinion that age in flour improves
a certain point
more and
FLOUR DURING STORAGE IN
effect
and a
is
true,
its
This up to
quality.
but in the same respect that age will have
different effect
on persons according to their constitution
so will age have a varying effect on flour.
stability,
Flour improves
most respects by being kept for a period of about two months, but as time advances there will be a deteriorating action in
according to the quality, condition, and character of the
according to the conditions of
its
storage.
flour,
The improvements
and also
will
be
in
the respect of the flour working drier, but the deterioration will be chiefly in the flavour,
as the water
The
which
will,
as a rule, evaporate
and often change
somewhat
in
the
same degree
in other respects.
best conditions under which flour should be kept are in a store
of from 70 to 80 degs. with,
moisture to get quite away.
if
possible, opportunity for the evaporating
In this respect the space given by R
129
some
THE BOOK OF BREAD
130
people for the purpose of allowing a cat to get round the sacks to keep
away the
mice,
is
Evaporation
useful for allowing moisture to evaporate.
of the moisture will be in proportion to the heat of the store
;
and there
found usually to be a considerable decrease of moisture in hot places short time, and also a considerable ditions
in
three
or
months.
six
in
a
amount under usual bakehouse conCuriously, more water seems to be
than can be proved to have evaporated, that
lost
is
is,
there seems to be
a certain proportion lost that cannot be accounted for by the ordinary
methods of testing moisture
by a
for
in flour
;
and
it
seems
this difference
the water with the gluten of the flour with age,
is
accounted
This combining of
combining with the gluten.
certain portion
is
borne out by the
fact
more gluten can be extracted from old flour than from the same flour when new, the percentage being increased by less of the gliadin becoming soluble in old flour during extraction by washing. It is sometimes found that flour milled from American wheats in this country contains less gluten than the American flour from the same wheat, the difference being accounted for by the difference in age and dampness, which difference becomes adjusted with keeping and drying. In stone " practice to let mills it was the common flour run into a pastry," namely, the large room in which the flour was stored in bulk before being put into
that
sacks,
whereas now
practically always run direct into the sack.
is
it
It
was an improvement to the flour, and it was sometimes contended that even storing the meal after it was ground, but before was contended that
it
was
also
this
refined to finished flour, allowing even
an improvement.
of nucleic acid, and
The germ
some
some weeks
was
of wheat contains relatively large amounts
per cent, of the total acid
3
to intervene,
is
contained in freshly
flour, but it rapidly lessens on the flour becoming older. was formerly of a much softer and damper character than flour now, owing to the nature of the wheat ground, more precaution had to be taken, because soft flours improve most with slight age, but when badly
ground commercial
As
stored, deteriorate
first.
If flour is stored in a cool place,
defined as being from 45 to 55 degs. F., evaporation
is
which might be very
slight,
and
CHANGES
evaporation
although
90 degs., times a
when
great
is
in
warm
from 80
say,
places,
more, will be reabsorbed when the flour
In the case of soft
and moist
flours in
is
made
dry place, but
into dough.
not kept in a
if
cases where one flour would deteriorate, another would
in
improve by standing a further time, and the time largely on the quality
and condition of the
must depend
in all instances
flour itself
In the matter of colour the flour will be found during the to bleach, but,
very long before
it
if
damp and
commences
to
kept in a
damp
will
it is
it
first
will
say,
up
to
what
it
may
gain
in
few
not be
Stronger
about three
run less risk of deterioration, but at the same time
will lose in flavour
until
cold place,
darken or undergo other changes.
flour will continue to bleach for a longer period,
months, and
to
which the changes are always most,
deterioration will often set in after two months, especially
weeks
131
found that the whole of the evaporated moisture, and often-
it is
little
FLOUR DURING STORAGE
IN
all flour
colour and dryness, and can be kept
not only of bad flavour but undesirable
in
other respects.
We
have just turned up a note that we remember making some years ago when reading the scientific papers that are published in France under of "
Comptes Rendues," which is to the effect that alkaloids are formed in flour when kept more than a year two to three-year-old flour killed sparrows fed upon it in a few hours, with all symptoms of poisoning the
name
;
â&#x20AC;&#x201D; formation
of these alkaloids attributed to gradual conversion of gluten
under influence of a ferment existing Flour that becomes overheated for instance,
if
it
should
in the original grain. is
be heated
temperature of 212 degs. F., as moisture percentage, whereby
all
is
much in
a
deteriorated for bread-making,
hot water oven
the case
the moisture
when is
flours
driven
merely a
at
are
tested for
will
off, it
then be
found useless for bread-making, refusing, like sand, to amalgamate. heated, say, to 160 degs., the effect will not be so great, but affected
by reason of some of the ferments being
heated to It
is
1
20 degs. there
will
still
killed or
be practically no injurious
If
would be
weakened
;
if
effect.
within the author's personal experience, that the difference that
takes place from allowing wheats to
lie
together from Saturday to
Monday
THE BOOK OF BREAD
22
I
can be recorded by figures.
It
has been found repeatedly, that where per-
centages of flour produced from wheat were taken, that the percentage on the
Monday was
greater than on the Saturday, there being no difference
except that the wheats had been lying together on the Sunday, namely, for
more time than at any other part of the week. There dealt with when referring to blending. of wheat
mummy
is
practically inexhaustible
wheat
is
still
This, perhaps, had better be is
a popular idea that the
by age, being held by some that the But
capable of growing.
much wheat taken from mummies has been put and
it
is
somewhat
this cereal
improve
was not
mummy,
tocally
it
known
well
is
that
modern hands, remark that maize was
there by
interesting in this connection to
recently taken from a
life
yet in the days of the ancient Egyptians
Wheat, by keeping,
grown.
for a longer period than flour,
and
will
will
continue to
not deteriorate so quickly
by keeping too long, but, of course, here, as in the case of flour, the changes depend on the condition of the wheat itself and on its storage.
CHANGES DURING FERMENTATION AND BAKING npHE -^ final
ordinary changes that take
flour,
or other foods, producing the
products of alcohol and carbonic acid gas in about equal weights,
and also traces of succinic acid and
enough it
place during alcoholic fermentation
consist of the yeast acting on the
to start fermentation with perfectly
must have some of
Yeast by
glycerin.
itself is
not strong
good sound starch of
this starch as food in order to
flour,
yet
produce the sugars,
maltose and .glucose, which are the intermediate stages in the process of
changes between starch and gas. present in the
flour,
starts
on the natural sugar already
and softens the albuminoids or
latter into peptones.
the yeast, acquire
Yeast
These,
power
to
in conjunction
proteids,
changing the
with the digesting agents in
break down the weaker or fissured starch
CHANGES DURING FERMENTATION However
cells.
may be ground
carefully the flour
some broken cells and the larger the
133
there will always be
which, by being broken, allow ready access to the yeast,
more quickly they
the
cells
The
are broken.
starch
is
changed, according to heat employed, into about four parts of maltose, which is
a sugar directly fermentable by yeast, and one part of dextrine, which
a
gummy
and sticky
moisture-retaining
The
the yeast unless further changed.
into glucose, a lower type of sugar,
The changes would be no
substance,
quite
maltose undergoes further change
and then
into gas.
when
dough
different
is
unavailable to
the
fretted
they would
;
merely be quicker, more of the constituents would be broken down because of the heat generated, and the normal gentle softening of the gluten, as
would be greater.
required,
yeast fretted in a ferment,
If the
probably get exhausted and not reproduce although the fretting would of in the
itself
itself in
make no
it
would
a normal manner, and,
different products, there would,
case of the yeast being exhausted, be the opportunity for other
organisms that are always present to commence their work and changes.
An
important lesson which, according to his note book, the author
conducted
for
much
teach
will
Bank Holiday some
a pupil on a
of value in connection with the daily routine of com-
mercial batches, can be obtained by it
in
portions at intervals,
ripe,
it
will
dough
say,
of,
The
the usual way.
in the feel of the
years ago, and which
first
at
its
making a dough and cutting
point noticed will be the great difference
various stages
When
from
an hour, and then moulding and baking
;
on the one hand when under-
be resisting and tough, and on the other,
squeezable, and short.
off
baked there
will
will
it
be easily seen a much wider
difference between, the various loaves made from the pieces cut
bulk of dough at the different periods.
At
be yielding,
the crust
first
is
off the
main
foxy, then with
good bloom, then pale. Crumb gets whiter, brighter, more bloomy, then Loaf is sweet but raw, then tasteless, then sour, then grey, dull, and dark. putrid.
bake. If
First dry, then moist, dry again, then
The a
details
small
vary
portion
in detail
of
each
clammy, being
according to other piece
of
the
difficult to
details.
dough
cut
off
at
the
THE BOOK OF BREAD
134 various periods
washed
is
of gluten therein,
it
time
over-ripe
be present
the
dough
is
is
it
first
hour more gluten
making the dough, but gradually become less, and from
tested immediately on
if
proceeds
purpose of ascertaining the quantity
be found that at the
will
can be extracted than as
for the
amount
will
What might
impossible to extract any whatever.
so changed in character that
it
is
not adhesive, not sticking
away with
together in the customary tough and elastic lump, but passing
the starch and water, having been changed by the fermentation from proteid form into
made up is
more soluble peptones.
probably has resource to the latter for
The yeast,
largely
it
its
has changed them to peptones,
it
healthy nourishment.
is raised by the gas formed by the same gas being pumped into it
chief differences between the bread that
and bread that
artificially,
is
raised
or supplied by the action of chemicals, are due to those changes
of the gluten and the starch.
same manner certain
is
of nitrogen, and must have therefore nitrogen during growth, and
unable to feed on the proteids until
by
Inasmuch as yeast
its
as in the
It is the yeast that digests
human
breads that are raised
digestible, as
is
body.
by
It is difficult, therefore,
artificially
much the to see how
in
added gas can be more
claimed, or foods so digestible as the fermented loaves,
but they, of course, contain no acid. colour, flavour,
them
The
differences in volume, moisture,
and texture are considered under
The changes
their respective headings.
during the baking are also very great, inasmuch as the
The
baking converts an uneatable mass into a wholesome food.
heat stops
one
series of changes, namely, those of fermentation, and then, further, at a temperature of 148 to 153 degs. F. causes the starch cells to burst; they are then amenable to the digestive action of the natural ferments in the flour
or any similar substance, such as diastase of malt.
temperature of
1
As
the heat increases to a
80 degs. these albuminoids and ferments, such as diastase, are
rendered inactive by being thickened or coagulated in exactly the same way as the white of an egg becomes set by boiling. The heat renders the loaf light
by expanding the gases therein and driving
and other
volatile substances, such as alcohol.
As
off"
much
of the moisture
this latter
substance boils
CHANGES DURING DIGESTION OF BREAD at a
temperature of about 198 degs.
about
F.,
there
is
135
usually in fresh bread only
and the amount driven off is not of such considerable account as sometimes supposed. Many attempts that have been made to I per cent.,
collect this alcohol for
heat, according- to
commercial uses have been doomed to
failure.
intensity, dextrinises or caramelises the crust,
The
and when
baked an average analysis of bread, as usually found to-day, without going into decimals, be fairly well set out as follows
the loaf can,
its
is
well
:
Proteids or nitrogenous matters
Sugar (maltose, glucose,
7
per
etc.)
Fatty substances (barely) Cellulose or
Ash
woody
fibre (barely)
or mineral matter
.....
Carbohydrates (starch, dextrin,
Water
Although there are
good average
flour.
etc.)
variations, the latter are not great with
bread made of
THE BOOK OF BREAD
136
some extent our human digestive apparatus,
mercially useful to explain to
which
many
custodians of the public
Our
â&#x20AC;&#x201D; especially bakers, study. stomach â&#x20AC;&#x201D;neglect
wrongfully
persons
who
to
digestive apparatus consists of a so-called alimentary canal, with
various organs accessory to feet in length,
It is
it.
a muscular tube of no less than 30
or five times as long as a
tall
man, extending from the
mouth, and, of course, ending at the anus and rectum. parts of
are given different names,
it
viz.
the various digestive ferments
is
The
is
;
;
the liver
and
it
is
different characteristics, but
it
it,
consists,
of over 99 per cent, of water, and of an
This ptyalin, like the ferment
starch of the bread into probably
maltose and three of dextrin.
It is
bread
filling,
"satisfies."
saliva, the better will
An
indigestible
substance
may
such as a lump of clay does to the camel rider
without food in the desert
When
varieties of
This well shows the ignorance of some people when they
be digested.
nutritious, or
two
obvious that the easier the bread can
be masticated, and thus brought into contact with the
heavy and
have
say here that the saliva flowing
will suffice to
when mixed,
diastase, converts the
heavy
the
of course, becomes mixed with
All of these pairs of glands
secreted.
important digestive ferment called ptyalin.
say a
When
so-called pancreatic juice.
caused, by the contact of the food, to flow from the three
pairs of glands in which
from them
accessory organs
composed of cells, which secrete and sweet-bread (pancreas), which
being properly masticated,
the saliva, which
six different
the glands,
also respectively pour out their bile
bread or food
To
mouth, windpipe (pharynx), gullet
(oesophagus), stomach, small and large intestines. are the teeth, which masticate
it
largely
are
;
but,
any good as food.
if
indigestible,
it
feel
when
cannot possibly be
This ends one important stage.
masticated, our bread or food
is
forced by the tongue back to
the palate, thence, by the united action of the tongue and windpipe muscles, finds its
way
to the gullet, thence to the stomach.
of a pouch divided into coats.
Into
the
brane (the inner
two
parts, large
The stomach
consists
and small, and possesses three
well-known depressions formed by the mucous lining,
composed of a web with numerous
mem-
fibres),
and
â&#x20AC;¢^
V UJ
o < h ho o z;
o < o X CO -J
O
z UJ U-
o z o
o UJ CO
CHANGES DURING DIGESTION OF BREAD called tions.
the
"pits
of the stomach," a
host
Near the lower end these glands
of glands
empty
their
137 secre-
secrete mucus, but elsewhere they
secrete the important colourless fluid, with a sour taste,
known
as the gastric
although being composed of more than 99 per cent, of water, contains phosphates, chlorides, some free acid, and another
juice.
This gastric
important ferment
juice,
known
as pepsine.
This pepsine
HOW NOT TO DO Stomach. setting free effect
set
Although dissolving the fat,
it
has,
the chief juice of the
!
tissues that
hold meats together and
by reason of the acid contained
in the gastric juice,
no
whatever on any starchy substances, and even stops the action already
up by the ptyalin of the
goes
IT
is
saliva.
first into the small pouch,
The
bread, on entering the stomach,
thence into the large, and thence slowly
journeys round the stomach, coming again to the place of starting, until
rendered able to pass into the small intestine.
The
it is
pepsine, as contained in
THE BOOK OF BREAD
138
on the starch, dissolves the gluten and
gastric juice, although not acting
albumen, converting them from proteids (insoluble substances) into peptones (soluble substances),
and produces material
be absorbed by the above-
to
mentioned glands.
At
the conclusion of these various changes
out the whole day, no less than
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;during
which, through-
14 pints of gastric juice are secreted,
the starch at last passes to the small intestine in almost the digestion as
it
entered the stomach.
The
small intestine
same
state of
about 15 to 20
is
long and i^ inches in diameter, and is divided into three parts, with the names of which we need not trouble. Throughout the small and large
feet
intestines are so-called tubules, or small pipes
This
glands, secrete so-called intestinal juice.
from the
liver
and the pancreatic
juice,
these, together with the
;
juice,
together with the bile
completes the digestion of the starch
of the bread, concerning which the gastric juice was incompetent.
way through this small should be now practically digested, wending
its
After
zigzag intestine, the bulk of the food the remainder passing into the large
and there
intestine (which almost completely encircles the smaller one),
having the remaining nutriment extracted as
much
as possible before excre-
tion as waste.
By mouth,
reason, therefore, of the digestibility of bread its
through
how
its
all
indigestibility in the stomach,
stages more time
and on account of
we can
to digest than meat,
thorough mastication
is
by the
juices of the its
requiring
easily understand
of the utmost importance.
Its
particles
thereby become sufficiently finely divided, so as to come in contact with the digestive juices, instead of being swallowed
in
a lump, whereby
slower dissolution afterwards gives the sensation of heaviness. is
chemically almost as easily digested as
of
its
ball, it
stale,
and
it
is
New
its
bread
only on account
greater tendency with insufficient mastication to bind up thus into a it does when drier, that causes same way wholemeal bread may
instead of breaking into finer particles, as
to be
called
be correctly said
more
indigestible. to possess
In the
more nutriment than
nutritious to the consumer.
In the
first
finer white, but
place,
it
is
not
wholemeal bread
is
CHANGES DURING DIGESTION OF BREAD usually heavier its
and
whereby
being completely deprived of at
second place, the greater coarseness of
closer, and, in the
not only passes from the body before
nutritive properties, but also carries with
its
same time other foods
the
it
less
Wholemeal
therefore a useful medicine for the overfed or
sedentary brain worker, and
and
it is
an undoubted
The which
it
all
or
the troubles of the
selects its foods wisely,
consumed by the
is
by those labouring physically.
popular idea, however,
has not, and
Nature usually
more wholemeal bread
fact that
professional classes than
brown bread the constipated, and more
not the panacea for
is
working man or rickety children.
it
This has been
perfectly assimilated.
conclusively proved by actual experiments. is
understood from
particles irritates the intestinal tract, as can be easily
the above description,
139
if
is
that
wholemeal bread has many properties
bakers were to give more
attention
to
it
as
discussed by us in Sections IV. and VI., the sale would undoubtedly increase.
Not only dentists,
is
it
good
for piles
and constipation, but some medical men, and
and authorities contend that
women
tended that
arrests
it
decay of
teeth.
often have caries of the teeth, because,
It
when
is
con-
enceinte,
the foetus or infant needs phosphoric acid, as contained in wholemeal, for
forming bone is
;
and, in corroboration of this,
it is
found that phosphoric acid
absent from the urine for most of the pregnancy time.
The brown meals
are practically white flour plus the husk or
covering of the grain, which
the bran, but one does not give bran to the
is
lower animals to nourish them
;
of a horse, by feeding on bran
one would not expect so much work out
mash
digestive or diastasic ferment in such
continually instead of corn, yet the is
and some recent experiments put the pig followed in order by the
The is
rat, rabbit, ox,
stronger than
human
in
in the forefront in
sheep, and
animals,
such matters,
cat.
digestion of various foods depends and varies according to the
consumer and food
brown
not,
his work,
and the amount of food taken
even by the same person, always
extent or so comfortably taken.
As
;
digested
and the same to
the
same
a rule, however, according to the
state of health or exercise of the consumer, the finer the particles of the
THE BOOK OF BREAD
I40
same substance, the flour to
is
easier the digestion, but
akhough patent or high grade
usually finer than lower grades, the difference
be noticeable from the standpoint of
difference in fineness
and coarseness
is
not usually sufficient
Where, however, the
digestibility.
in the dressing is so great as to
admit
The meal made from offal in the one case, there is, of course, a difference. the whole grain, has been found less digestible than when the outer of the several skins was removed and when only some of the bran was removed the flour was less digestible than when entirely removed, also the whole wheat when ground up finely, although of same constituents, was more digestible than when left coarser. The husk of the wheat certainly contains some valuable salts, and there are some inventions on the market for extracting these and presenting them ;
in
a digestible condition
;
those of the germ, although on the exterior of the
Rye
grain at one end, are easily digested.
wheaten
flour,
and barley and oats
still
flour is less digestible
less so.
Bread
is,
on the whole,
rendered more digestible by toasting, but the protein matter less so, in the
same way
that gluten
when
retards the action of the saliva on starch,
have a similar
dried
In the latter case the result
effect.
On
warm, much helps the
The above
and
(i) the
action.
which
will
becomes
horny and hard.
Alcohol
is
in
so,
and wines
due rather to the acids
the other hand water, especially will help
changes during bread-making,
(4) fermentation,
it
and tea much more
of the wine than the alcohol.
some extent
is
than
when
one to understand to
(2) malting, (3) scalding,
be found discussed elsewhere.
SECTION
IV
THE FINISHING OF THE DOUGH "
He who knows
his incapacity,
knows something."
Marguerite de Valois.
THE SHAPE AND FINISH OF LOAVES A LT HOUGH
bread
is
made
primarily to
eat,'
the shape of the loaves
A
good or symmetrical shape shows proper judgment during manufacture, and although there may be some eccentric customers who like an eccentric shape, one usually finds in practice that the distorted and ugly loaves are those that are left on of considerable commercial importance.
is
The
hand.
window
;
the
indignant
if
small master baker picks out the best shaped ones for his
vanman
of the larger bakery grumbles at everybody, and
the bread does not suit his eye, and wonders into where the
lop-sided ones should be put
;
and the
latter,
although usually shorter
weight, are the ones that are cut up where bread
The shape It affects
The main
is
affects not
same way
use of an overcoat
or,
is
to
same
slice.
as does the shape or cut of a garment.
keep
in the
warmth of the body, but
quality of cloth can be obtained at
two
on the other hand, the better finished one would
sell
according to the finish of ;
sold over the counter.
only the appearance but also the niceness of the
the value in the
different prices
is
in
it,
the
same price. A nicely shaped loaf on the table also panders to the eye and invites acquaintance, or if cut up beforehand the thrifty housewife usually notices that a badly shaped loaf has more cavities for butter, is more difficult to cut, and also, particularly in the case of a pulled over tin loaf, makes more awkward slices, frequently leading to waste
much
better at the
141
THE BOOK OF BREAD
142 At any
rate the author gets a very considerable
amount
of correspondence
from bakers thus troubled.
When
crusty cottages are distorted
and of ugly shape,
heat of the oven has baked them too suddenly state to
respond to
it
always have the same
effect
when they were
The same amount
evenly.
many other circumstances of One of the many instances is the
of heat in oven will not
daily
will
life
not have the same
few minutes, yet
The
glass
it
is
is
in the first
little
loaf (having
hotter than
much
out of proportion to the interior.
things that account for ugly bread are, in further explanation
of the above-mentioned reason,
having too
much
few minutes that the break
not in a condition to expand evenly, the heat
catching and expanding the exterior too
The two
effect.
heat of a lamp cracking the lamp-glass,
because, after being lighted half an hour, the glass will be
usually occurs.
not in a
on loaves, the same as the same amount of heat
in
in the first
because the
it is
firstly,
too
little
time to evenly distribute
proof after moulding.
itself
and evenly
The gas
aerate the
whole
been bottled up or confined and squeezed into smaller compass
by the moulding
in
some
parts of the loaf
expansion commences, burst
itself
more than
in others) must,
when
out somewhere, and suddenly, and thus
on the other hand, time were allowed, the loaf would have recovered from the pressure that stunned it, and, with the
throw the loaf out of shape.
If,
gas evenly distributed, would
to
rise all
over
alike,
And, secondly, the other cause
than others.
temper the heat that
thing, too hot
an oven.
first
plays on the
When
is
and not too
loaf, or,
in
some places more
steam
in the oven what would be the same little
there are quartern loaves, these, being bigger
and higher, would, of course, catch the heat and suffer most. If loaves were closely set, they, by being protected more from heat of oven, would be pulled over all
less.
If set crusty
they must have fairly even distances round them at
would attack them more on one side than the More proof after moulding, more steam, or else
points, otherwise the heat
other,
and
pull unevenly.
a cooler oven proof, but
is
usually the cure.
would not be best
Moulding
would allow quicker Machine-made doughs
less firmly
for all-round results.
require plenty of time to prove, and an oven with an iron sole
is,
of course,
THE SHAPE AND FINISH OF LOAVES more rash than one of loaves can be so
many
help in
143
Drawplates ought to help shape, because the
brick.
much more
easily set
and evenly distanced, and are of great
ways.
Shape, however, depends more on the condition of the dough than
on anything
else, that
the degree of proof in
is,
in
contact
Putting on the drawplate does not take so long
with the heat of the oven. as setting with the peel,
when coming
it
it is
therefore
more than
likely that in the case of
the drawplate the loaves have had less proof, and are worse entirely on that Ail things
account.
be
to run flat than to
the oven can be into
nof/
filled
As, however,
ed over.
wich steam
when
the plate
be thus protected from the rash heat.
it
one day than another
;
more inclined the loaves go in together
the loaves on a drawplate are
iicfiiAequa].^
.
all is
out,
and the loaves going
Loaves are often of better shape
one can therefore correct oneself and prove the truth of
the above by closely watching the varying conditions, because the
same series of causes will always have the same effect. All straight-off doughs are not, of It may be taken as a certainty that if the dough is ripe before course, the same. throwing out (and a ripe sponge
if
baked
ever, it
if
will
than
in
not altogether compensate for unripeness after moulding,
it
less
it is
Of
proved quickly.
the insufficiency that
To go more hand up
is
it
course,
unless
it
it
moulding,
was moulded
it
must not be forgotten
in
order to allow this sufficiency,
that,
if
gently,
and prove again, then mould and top thirty, forty, and even sixty minutes
for
be very
tight,
just
be gently with one
be better to
sufficiently, after
the chief cause of bad shape.
again, cover up
dough should oven mouth and set the
does so
Further, how-
one might say, get dough ripe (it must not scale, hand up, cover up with cloths, giving
and bash and put into boxes if
be of good shape
into details,
squeak when squeezed), proof,
will
ugly and keep better the shape into which
proving slowly, more time must be given as
it
an oven with moderate heat and regular spaces.
the loaf proves slowly, provided
be
if
will
and given proper proof
afterwards),
have dough tight
;
boxes
or
drawers to
straightening loaves and not bashing
finger. it
then carry
As
regards shape alone,
it
would
would then prove slowly, as referred
to
THE BOOK OF BREAD
144
above, although having the same amount of yeast hfe behind could,
as before.
it
when throw-
two hours from throwing out until setting, it ing out of trough, be put back into machine for a few turns, and tightened up there rather than made too tight at first. If tight, it must not be hurried after throwing out, but must recover at each stage, or it will be pinched and If
giving
it
unproven, and as bad as before. rule,
Tightness
is
not to be
recommended
simply because the loaf then requires more time, w^hich
it
as a
does not
usually get.
Sometimes a dough, by following a long cold and lifeless sponge, is exceedingly sluggish and proves so slowly that it is set into oven practically without proof, and the loaves can then be pulled even in a much cooler oven than otherwise, particularly will
if
set at
grow much more than the
unequal distances, as one side of the loaf
Sometimes,
other.
also,
a dough that follows
a large and free sponge will be rushed into the oven and the loaves will lose less free,
and the loaves under
proved after moulding and put into hot oven, the heads
may not always come
If the
their heads.
off,
as the loaf
when
immediately fixed set
in
more crusty one
shape.
The
sponge was smaller and set crusty all
round
in
a hot oven sometimes becomes
shape and pinched by the heat
;
but
if
side than the other, only the one side
interior of loaf,
which
is
the same loaf be
becomes fixed
in
not cooked as soon as the exterior,
gets heated and wants to swell, pushing itself out at the part where the exterior
is
weakest by being
less baked,
whereas
if
the whole of exterior
was already well crusted the interior would have to remain pinched. The above are actual instances, and although at first apparently conflicting, are not so, as the conditions are not quite the same, and the whole is perfectly intelligible after a little close observation, and is additional corroboration as to
the difficulty in dealing with
some
of the apparent paradoxes in con-
nection with bread in merely a few words.
When
heads are inclined to come
more proof is the best cure, but they can be helped by being pressed flat by hand on the boards before placing on the bottoms and the latter or the whole when topped should not be pressed heavily or banged down, as is often done when just setting. ;
off,
THE SHAPE AND FINISH OF LOAVES which
will
make
145
Although big heads protect the bottoms
the throw worse.
be recommended, because they sink into bottom too much, spoiling shape when cut, and by their tendency to
somewhat from
holes, they are not to
topple over during proof the latter
Some ovens
soon.
often stopped
is
by placing
into
oven too
throw or pull on one side more than others, but
will
through unequal heating, and they should then be heated more in the first place and allowed to "lie down" longer, that is, more time should that
is
elapse between
the heating, in the case
A
the setting of the bread. equal, pull
and
and not lessened
the bread, will
in
nip
case
the one case, or
and bottom of cottage surface, a slow
pinch
the
be
will
and cool oven
flat
if
be beginning to collapse before
same as
it
would
if
heat
flash
will,
ovens, and
fired all
things
other
Although a rash
solid heat.
by a cloak of steam over as explained, distort the loaf, and in
in
effect
its
loaf
so
that
the
part
between top
instead of rising gradually to a convex
will also
part between top and bottom,
the
or
and twist the bread more than a
fierce heat,
another
rash
of internally
allow a loaf to
fall
and be
flat
at this
the loaf be on the contrary over-proved and
The
setting.
the constituents of
loaf will " squat " in the oven, its
gluten were
the
in
wrong
proportions, as described under the heading of gluten.
Also, although unripeness and under-proof will most usually result in distortion
and bad shape,
it
will occasionally
allow the head to
fall
into the
is known as a collar and this has been noticed dough has been cut back too soon after making, and thus checked and not again sufficiently recovered. It is evident that the gas, which
loaf too
much, producing what
when an in
one case pushes the head
to sink. flour,
;
off-hand
A
fair
off,
amount of gas
will in the will
when absent, allow head distortion when too much strong
other case,
tend to
or flour insufficiently mellowed by fermentation,
extreme,
when gas
is
practically absent there will
cause distortion, even although the flour
unmellowed result in
flour,
is
still
is
present
;
but in the
be nothing present to less
changed.
Strong
by giving more resistance than weak, will more usually
bad shape, but
if
there
is
no gas, there can be no more
tortion than in the case of a piece of
dis-
meat cooking, there being nothing
THE BOOK OF BREAD
146
This case
to resist.
is,
however, very extreme, and refers more to an
dough rather than to a loaf out of a moulder's hands, as, although moulding squeezes there is usually sufficient power of fermentation to allow
actual instance of great immaturity in
taken straight out
much
sufficient
gas,
the
gas for the usual mischief in such cases.
The
down
pressing
hard that makes top push too much into bottom, showing, when cut in halves through centre, too much top and a too concave- shaped bottom, is
done when tops and bottoms are placed separately on boards after moulding, and getting a skin or too much cones, do not so readily stick when often
topped, and thereby get an extra push from the moulder.
A
very frequent qause of bad shape
shape of
tin.
sufficiently
The
tins
slack
bread
are often too narrow at the
large to properly contain
made from a
in tin
a
full
else lop
of loaves pull over or burst out and
the usual bad
bottom, and
not
weight loaf when properly
dough and well proved
do not get properly proved, or
is
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;the
consequence
is
they
over the sides, and the tops
make a
slice
of
all
angles.
Plain
or crumby bricks sometimes run into one another, one pulling a piece out of the other
when parted
after
baking
;
this
is
found to be the case
with an unripe dough, namely, one having a tendency to run on the boards.
One does
not see so large a proportion of this defect in the crumby or batch
bread of Scotland and Ireland, which
is
usually riper than in the South of
England, although on those sides that are larded, the pulling out and
accompanying roughness would not be so much expected. The class of loaves that are always the most regular
in
shape are
Coburgs, or Brunswicks, or cake loaves, as practically the same sort
is
These are moulded in one piece without any topping or folding, being the same shape as pieces are when merely handed up previous to moulding into various kinds, and attain to good proof after moulding before setting into oven. These are not only more easily made of good shape but also of good texture, and also two can be moulded, one in each hand, at a time, and in less time than often one of another kind they also lend themselves to being more easily moulded by machinery. They called in different districts.
;
THE SHAPE AND FINISH OF LOAVES are on the whole quite as inviting as any other kind, and
it
more of them are not made instead of the kinds more but if it was so, a good deal of the authors' consulting right
is
147
surprising-
get
difficult to
that
would
practice
;
be gone.
more particularly to cottage bread the national loaf of England because when writing the main portion of them during an earlier stage in the preparation of this book we had before us a cottage loaf and a letter from a correspondent needing information on
The above remarks concerning shape
refer
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;
In the case of tin or pan bread, a good shape should be
this subject.
governed by the capacity of the tin in proportion to the amount of dough put into it, as well as by the shape We are often asked what size of tin we recommend, and of the tin itself. easier to obtain, but the shape of the loaf
that
is
properly hold a should,
and
thing to do
Tin fit
is
in
full if
weight
great majority of tins are tin loaf to
one wants
to increase the
a
tin.
it is
be of such a quality and character as
dimensions
and
and then converted It
but
;
not large enough to
to maintain one's characteristic shape, the best
bread, both for quality
for cottages,
baked
much
a difficult question, because individual fancies vary so
safe to say that the very
it
is
wants to be
in
profit,
equal proportions.
should not be
made from
into so-called tin bread
slack,
and
free,
a
dough
by merely being
and well proved
in
the tin
before going into oven, and then baked quickly in extra heat.
In the great
majority of tins a slack dough could not prove properly, because
it
over the
and
sides, leading to a lot of trouble,
would run
and when the doughs are tighter
less proved, the loaves are often quite as
much
out of the tin as
in
it,
making a bad-shaped This is of importance, as tin bread is primarily intended for light and slice. good-shaped slices, and when slack, free, and well proved, makes toast that is not so prone to burn or get hard, but toasts quickly. There is, of course, and often pulled over on one side, and of bad shape,
much
difference of opinion, because
we have seen
in
the prize case at the
exhibitions two loaves, side by side, one large, loose, free, well proved, and well watered, and the other small, close, slightly proved,
the top almost breaking
off,
which would certainly come
and off
tight,
when
and with cutting a
THE BOOK OF BREAD
148
We have also received,
slice.
on the same day, two half-quarterns, one with a and the other with only
sectional area of 31 square inches,
we have ever seen was
best loaves
bottom,
wide at
5
19.
One
of the
7 to 7 J inches long at top, | inch less at
top, 4^ at bottom, with a girth of 20 J inches
round the centre,
and 26 inches lengthways. The loaf that was awarded the championship some few years ago, and acknowledged to be of even unusual exhibition excel-
was
lence,
in
a
length and breadth and 3^ inches deep.
tin of this
The tins should certainly never be less than 4^ but we often get them only 3L Last year we got a make some ungalvanised or black tins, measuring 5
inches wide at bottom, bakers' sundriesman to
inches deep, 6| inches
long at top, 6 inches at bottom, 5^ inches broad at top,
He said
he should never be able
too large, too unusual,
them, and
to sell them,
but
etc.;
5
inches at bottom.
thought they were not wanted,
we recommended
buy
several people to
we have asked results, which have been found to be who tried. Some have said they never before have had bread, and could not understand why they did not think of that before. It is as easy again to make good-shaped and well-
in all cases
surprising to those
such good
tin
wrinkle
little
baked bread
in
them.
A
loaf
baked
the Ulustrations, and although a
long in
perhaps
when
it,
the excellence of the slice
may be
best flour
tin will
little
a
little
is
in
one of these
will
be found amongst
coarse from being proved a
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;
like a quartern
larger than necessary,
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;
will
little
be seen.
when weighed
in light,
too
This
and
not used, so as to carry extra water, but an extra large
always protect, never
spoil,
the shape of a
loaf,
whereas a small one
does daily.
The twopenny
difference
made by such
tins
can be tested by baking the usual
loaf in the usual half-quartern
tin.
The ungalvanised
tins are
and quicker, and when new, are like old in this respect. Their colour even by being dull instead of bright, by absorbing heat instead of reflecting it, helps the baking and makes a nicer crust, and this will hold good with brown breads. The object of having
also
more porous and bake
them tapered
is
better
to allow of
more
easily packing away, but they should not
be kept out of use where steam or damp can
affect,
because of more easily
THE SHAPE AND FINISH OF LOAVES The
rusting.
usually shrink
tapering
more
is
also
because loaves when cooling
necessary,
and
at the top than at the bottom,
allowance, would look ugly
when wider
mentioned that the ordinary
tins,
149
at bottom.
thus, except for this
In passing,
it
might be
.when new, should have a thick coating of
grease applied with a brush, and then baked. empty for an hour in a cool
oven
after batch
is
The
drawn.
thick grease should then be
removed with
a cloth, and tins regreased as usual.
The
amount of yeast now used, the quicker processes, the better the more water, the greater expansion, and the greater necessity for full
flour,
weight,
greater
render the
all
tin
so often used undesirable in these days except for
twopennies or closer meal breads. of space being
left
in
Where one wants
oven so as to get a good
to
crust,
make
and also
frequent layer of heaviness in the crumb close to the crust, tins of oval
shape or with a greater tapering.
to shift the tins
and give them extra baking, or is
tin,
make
helping to
kept expanded by plenty of heat.
A
where a good trade
tins,
is
otherwise
start,
and thus
awkward where
down on
its
oven
loaf rises in the
tin loaf
should not be
it
warm
;
made
and, moreover, a
done, can conveniently be the
batch in the morning, being got into oven,
hours from
well to have
a compressed layer there unless
good
from overnight dough, but should be quick and batch of
it is
to avoid the
a poor substitute
is
to turn loaf
When
sometimes done.
side before drawing, as
presses against side of
It
sure of plenty
if
first
absolutely necessary, in two
up a gap or a wait that will sometimes be off-hand doughs are adopted and started in
filling all
the morning.
The
practice of having a few tins in each batch
as upsets for the other loaves,
and neglecting them generally,
a trade for the kind of bread that can be
bread
in
some
and using them m.erely
made
will
the most profitable.
of the large towns of the provinces, especially in
northern counties, there, although
is
far better than that of
London
not increase
The
some
London, and more of
tin
of the is
sold
excels in the better finishing of the cottage
and
loaves from tighter doughs.
Where
it
the slacker doughs are employed, the
pieces are often scaled straight into the
tins,
and
after
proving there, some-
THE BOOK OF BREAD
150
This sometimes leads
times an hour, they are removed and moulded again.
owing
to streaks,
and these outsides showing, when,
An
hour
and sometimes
to the outsides getting cold
the tin
in
is
also greasy,
course of moulding, turned inside.
in the
some
not too long in
cases,
whereas ten
depending on the speed of fermentation and the heat of oven to follow, and also, of course, on the heat of the tin itself, which, in a quick trade, may often be filled almost
minutes
long enough
is
in others,
as soon as the hot loaf of a previous batch
be moulded to fairly
fit
evenly and
filling
tin,
flat,
not actual cracks or
at sides
Loaf should
out the ends, and then proved until rising
and the outer skin showing tendency then,
will
It
falling.
when
small diamond cracks here and there
up
removed.
is
and ends, but even shape
has got to the top, as then flavour
from pliable dough, have
if
cool,
over.
all
It
and none of the bursting should not be left after it
going and crumb
is
should not be then put into cool oven, whereby
to crack, but
it
is
getting coarse, and
would get overproved and
Flour should not be too strong or weak, not a big percentage of gluten or of coarse character, but mellow, that is, quality rather than crumbly.
strength
;
and the best grades of
flour,
patents, are particularly suitable for
here better than in
moulded although It is tin.
in
two
many in
good
other sorts.
pieces, often
common
fairly
such as Hungarian or best British tin bread,
Split tins, that
is,
have a hole where they join
some
districts,
have no
their value
tins
that are
in centre,
and
real all-round advantages.
particularly essential that a boxed sandwich loaf should exactly fit the It should be sufficiently compressed to make a close and tougher or
firmer
slice,
but not large enough or proved enough to burst up
make uneven
corners that have to be cut off and wasted.
oven should be
As much
cooler, sounder,
and
final
moulding,
it
in
may be
labour, as far as appearance
fully discussed in
and
In this case the
is
the trough and handing up on the said that
dough cannot have too
concerned, provided sufficient time be
given for recovery, and generally gets too
be
lid
less flash.
regards cutting back a dough
boards prior to
will
and return
little.
With machinery, which
a separate chapter, much of the manipulation after
THE SHAPE AND FINISH OF LOAVES the in
first
the
making can be dispensed
first
place, and, also, with
with, because the
dough
is
better
151 made
machine loaf dividers, the pieces emerge
almost half moulded. Not only does the cutting back and handing up depend on conditions governed by machinery, etc., but also the speed of fermentation, and time available and kind of bread required, because every
time the dough
cut or handled, not only
is
heat, but also temporarily
be improved will often
numbed by
in fineness of texture
all
A
quick dough then will
and general appearance, but a slow dough
be made slower, and then not get
the trough
in
checked by the letting out of
the labour.
being thereby small and, perhaps, holey.
been
is it
night, a cut
sufficient
proof in the loaf stage,
With a long dough, one
that has
back an hour before throwing out
is
almost necessary so that the dry and cold and, perhaps, skinny outsides
may be
turned
in
equalised, therefore
and
have more chance of recovering and getting showing less in the loaf; but in many cases it would
be better, with a limited time, to give more of the time after the throwing out.
Bread than by too
is
more frequently spoiled by too little time the trough, and the periods should be
little in
very usual thing
is
to give
one cut back
in
after
throwing out
better divided.
A
trough and one handing up on
boards, but the loaf would stand up better, be easier to
and by
that alone be
with proof
in
have written
improved
in texture, if
mould into final shape, the piece were handed up twice,
We
between and kept well covered, before being moulded.
good deal on this at various times, and the practice is far more general and popular, and is a development of the off-hand quick process. The second handing up does not take long, and has more effect on shape, and clearing, and silkiness of the loaf than a cut back In trough, and the moulding need not then be so severe as in some cases, allowing loaf to recover and prove more quickly. Well folding over and punching each a
becoming
small piece as benefit.
The
it is
cut
up
for
throwing out of trough has also considerable
extra hand up and time will be particularly useful
if
the
pieces are inclined to be runny, although extra time in the trough would usually be better in
that case, as fully discussed elsewhere.
On
account
THE BOOK OF BREAD
152
of a cut. back having the effect of checking,
dough .has
The
risen at least half
should not be giveii until the
it
more than its original size. dough through a brake or
extra labour, or passing
pair of
or otherwise squeezing out the bladders or open places in the
on the boards just before moulding, makes much of the
rollers,'
dough when
difference, with
equal materials and fermentation, between an ordinary commercial loaf and
The light and porous bread of some countries and districts made from comparatively soft flour, is due very largely to the increased amount of labour at weH regulated and frequent intervals. Such
a prize one. that
is
labour has the effect of putting strength into the flour by making the most of the gluten that
it
The mere
contains.
presence of eggs, butter, and
sugar in goods does not always make them light
;
the creaming or beating
up in the one case, and the making of layers in the other, as in puff paste, makes most of the difference, and manipulation applies in a similar manner to the constituents of flour when making bread. The moulding should be fairly firm, with an unbroken skin, and particularly even, that is, without gripping or squeezing in some parts, and handling too loosely in others and this matter, together with the amount of proof afterwards and the heat of oven, has considerable bearing on holes, as ;
discussed under that heading.
1 1
is
a useful check on oneself to occasionally
count the number of turns taken during moulding, and always, be usually found that the best moulded
recovers turns.
not
itself quickest, is
Getting a
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;the
loaf,
it
loaf,
will,
although not
and the one that
the one that has been got into shape in the fewest
however, into shape
same as moulding
properly.
is
not always
Efficient
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;
in fact,
very often
moulding consists of
gradually turning the piece round by the motion of the hand, whereby the
upper portion of the palm or thumb joint presses outwards, and the lower portion of the hand, or smaller fingers, gradually tucks
in,
whereby the
whole gets completely turned with a tension on the outer surface, a gradual stretching, and with an even pressure throughout, and not, as is often the case, with
direction
heavy pressure on the outer
in
part,
some
parts, or a
grinding in a merely vertical
while the other and" inner parts
are'
merely
m^B
THE SHAPE AND FINISH OF LOAVES moulding some parts Uneven mouldingâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;that loosely pressed. which than othersâ&#x20AC;&#x201D; a frequent cause of bad shape and is,
holes,
is
is
153 more
intensified
A way of or decreased according to the subsequent proof and baking. teaching oneself is to put a pea in the middle of the flattened piece when commencing, and see how many turns are taken before it is uncovered If one does it in fifteen turns there is not much the again and falls out. matter a machine-made or machine-divided dough can usually be moulded ;
more
easily.
The part that was cut by knife when scaling should be turned down when handing up, or laying up as some call it and in moulding cottages ;
the closings of the larger pieces are best put at bottom, because centre of loaf by turning upwards there
a hole in the centre from hard at
bottom an extra hot oven
tail,
is
more
likely to
if
be roughness, and
or cones, or otherwise, although
sole will often
make
put in
itself felt.
if
put
In the case
home-made or household loaves the closing would usually be put upwards Some prefer to put them upwards in all cases. to come in the centre. As to whether or no a loaf should be notched, or have its surface cut In very many after moulding, before baking, depends on circumstances. of
cases is
it
is
not only a great waste of labour, but also A disfigurement, and
done, without regard to condition, merely because one has been in the
habit of doing
In most cases far too
it.
result of taking
much
time,
many
notches are given, with the
and also done very
carelessly,
and they then
do not give any improvement in appearance or any extra crust, which These notches are are the two most usual features urged in their favour. often nothing more than ugly scratches, and at other times they open out exposing white lumps of flour and other evidences of a badly made or scrapy certainly
dough.
To some
minimising other
make
extent, however, they
faults, for
a right, a top that
is
have the
instance, although
covered
in
effect of
covering up and
two wrongs never properlj'
notches does not so
much expose
to
view what otherwise would be a very grainy, coarse, rough, uneven crust, owing to bad moulding and smothering in cones or else dry flour. In the
same way the abundance of notches
largely hides the pretty effect of a well
THE BOOK OF BREAD
154
moulded, even, symmetrical, smooth, and nicely bloomed crust, in
otherwise
natural simplicity,
its
and such a
crust,
spoiled by notching, and the
is
skill
of the moulder discounted.
The
other fault that notching sometimes helps to cover up,
of proof and consequent holes, because
provides
an
burst or
the loaf does
escape for
oven whereby the
the
in
it
if
some
the bash hole, as in
Also the notching helps
to preserve the
shape
cases,
were
not
does
crust
way a bash
In the same
not blow so much.
hole allows gas to escape, instead of the crust being blown up, as readily be seen to be
lack
out some of the gas and
lets
it
is
it
would
to get stopped.
such cases by keeping
in
the loaf from being pushed over or pulled on one side so much.
Obviously,
however, the right course would be to prevent these blemishes by allowing the gas to evenly distribute ing,
itself
by giving more proof
preserving
the
porosity
of
in
and the loaf
to recover
from the mouldsteam, and
a moist atmosphere, such as
the
dry skin, by keeping covered.
surface, If a
preventing
formation
the
loaf be notched
at
allow expansion of the interior after the main portion of the crust set or fixed
by the
heat, the notches should be notches
and not
of
so as to
all,
is
scratches,
should be deep, and only in about four or six evenly distanced places, being uniformly applied (instead of being the ill-considered gashes of a
seeking vengeance), and even then
up so well or looks so
it is
madman
a question whether the loaf stands
nice as one that has been unnotched,
when properly
and well manufactured. In justice to inventive genius,
we must
say there
bashing machines that are good, but at present
all
may be we have
the loaves manipulated by them have been unsatisfactory.
notching and seen and
The
all
so-called
notches have been merely marks, even the surface of the loaf has not
been crust,
cut, there
has been no opening out, no escape of gas and no extra
and the pressure exerted,
evidently^ with
the idea of
blades cut, has merely flattened and compressed the for these
machines that they save time and labour
notching
evidently
is
admitted
to
absorb
this
loaf. ;
time
if
making the
It is
that
is
claimed so,
hand
and labour, and
THE SHAPE AND FINISH OF LOAVES then the important question, as indicated above, comes
notch at
While speaking of
all ?
remember the very great Coburgs, namely, when
this surface cutting,
it
in,
155 why
namely,
would be as well to
difference in appearance that there
is
when
cutting
cutting each one singly, as should be done, and
with a sharp knife squarely across the centre, and, on the other hand,
when
dragging a knife from end to end and then across a whole board or whole
row of them at one operation, thus cutting them unevenly and often dragging the skin, and generally spoiling the entire object of cutting. See illustrations. Recognising the in
two or three places
been seen
this piercing
men put loaves many
of these have
by those
a position to
imprisoned gas, some
into the crust of their tin
at the exhibitions,
know, that in
effect of
and
it
has been
;
said,
in
a small fork
has been considered as distinctive ear-marking, and,
order to save any room for the unjust assertions sometimes ignorantly
made concerning judges knowing whose
loaves they are judging, these have
accordingly been thrown aside.
same way,
been found advantageous inserted
when
clean,
to
In the
for special loaves,
put a skewer through the centre
through the bash hole,
it
;
it
has
and being
cannot be so readily detected.
must be further remembered that the effect of the notch on the cottage or the cut on the Coburg depends greatly on the amount of gas and the ripeness It
of the dough.
If unripe or green, the
notches or cuts have a tendency to
run or flow together again, depending on the tightness of the dough and
deepness of ably
more.
cut,
A
but
if
good
fully or
instance
over ripe they will open out considerof
this
principle
is
often
when
seen
making hot cross buns, the size of rent made by the cross depending a great more on the state of the bun than on the size of the cross. Likewise, some loaves, by being made from tight and ripe dough, will retain the name deal
that has been imprinted on top
by a docker much more
being much more legible than when made from a
which would help the impression In the same
way
to close
up
plainly, the
less ripe or slacker
name
dough,
again.
the folds of a loaf will not join up or stick together
so easily, but often open out, leaving a crevice especially seen at the end of Scotch plain loaves,
if
the
dough has been very
ripe, losing its stickiness
THE BOOK OF BREAD
156
runniness, and moisture, or
And
if
much
otherwise dried by tightness or too
when over ripe, such Scotch loaves are someway up. In the same way, when thrusting hand or arm into a dough when in the trough, the rent, dent, or impression made will be greater or more easily made when the dough is ripe or ready than when unripe. In the latter case, the arm will be resisted and the dough will be more springy and squeaky, and if then taken, and not afterdusting or cones.
also,
times found to crack about half
wards compensated, the loaf would be dark, with a crust, tough, leathery,
pulverised or splintered. short,
and the head,
little
instead of being short
If over-ripe, the
in the
and
easily
crumb would be crumbly and
case of a cottage, would not be tightly stuck to
the bottom, but would easily pull
very
small, foxy, or red, rough, ragged,
flinty,
off,
and, in extreme cases,
fall
off with
touching, and not be accompanied by that prickliness and local
roughness or integuments holding the two together.
There would be a dulness, as opposed to the glossy brightness of the more healthy one, and also other characteristics that come within the subject of sourness.
THE CRUST npHE
crust of a loaf of bread affords considerable guidance, in the
of an experienced person, as to the health and character of the
and method of manufacture, and as
constituents,
employed.
In addition to the colour
to the
hands
loaf, its
amount of
skill
and bloom of the crust which we have
already considered under their respective
heads,
there
are
many
other
physical signs such for instance as crevices, bursts, or large deep cracks, and also
small surface or diamond-shaped cracks.
inelasticity of
dough.
strong flour that causes under effect,
is
some
They may be due
overworked. conditions,
it
Although is
These large cracks show
to soft flour, that breaks short, or flour
and fermentation are thus
same amount of
not always that the cause has the
the latter being governed by the final stage, namely, the
THE CRUST proof after the loaf
is
moulded
when
the loaf
is
This
in proportion to the heat of oven.
refers particularly to the bursts at the side
of which,
157
and the ends of
tin loaves,
the crust
under-proved and put into a hot oven, pulls up from
the rest of the loaf leaving a crevice in which one could bury one's fingers, instead of the loaf being evenly square without any rugged places or edges.
Although the pulling away and being equal, be greater
if
this
breaking
off short will, all things
the percentage of starch be great, or the gluten be
exhausted, and although this gluten would be more exhausted the more
it is
fermented, nevertheless, extra change of the gluten does not necessarily
always mean a bigger crack, because the pull in its effect to the
amount of
time after moulding, that is
less
resistance.
more
is
proof,
is
When
always
the crack
is less,
is
proportion
given more
because the loaf
stunned and more pliable, therefore better able to respond to the
making the
strain less.
not so
It is
much
is
where phrenology
finds that
allowed to take place.
much
same as a man may have the organ of language large, and
one circumstance compensating another,
fact of
pull,
the amount of the degradation
of the flour as the period at which the degradation
This
strictly in
then the loaf
is
the
man with the language that he may lack the organ of self-
yet not be able to speak in public so fluently as a
organ
less cultivated,
confidence,
merely from the
fact
whereby nervousness would overrule the other
characteristic.
Passing from these large cracks, crevices or bursts, simply the
thin
surface
cracks
crossing one another, forming
diamond-shaped squares.
when
the loaf
is
will
little
little
let
us consider
more than
lines
pieces that will flake or break off in
These are a sign
of quality
and take place usually
cooling on the shelf, and give that characteristic crackling
noise that one likes to hear
They
which are very
when
loaves are just removed from the oven.
very frequently be found across the top of
been made as they should
be,
tin
loaves that have
from a free and slack dough, well proved and
quickly baked, and they will be usually absent from a crust that
is
tough
and leathery from immature dough, or a crust rendered thick and hard by a cold slow oven. Such a crackly, pliable, thin crust indicates altogether a superior
loaf,
on the whole, than one whose crust
is
hard and unyielding.
THE BOOK OF BREAD
158 such as
often well expressed
is
bread seem to get stale
To some
by the term "corky," the
latter
making the
very much less time than the other.
in
extent one can
tell
some of the
with one's eyes shut, by feeling the crust.
If
characteristics of a loaf, it
feels
smooth, and the
sometimes seem more sensitive when unaided by the eyes,
fingers
sign on the one hand of skilfully moulding
it
clean
it
is
and green without any
accumulation of dust and cones, and on the other hand, of ripeness the fermentation or tightness in the dough.
dough
The
a
drier
and
in
less sticky the
mould smoothly, and ripeness in the fermentation or tightness in the dough will help dough to handle drier. The presence, however, of a skin that is formed merely by the surface of the dough being allowed to become dry, or dryness caused by an excess of dust or cones, or the loaf being merely wound round instead of having its surface well stretched in the course of moulding, will give a coarse and grainy crust, Where the crust is crisp, and characteristic of amateur, or bad, work. short and well aerated, it indicates a comfortable fermentation and a well aerated dough. Where the fermentation is slow and dead, the surface of is,
the easier
flinty
to
when coming
the loaves close,
it is
into contact with the heat will give a crust of a
tough and leathery character instead of crisp. Where the crust and sharp at its edges, or too prickly between the top and bottom
the case of a cottage,
it
will indicate flour
in
with excess of one of the con-
stituents of gluten,
namely glutenin, or unripe fermentation.
this characteristic in
Scotch bread
far less.
is
One
finds
Very much the same reason,
apart from the question of time in oven, can be ascribed to a thick crust
which
is
not often present unless fermentation
riper loaf, providing the baking
in the crust,
it
will also
when
stale
depend on the amount of moisture
being advisable, for the sake of crispness, for the crust to be
well dried before leaving the oven,
Vienna bread.
incomplete or checked, a
the same, usually having a thinner crust.
is
The crispness and toughness
is
The
and
this is particularly so in the case of
crust will frequently, in fact almost always, be tougher
than new, simply on account of the crust becoming more moist
on exposure
to the
air.
When
the bread
is
drawn from the oven there
is,
RUNNY AND STICKY DOUGH of course, a higher percentage of moisture in the
and the moisture
in the crust will rise
baking to double the amount
in
on that account, the same as
by
The amount in
to take
may
would
on a
the gluten had been undegraded
if
salt,
or the
skin.
also be
an indication of quality according to the and shine upon it. A bright gloss is a sign of quality which has not been destroyed by too much fermentation,
crust
of gloss
the flour
dark,
the crust,
cent, just after
dough bound by an excess of
and should be distinguished from shows itself in the corners of the
A
from about lo per
in
the course of a day or two, and will get tough
it
insufficient fermentation, or the
dough been allowed
crumb than
159
smooth shine
is
a
a sign of too
which
smoothness,
dull
loaf or
usually
on the badly baked portions.
much change,
the latter being
usually greater as the patches of shine are darker, or discoloured round
the edges, this being particularly noticeable in the case
of sour bread
and usually where the dough has been fermented by a long, slow, process, and then not well crusted in the oven. This slimy shine should also, of course, be distinguished from the gloss caused by steam. There are frequently seen " crinkles
"
or roughness round the bash on the top of a cottage
These are due to a skin having been formed on the top of the loaf by standing and allowing to become dry, and are produced by the skin being displaced and drawn together during the process of bashing. Inasmuch as a slack and lively dough is not often allowed to stand long, these loaf.
crinkles
may
often be taken as indicating a tight and slow loaf
RUNNY AND STICKY DOUGH nPHE
runniness of dough
command, the these days, that the miller, or the
amount
is
nine times out of ten, with the flour
result of insufficient fermentation.
amount of water of instability
in
the
flour,
and stickiness
in
it,
It
is
as received is
in
now
at
seldom, in
from the
such an excess
THE BOOK OF BREAD
i6o
Warm
as not to be dried up or well amalgamated by proper fermentation.
water and plenty of yeast, well harnessed, should almost always be able to prevent this tendency to runniness, as is,
therefore,
far as
or put into
flour,
baker, however, sometimes errs by putting in too
The
than too much.
opposite of runniness
when they have a bound
loaf,
they had a runny dough.
If
ness,
and
usually exists,
this fault
due usually to the management of the dough, rather than to
the amount of water naturally in the
The
it
and puts that tendency
instability in the flour,
blame the
to runniness
much
water, rather
many
as they
people,
would
if
tendency to runni-
flour with a
down
by the baker.
binding, yet
is
flour just as
one blames a
it
little
to the excess of moisture or
one should, perforce, praise instead of blame a
flour
A
dough with an excess of water when unsupported by a sufficiency of gas sometimes spreads a dough that is bound stands up like a ball, and is one that wants more water to give it more freedom. A dough that binds is, nine times out of ten, made from a flour whose constituents are very sound, whose constituents will, therefore, take plenty of water, and when they do not receive the proper amount, the particles and cells in the flour do not swell, as water would make them do, and thereby occupy a smaller space than they should, and thereby give a loaf that is known that binds.
;
as bound.
it
Inasmuch as binding can be overcome by more freedom being given to by more water, and as water costs nothing, binding, especially if runniness
is
correctly ascribed to poorness in flour, should be put
quality,
This
is
down
as a sign of
and as quality of which sufficient advantage has not been taken. borne out by considering for one moment the characteristics of
high-class patent flour, especially Vienna.
Inasmuch as Vienna commands else, it must be regarded as of
a higher price on the market than anything high quality, yet unskilful handlers of
When
using
it
for
this class of bread,
doughs
Vienna bread
it
it
complain of
whether they know the reason or
good quality Vienna
because
it
binds.
does not bind, because good makers of not, usually
slack, and, irrespective of the yield or profit,
easily get a
it
loaf
when
the
make
their
know they cannot
dough
is
tight.
so
It is for
w
-W7 tS?"'.
RUNNY AND STICKY DOUGH reason that
this
many do
not Hke Vienna
flour,
i6i
irrespective of price, in
ordinary household bread, because such doughs are, nine times out of ten,
made
too tightly in proportion to their subsequent treatment, and
the flour does not get what
do they
spoil the quality, but
yield.
Competition
Manchester and
do not get out of
quite
is
district, as
and Vienna
this high-priced
it
requires that they complain of
anywhere flour
else,
It is
district.
by giving
it
should
much
cut in
simply because
they make the doughs slack, thereby getting the quality out of for its extra initial cost
it
yet a very large proportion of
used in that
is
as
quite
because
Not only
the profit that
are
keen, prices
as
it
it is
it.
the proper
it,
and paying
amount of cheap water
that
it
requires.
By looking
at the opposite side of a question
information and guidance, but
in
one can often obtain useful
most problems of bread-making one can
always adduce evidence of a most conflicting character. the assertion that runny flour yet
softer
due
An
and
will often
bind up into a
ball.
Take
Vienna
to soft flour.
usually on the contrary binds.
it
still
dough
is
mill,
for instance
not a strong
English country patent
The
is
highest grades of most
and more starch
of our large port mills are less strong, contain less gluten
than the lower grades from same
is
yet they bind more.
The
flour
from California, such as Cascadia, would be called a very weak and soft starchy flour, but
it
strength,
Gluten
flours.
and sticky
in the
more
with
many
considered typical of
dough.
inclined, other things equal, to
Under
be more runny
the heading of gluten the effect of per-
centages of the latter on the strength of the flour
is
In
fully considered.
cases a flour with a very large percentage of gluten has been soft
and
sticky,
The
longer a flour
and the cause has been traced is
fermented the softer
tracted from a sour dough, yet a sour
contrary close
is
but Argentine wheats have more gluten than the Californian
referred to yet are
some
The same
also binds instead of running.
winter wheat patents and biscuit
it
shrinks and binds and there
up the
to a deficiency in the glutenin. it
dough is
gets. will
No
gluten can be ex-
not run, in fact on the
not enough stickiness about
folds of the loaf or, in the case of a cottage,
it
to
even to keep the
l62
THE BOOK OF BREAD
head firmly stuck
to the bottom.
Rye
stick.
There
all
no gluten
left
and nothing
will
however, never has any of the same quality gluten as
flour,
wheat, and, by not holding gas, makes
After
is
flat
and runny dough. come back
the above has been said one has to
to the fact
same flour will often be considered runny by one man and not by another, and moreover will also be found to be less runny one day than the next. If a dough has run together on the boards, the pieces sticking to one
that the
another, that
it
then scaled again as
is
will
have
less
before beginning to run.
would be best
to
it
often has to be,
tendency to stick the second time
hand
If
it is ;
it
a well-known fact
would stand longer
a tendency to run or stick has been noticed
it
up, or roughly mould, the pieces twice instead of the
usual once before the final moulding.
given another half hour
in the
The next day
the
trough before throwing out.
dough should be Although time
or more fermentation in the trough will be found to decrease the trouble, the pieces
will,
of course, run together more the longer they are
unless checked by labour
;
therefore,
when once out
left
on boards,
of trough, quick handling
and a small batch is best. Gas naturally rises, and therefore helps to hold the loaf up water is weight that is always trying to find its own level. The ;
stronger the tissue of the flour the more the gas will be held
use having strong tissue unless the gas
more
is
in,
there to distend
but
it;
it is
no
and the
weighted by soluble matters and water, the more the fermentation and gas has to overcome. Extra salt will be found to that
tissue
is
advantageously toughen the tissue and help to bind, but as fermentation, and thereby production of gas,
given to compensate. of gas at the finish
is
As
salt
hinders
more yeast or time must be
with a tendency for runniness a quick evolution
desirable, the necessary
amount of fermentation would
be better conducted quickly than slowly, especially
is
it
also necessary to
get consumed any of the excess of soluble matter.
Under
the heading of malt extract or dryness will be found details of
an experiment with an excess of malt extract, which would give stickiness and increase the soluble matter helping runniness, wherein it was found that the malt extract became gradually less in loaves that were taken from
TIGHTNESS OF DOUGH
163
dough at extended intervals. The tissue of newly ground flour or flour from damaged or sprouted wheat is less tough and less stable, and in the latter case alum and lime water, which are considered under separate heads, and also common soda, used to be added as having more effect than salt. Such flours are best worked by a freer and shorter process than usual. New potatoes, like new flour, are more sticky than old ones. Another point bearing on the necessity of sufficient ripeness, the main
piece of
in order to in
avoid runny dough,
the flatness of artificially aerated bread,
is
which there have been no fermentative changes, and which
paratively, very
seldom seen made
doughs of some parts would be found
to
When them
trouble to part
;
takes hold close to the join the flour is,
still
will pull :
it is
slack tin
they would be heavy it is
usually
in-
some
out before coming asunder unless one
therefore fairly evident in such cases that
has plenty of strength
when
;
it
of course, an indication to the contrary.
times with those
;
the pieces stick together on the boards
they
com-
be excessively laden with water,
except for the very quick and vigorous fermentation stead of light.
The very
a cottage shape.
in
is,
who were seeking
relief
breaks
off
short and rotten,
it
In correspondence at various
from runny dough, we have
frequently, in corroboration of unripeness being the cause, found that
when
became warmer the trouble ceased of its own accord, and also sudden change of weather to coldness, or a dough which had got cold, or a dough taken when round and not fallen, was the sole cause of anything the weather
that a
different
from usual.
TIGHTNESS OF DOUGH TN
a general
^
and
way
tight
tightness
would mean
but in bread-making these
would be defined as the close,
compact, that
meanings of
into merely the state or consistency of the
by the amount
of
water added.
the
is,
state of being tight,
not loose
or open,
word resolve themselves
sponge or dough as effected
Tightness,
like
many
other details
1
THE BOOK OF BREAD
64
bread-making, has respectively advantages and disadvan-
in the process of
tages, according to the conditions of
instance, the
dough
work and the resuks
moulding stage when required
at the
required. to
make
For
special
loaves, such as for exhibition purposes, should, in the case of such sorts as
whereas for ordinary commercial purposes, under usual conditions, the dough should usually be slacker than
crusty cottage, be usually tighter than
it is,
;
It is practically
particularly in the case of tin bread.
perfection in either quality or profit in all
it is
all
impossible to get
the various sorts of bread, under
same degree of tightness too little importance on this point,
the various conditions of manufacture, with the
yet the great majority of bakers place far
and
if
in far
;
anything near uniformity was possible, the subject could be dismissed fewer words than
In the
it
first place, it
will
be necessary to employ.
should be remarked that in no preliminary stage in
the process of bread manufacture should there be tightness, that preliminary stage
is
to increase, as
it
the object of
if
should ordinarily be, the vitality
power of fermentation. A tight sponge or a tight long-process dough is impeded in its activity and development in the same way as a mass of tight clothes impedes and oppresses the activity and development of the human body. The tightness or lack of water within the sponge or dough will hold it down just as effectively as if it were encased outside, the amount of the resistance being, of course, effective in proportion to the amount of power present Thus a tight sponge or dough means more yeast, unless otheror exerted. aided, for doing the same amount of work. If, then, a sponge is set wise
or
for the purpose of increasing yeast to thus increase yeast,
one
is
sponge, so that a long night's
be obtained, then
more
consistent
of the change
it
should be slack
but
;
if,
after deciding
so inconsistent as to want to keep back the rest,
should be
and economical
in
it
or other interval in the manufacture can
tight.
Nevertheless,
it
would obviously be
to restrain the fermentation,
and the amount
the constituents of the flour, by decreasing the
amount of
fer-
mentative power and the size of the sponge rather than strangling the larger. In the same mical, because
it
way a dough will
that
is
tight
when on
the boards
is
not econo-
not only contain less water, but will require longer time
TIGHTNESS OF DOUGH
was supplied with had more yeast grown in it,
to arrive at perfection after moulding, especially unless
more yeast
more
at the start or
heat, or else
and the changes slowly developed
165
it
at the cost of flavour.
It is this
slowness
of proof, and therefore the necessary time required in order to avoid pinched or badly shaped bread, that
a great objection to tightness
is
commercial practice, where there not convenient to have
is
in
ordinary
not the patience to give the proper time, or
much dough
where
it is
much
space, lying about awaiting baking.
in the
form of loaves, occupying
When, however, the amount of water and the amount of profit, and the amount of time and care for perfection, is not of such prime importance, as it would not be in the case of good priced or exhibition bread, then undoubtedly the eye can be better satisfied
by a tight dough
and unsupported
where the
in all cases b)'
any
tin or
loaf
is
to
be baked on the oven bottom,
contact with other loaves.
to beat in appearance a crusty cottage loaf that has possible, tight
enough
There
is
nothing
been made as tightly as
be braked like a biscuit dough, tight enough to
to
need chafing rather than moulding, and tight enough to stand, and needing to stand an hour after
The
the oven.
final
shaping before being proved sufficiently to go into
shape, provided, of course,
all
the previous process was in
accordance, would be perfectly symmetrical, standing up
carved pyramid with a smooth and regular surface of even and fine cottages,
mesh and with no
an evenly
sign of the very frequent holes in
and the colour would consequently and thereby be improved.
Although dryness, as discussed elsewhere,
amount of water added, dough than slack.
A
;
like
the texture would be
this defect is
loaf from a tight
most
cases,
by being
yield
up by evaporation
dough
will,
less free, will its
water
is
more
not solely dependent on the
likely to
be present with tight
however, usually cut
less quickly.
Although tightness
seen to have some advantages in crusty cottage bread,
recommended
for tin bread,
closer,
and
in
be of smaller volume, and consequently
which should be
freer, lighter,
it
is
thus
should not be
more spongy and shape and
softer in texture, of larger volume, and, as the tin renders better
texture possible
in conjunction
with more water, the latter should have
1
THE BOOK OF BREAD
66
more
Within reason, and with the quaHfications as given in a special cottage with suitable manipulation can hardly be too
consideration.
this article, tight,
mean
and with the same to
qualifications a tin cannot be too slack (this does not
countenance the excessively slack brown doughs that are slopped
much opposed to what it should be, as is a very slack cottage. The two cannot be made to perfection from the same dough, and even for ordinary daily results should always be made
on the scale pan)
a tight tin
;
is
as
from doughs of different degrees of tightness, as well as receiving different manipulation.
The tight
quantity of water that would
dough would vary according
and also according to the way
it
flour,
was incorporated during the knead-
With ordinary
ing or making of the dough.
of flour (280 lbs.) into a
and character of the
to the quality
which
in
make a sack
mixtures, however,
1
lb.
of
2 lbs. of flour, namely 14 gallons or 140 lbs. water to the sack of The flour, would make what should be called a moderately tight dough. writer has received many loaves within the limits of 13 and 18 gallons to
water to
the sack, and in cases both below and above
The
this.
very tight or 13-
gallon ones have usually been from the South of Ireland, the very slack or i8-gallon ones have nearly always been from Manchester district, the 16-
many
gallon ones have been on pans.
The
occasions from Scotland and not baked in
14-gallon ones, both for cottage
and
from small provincial towns or villages where trades or wanting
some of each shape
from same dough.
some
be,
have been made
and are
special exhibition loaves
being most accurately measured, at less than of even 13 to 18 gallons, a difference of 50 in all cases this
have been very usual by reason of small
for early delivery,
Although small batches can
slacker than large ones,
and
tins,
all sorts,
lbs.
1
usually,
made
have been made,
3 gallons to sack.
water to 280
lbs., is
means without the addition of unusual
A
range
very wide,
matters.
With
additional matters, instances of wider range could be mentioned, but belong
rather to the subject of yield.
Referring to points of tightness the
dough lends
detail, it
may be said
itself better to
that
up
to
a certain point of
handling and moulding with an
TIGHTNESS OF DOUGH even surface so as for
to give a
smooth
crust, that
an unskilful moulder to get a good
When, however,
slack.
the dough
is
is, all
167
things equal,
it is
easier
dough than with a the moulding is rendered more
finish with a tight
very tight
same manner and completing properly in the same time. If a medium stiff dough be handed up hard, then moulded very firmly or ground up in the hands, it will give very much the same appearance, as regards proof, as if a tighter dough had been handed and moulded more
difficult for
proceeding
in the
loosely and thereby allowed to loosen itself sooner afterwards.
The
tight-
ness or slackness of a dough will thus be sometimes inaccurately estimated
by feeling the hardness and unyielding character of the crumb of the loaf and also a corky or hard unyielding crust may indicate tightness on the one hand, and be
difficult to distinguish
from a similar crust caused by a
less tight
was by moulding, or time, allowed to afterwards loosen or prove less. Although tightness helps shape on the one hand, it will not help it on the other if given no more time for proof, therefore being less proved,
dough
after
that
The same remark
moulding and before baking.
will
apply to holes
in
Although tight dough properly handled more would make even shape and less holes, it must, if under-proved, crack and burst when baking, not being able to stretch like a slacker one. In the same way, other things being equal, the folds of a loaf, when cut, Also will show less and amalgamate better with a slack dough than a tight. the folds or any crevice will show more on the crust or on the outside with a tight dough. Sometimes a tin loaf will show evidence of having been in tin a good while, but if the dough be tight, there will be crevices that have not been filled up as would be the case with a slack dough. Other connection with tight doughs.
signs of a tight dough, with always due consideration to ripeness in trough
and proof
after moulding, will often
splintering will
when pressed with
be a thicker and
finger,
and
be angular and remain as they were
impressed by a docker
will
in the case of cut,
remain distinct as
flours during fermentation will
less pliable crust, not
and any if
a cottage, the notches letters that
docked on cold
might be
butter.
Some
"give" or get slack more than others, and
need or will stand more tightening up afterwards
;
but others, on the other
1
THE BOOK OF BREAD
68
hand, are very stable and give hardly at
all,
and
if
made
tight in the first
instance will bind and not be satisfactory, such, for instance, as Vienna, even
with extra power for driving them up.
and
As
flour,
on the whole,
is
more
stable
dough does not need, when made, to be so tight to stand a long while, and in practically all cases it is best not when making but, if required to be tight for special purposes
drier than formerly, the
to enable
it
to be tight
when on
;
the boards, the extra flour for that purpose could with better results,
although perhaps a little more trouble, be worked in while cutting back thoroughly half-an-hour or so before throwing out of trough, or by well dusting and tightening up when passing through a brake, which is always
an improvement
up or adding overnight,
making;
for fine
bread when suitably manipulated.
This tightening
fresh flour will be found particularly serviceable in the case of
off-hand
doughs, rather than adding
all
the flour
when
first
also with exhibition bread.
TOUGHNESS A XYTHIXG
is
said
to
be tough when yielding to force without
when flexible without being brittle. This state is often noticed in the crust of bread, and to a less extent in the crumb. The chief causes are insufficient fermentation or mellowing of a strong flour and too much moisture in the crust. Too much gluten, or gluten insufficiently breaking or
changed, amounts to the same thing in this respect, therefore extra yeast and warmer water or more time will soon create shortness, the same as the addition of any shortening such as lard. A skin on the surface of loaf
more particularly insufficient baking, is a frequent cause. Vienna loaves that are drawn from oven when the surface is moist with steam will be tougher than if allowed to remain a little longer after the oven is opened and to get drj'. The crust will usually be tougher when
before baking, but
when kept by the housewife in a closed earthenware bread some of the moisture of the crumb is absorbed by it, and the
stale, especially
pan, because
iJ*.-
If
I'k^s,
O Q^ D o u Q O o a <
ft.
>!
s,
^^*x
fm
PROVING moist atmosphere of the pan prevents
it
169
getting as dry as
would, which can be proved by removing loaf and standing
Bread baked
in iron
ovens or on iron soles
is
otherwise
it
in
a draught.
not always necessarily tougher
if it be thoroughly ripe when set and thoroughly baked although, of course, the brick sole will absorb the moisture better and
than that of brick ovens ;
bake more gradually, usually giving a more porous
crust.
The
smaller
baked by housewives in iron ovens are not tough, even when no shortening added, as they are dried out by slow baking in a dry heat. quantities as
PROVING npHE to
when
word proof has which
it
is
meanings according
a large variety of
applied and
applied to breadmaking.
also
is
We
should define
of expansion or recovery allowed to loaves of that
is
amount
it
dough
shaping and before being stopped
after
oven, irrespective of the
in
as being the
in their final stages,
expansion by heat of
Under
or over fermentation in
the trough will not counteract over or under proof in the possible and very often the case that a loaf
loaf's
Proof
is
is
is
it is
customary to speak of
stage of fermentation, the latter finishing
The speed
and
it is
quite
such an important and distinct part in the process of a
manufacture that
sown and
loaf,
over fermented yet under
it
the fermentation in the trough, but of course proof final
amount
of fermentation previously allowed in the
trough or the time given on the boards.
proved.
to the subject
sometimes used somewhat loosely
when
by a is,
different
strictly
term than
speaking, the
commencing from the time the yeast
killed during baking.
with which a loaf gets the necessary proof, although defined
as something separate from the earlier stages of fermentation, depends on the latter largely.
Some
loaves require
much more time than
others to prove
oi-
recover after moulding in order to be baked so as not to be distorted by heat
of oven, while others would not stand half the time without, on the contrary.
THE BOOK OF BREAD
I70
A
suffering injury.
dough
that
is
working sluggishly
will
and must have time after moulding no matter how much trough, and as a rule for
it is
it
prove sluggishly,
may have had
in the
the one that has had most time in trough that also,
purposes of shape, wants most time after moulding.
A
made from a steady sponge and dough dough, and has been made tight, can often do with an
cottage loaf that has been
or a long straight
hour to prove
in
boxes or drawers to
shape or holey with
less.
A
its
tin loaf,
advantage and would be of bad_
on the other hand, that has been
made from a very quick and free dough with a lot of yeast and a lot water, would when placed in a small tin be all running over the sides that time, or have proved itself to death, getting very coarse
although there are plenty of
tin
in
and crumbly,
loaves that under other conditions could
When
stand as long without harm.
of
time the sides are usually shiny, and
they have stood if
in the
tin
a long
under proved the bottom crust
be drawn up in the centre like an arch, and the ends burst out. Tin loaves are usually proved more than cottages and are by their tin less exposed to heat in oven than crusty cottages, but the latter are in the great will often
majority of cases moulded up and rushed into the oven
and under proved, and sorts,
and other
sorts of loaves, as regards
going into a hot oven than a than
cold,
shape and holes which are
A
loaf
two fully
must prove more when
and when well proved
bake quicker
will
when under proved and closer. A good plan for convenience of provto have a number of boards made that will hold five loaves one way
is
and three the the
too hurriedly
this accounts largely for the difference in these
discussed under their separate headings.
ing
much
other, a total of fifteen.
These are handy
for getting rid of
and can be supported one on top of the other, near the oven by means of small angle irons. A jet of steam, or a pot on a gas ring, loaves
underneath for quick
process.
will
keep them warm and moist on the
surface, as
is
necessary
proving and bloom, especially when made from a long slow In larger bakeries or with drawplate ovens movable racks are
best and boards of a length to
of loaves as usually
fit
across top of drawplate.
made should have
fully half
The
majority
an hour to prove on these
BAKING boards (or
in
the
drawers which
171
they become
when put together and
covered) so as to recover from the moulding, topping and bashing.
They
should not have the proof knocked out of them again by rough handling,
and heavy bashing and docking when such handling they
left
will
although the amount of
stand without injury will depend on the freeness
dough and the heat of oven.
of the
setting,
When
the loaves are topped and
on the tables the opportunity can be taken to straighten and bash
them after they have stood a little while, say at half time. Unless the dough is moving very quickly it is not enough to get merely a few courses ahead before commencing to set into oven as is often done. A tin loaf, unless tight, should not be set into oven until
showing signs of commencing
filled
is
on top and
flattening
and a cottage should be plainly
to crack,
seen to have increased in size and
it
out
taken straight from the moulder's hands as
all
is
over, as
done
in
would not be
it
some
if
cases.
BAKING 'T^HE
baking of a loaf
cause thereby
it
is
a most important stage in
can be
to the suitability of the
much improved
oven
its
manufacture, be-
or marred in quality according
in relation to the state of the
dough.
No
absolute time or temperature can be given as the correct one, for a loaf of
bread while
in the oven,
batch to be baked. to be in
because both must be exactly in harmony with the
however, the goods to be baked ought that condition whereby they should bake in the shortest time at the Strictly speaking,
greatest possible heat without burning.
That is, the goods should be in a condition to stand a hot oven, rather than the oven be kept cool for fear of it not suiting the goods that were not in condition to be baked to perfection, owing loaf
to the neglect of giving sufficient proof before baking,
would be usually distorted
A
great quantity of bread
if is
whereby a
put into a hot oven. too slackly baked, that
is,
it is
boiled, not
THE BOOK OF BREAD
172
The dough
baked, remaining for too long a time in too cool an oven.
that
is
proving slowly, owing to a long slow process of fermentation, such as would be
made from
patent yeast,
loaf that has
The
oven than a
in the
from a quick and free fermentation, and therefore
been made
proving quickly.
always found to require longer
is
greater time in oven, and the cooler temperature
is
whereby more time
is
necessitated by the small bulk of the under-proved loaf,
required for the heat to penetrate, and also as in an under-proved loaf the gas takes longer to disseminate in tributed, would,
when
in'
all
its parts,
the oven, be
bound
which gas, being unevenly
dis-
blow into holes or otherwise
to
distort the loaf. It is this fact, that
a quickly fermented loaf will bake more quickly than
a slowly fermented one, that because, will
all
be in
commends
the quick process to popular use,
things being equal, the quicker the loaf
all
respects.
A
hot oven
will stop the
is
baked the better
it
fermentation in the loaf
quicker than a cool one, giving a better flavour, not only because of quick
baking but by reason of
its
driving off the stale g;ases formed during
fermentation, and also by baking quickly will keep in the flavour, and moisture, in
very much the same way that a piece of meat when cooked
rash heat will be nicer eating by having
gradually simmered out.
become over-proved sufficiently as
Inasmuch as a hot oven stops fermentation sooner proved as
if it is
will
would be necessary stand
to
for a cool
respectively
it
will, all
will
oven
it
if
if it is
;
it
in.
will
proved only
put into a hot one,
be very ugly.
bloom
goes
for a hot oven,
Different grades
ovens of different degrees, but
better dealt with under the heading of
proportion of water
be suitable
then put into a cool one, and
though, perhaps, improved in flavour, of flour
a
juices retained rather than
its
than a cool one, a loaf must necessarily be more proved before If the loaf is sufficiently
in
this
is
also a loaf with a greater
other things being equal, require longer baking.
Another great point affecting the time and heat necessary for perfect baking is the kind of bread, and how it is set or spaced in the oven. It is obvious that two cottage loaves from the same batch of dough one set against another, thereby having a
crumby
face,
and the other
set so that
BAKING the heat gets at
it
on
all sides,
173 must bake more quickly than the same dough would bake
that the latter
same way rolls off Much of the difference in flavour in half the time required by a 2-lb. loaf in the roll and half-quartern loaf from the same dough must, of course, be due to its quicker and better baking, since that all other points are equal. In the same way it is a matter of common experience that the former, and in the
if
a batch be unexpectedly large, the
first
often be sweeter
of having had so
The
crammed
and of healthier appearance than the
much more space
in
second batch
re-fired, the first,
will
merely by reason
the oven.
ingredients also have a bearing on the time of baking, because sugar
attracts the heat,
whereas
fat or lard repels
always objectionable when a loaf
is
it,
water from that portion of
it is,
and the flavour of the
under baked.
of course,
The more
latter is
the outside
is
amount of crust, and the driven off, making the loaf lighter
exposed to the heat, of course, the greater
if
often
is
one has come
and also even when the oven has not been
but
it
and the second part is oftentimes put in the same oven after out, and although it will have been fermenting longer,
into the oven,
the
part of
first
is
the
;
the crust loses water, the latter does not evaporate so quickly afterwards
and as a matter of
more dry bread produced by slack baking, or bread that has been in the oven a long time at a slow heat, than bread that has been well crusted and baked for a short time in a good heat. The volume of the loaf will be affected by the oven according to the state of the dough if the loaf be full of gas, the volume will, of course, be increased because the gas will expand by the heat, and insufficient from the interior of the
loaf,
fact there is a
;
heat
is
often seen to produce a closeness of texture, as in the case of tin
loaves that are set too closely so that the heat cannot get between them,
whereby there
is
a close layer
down each
and darker on the side that has had
The
side of the loaf
which
is
thicker
least access to the heat.
kind of oven and the amount of steam therein must also have
considerable effect on the time and temperature for the proper baking of a loaf; its
if
the oven
heat very
is
much
built in a solid
and substantial manner
it,
of course, holds
better than one not so built, besides this
some ovens are
THE BOOK OF BREAD
174 externally heated,
whereby they do not
lose heat while the batch
is
being
and the greater the amount of steam that would be injected from outside sources the hotter should the oven be heated, because the steam while keeping the crust moist and giving bloom, at the same time protects the loaf from heat. A solid heat will penetrate the loaf further, making a baked
;
thicker crust than a flash heat, and the latter has
the loaf and give
more tendency
to distort
good bloom. be properly baked the crumb should spring back easily when pressed by the finger, and not be doughy or leave any impression in fact, with a thoroughly baked cottage loaf it has been sometimes demonit
If the loaf
strated that one could
upon
sit
it
and
it
will rise
and open out again
like a
A good heat for loaf bread, according to its size and would be from 450 to 550 degs. F. when commencing to set, but these temperatures must be given with a somewhat wide range, because different concertina.
condition,
ovens showing the same heat by the pyrometer or thermometer
will
bake
very differently, sometimes owing to the incorrectness of the instrument,
sometimes according to the position
in
which
it
is
put into the oven and
other individual points.
The
heat inside a loaf will not, of course, be anything
much above
boiling point of water, say, about 3 degs., only in the centre,
the
and gradually
increasing towards the surface, being just under the crust at a temperature
of about 3 20 degs. to actual instances
uncommon
The
time would vary for half-quartern loaves according
from thirty minutes up to about two hours.
experience for the author to receive a
in thirty-five minutes,
and
tin loaf
forty or forty-five minutes
is
It is
no
thoroughly baked
quite sufficient for a
cottage loaf that had been subjected to an average temperature of 450 degs. for the whole time in which it was baking. Plain or crumby bread will require longer, and in
even longer
is
many
parts of Scotland
and Ireland two hours and
the time given for half-quartern loaves, nevertheless, the
author has seen
many
loaves of the plain or set bread referred to from
such places, which have been thoroughly baked hours, and even less.
in
one and three-quarter
BAKING
175
A
good heat during baking will usually be found to bleach the crumb, and although the crumb of Scotch bread with its slow baking is bleached more than bread from most other places, this bleaching is due to other In the south of England one usually sees every crevice round the causes. oven door tightly stopped during baking, so that no steam should escape, and
it
time
;
would be considered very wrong to open the door until drawing it is therefore somewhat interesting to remark that, in Scotland, the
oven door set,
and
is
frequently
in cases
left
open
for a full half
hour
after a batch has been,
even longer.
There has been much said concerning the sterilisation of bread, but as the majority of the germs that do any harm are killed in far less time, and at a lower heat than that to which as shown above they would be subjected in a loaf of bread, and as no cases of infection have ever been traced to the loaf,
it is
of attack as far as
it
difficult to
said to be ten different kinds of
germs are
far
more
say
why
a loaf should be
made
the cause
concerns the baker, because even although there were
germs found
likely to get in
in the
from the
middle of a
loaf,
these
air in increasing quantities
same as all other foods are after the loaf has bound to be contaminated by the air and if the bread was absolutely sterilised in the oven, the slices of bread and butter on the table would in common with all other foods be found to have again attracted an increased quantity of the 70,000 germs that are said to settle on every square foot per left
the
baker,
the ;
hour
in
any crowded room.
Regarding brown bread the popular practice is to give a cooler oven, There or place the loaves in the coolest part, and longer time for baking. is no reason, however, that this should be necessary, except that people for this class of
water
in this
bread usually add an excess of water.
excess has no advantage since
it
The adding
must be driven
of the
off unless
clammy in the centre, and, on the other hand, has the disadvantage of making a thick and tough crust, which is quite unnecessary. Although it may be desirable to put more water when making the dough, so that the bran may be thoroughly saturated, the brown dough when being the loaf
is
to be
THE BOOK OF BREAD
176
scaled should not be slopped on the scale-pan like porridge, but be verylittle
slacker than an ordinary proper tin dough, which, however, should
be, of course, slacker
The
than a cottage.
as desirable as fermenting
it
quickly, and,
anything, should be
if
baked than white rather than the reverse
quick baking of brown bread
;
and
it
is
more
is
quickly,
frequently found that
those put nearest the furnace are the best, and brown loaves do not burn so quickly as white.
than white,
is
it
Inasmuch as brown loaves have necessarily less gluten particularly desirable that the gas therein, and all the
expansive properties, should be expanded to their utmost as quickly as possible, and, also, as there are oids,
it
is
more
impurities and
more soluble albumin-
particularly necessary in the interests of flavour that the
baking
should not only be quick but thorough.
STEAM OTEAjVI *^^
is
an invisible
colder surfaces.
elastic
visible only
be wet steam and not dry
becoming superheated,
;
is
and steam that dry,
much
from a
the
which,
at
is
under a high pressure, thereby
and not wet.
steam does not burn so kettle,
gas evolved from water during boiling,
when condensing by coming in contact with The steam required for glazing and blooming bread must
and becomes
as
cooler
This
is
steam.
ordinary atmospheric
the reason that hot
The steam pressure,
issuing is
at
a
burn or scald the hand very much
temperature of 212 degs.
F.,
more than steam
from a high-pressure boiler which might be
issuing
will
three or four times as hot as the kettle steam.
The
reason
is
extremely
interesting.
The steam from
is
of the
same temperature as the boiling
Yet, as boiling water requires a very long application of heat
water.
before
a kettle
it
is
all
turned into steam, and
as,
by the fundamental law of
Section of Coburg Loaf. (ACTUAL
SIZE.)
STEAM chemistry, nothing
boihng water,
is
is
still
destroyed,
obvious this heat, going into the
is
it
177
somewhere, and can be re-obtained.
It
is
in
the
consumed by the difference in the state of matter, water being a liquid, and the steam a gas. The steam, therefore, although showing the same temperature by the thermometer as the water, contains a very much larger quantity of heat, and this is proved by the fact that one can quickly raise a bucket When thus of cold water to the boiling point by injecting steam into it. a very little made to boil, the water will weigh more, or the bucket be a very little fuller, than before, but if one were to add three or four buckets of boiling water to the original water, it would not boil then. The amount of heat in steam that is thus latent, or thus temporarily lost, is 966 degs., when at ordinary atmospheric pressure. But when at higher pressure, this amount of latent heat curiously decreases, even to stqam
it
;
is
200 degs.
the extent of 150 to
from
employed,
temporarily
It
is
high-pressure boiler has to get
a
of latent heat that
necessary for
is
absorbing this heat, although is
or
not in
such
apparently
seen,
from sorpewhere the amount
when
it
in the
open
does so very quickly,
it
a ready position
to
steam issuing
that
then,
air,
it
is
and when obvious
it
burn and to scald as the wetter
steam.
Steam, then, that
required for injecting into an oven must not
is
be allowed to become superheated boiler
becoming
great.
It
steam with a high latent
by reason of the pressure
in
the
must be low-pressure steam, wet steam, and The difference in the scalding of wet steam
heat.
and dry steam, may also be understood by remembering that a man can get into the
oven
to repair
say, 212 degs. F., but
wet heat
it
— that
is,
into a dry heat
—when
at a temperature of,
he could not get into a bath of water
— at this temperature,
which
is
the boiling point.
—that
is,
into a
Also the steam
escaping from compression in the boiler immediately, but momentarily of course, expands, and anything that expands absorbs rather than evolves
heat in so doing.
steam
is
When
water
is
boiling under increased pressure,
at a higher temperature than
212 degs.
F.,
and
the latent heat of
178
THE BOOK OF BREAD
the latter proportionately decreases, according to the following table, which also supplies information concerning steam-pipe ovens.
STEAM be as low as possible, that
The
oven.
the
smaller
only just sufficient to get enough steam into
is,
if,
one's
in
but
feet,
if
must obviously be compressed As a general rule, it would be best
on.
from
boiler
prevent
to
10
the steam
and so
size,
10 feet
for instance,
required the boiler must contain that feet,
30
to
25
lbs.,
or
less,
the boiler
to to
half
natural
keep the pressure order
In
possible.
if
only
is
its
boiler a
this, one can have fitted whereby an excess would automatically be
to the
getting above
it
must be the of steam were
boiler the greater, of course,
the
pressure to get enough, because
5
179
blow-off, or reducing, valve,
released.
Regarding the amount of steam necessary a
would be
calculation
little
loaves would give off about
2
A
interesting. ozs.
water per
loaf,
of water equals 28.35 grams, and therefore 28.35
A
retain
to
in
sack batch
^.c.
200
say,
An
or 400 ozs.
oven,
the
of,
ounce
(cubic centimetres).
c.c.) of water expands into a cubic foot, or 1728 cubic and the cubic space of the oven to be filled would be the height multiplied by the length and then the breadth and minus the space
cubic inch (16.38
inches of steam
;
occupied by the bread.
As
regards glazing or blooming the
steam to be present when the loaves are
on
their cold surfaces, because
once
its
surface
is
On
dry.
down when
The thorough more
it
this account,
it
one
is
it
essential
whereby will glaze
sees in
it
for
the
condenses
a loaf
when
France and Vienna
on which the loaves are turned up-
proving, whereby they are kept
much
moister than otherwise.
saturation of the air of the oven
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;and the hotter the oven, the
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;
tend to lessen evaporation
from the bread
as
cloth,
will absorb without becoming visible
steam, as too
set,
first
no amount of steam
long narrow baskets lined with a side
crust,
;
but
much
it
is
possible, for
will
some purposes,
to
have an excess of
not only keeps the loaf down, preventing
it
expanding
should, but also caramelises the top of loaf too much, preventing the
The cuts on the loaf Too much will also leave
crack and finish desired, especially for small bread.
do not open
if
caught too much by the steam.
the crust tough, unless the loaves be
moved about and turned
over,
which
is
THE BOOK OF BREAD
i8o a
common
practice, so as to thoroughly
dry the crust before being drawn.
on the other hand, there is too little, the crust dries too much, all other things being equal, is duller, less bloomy and less appetising, harder and If,
less crisp,
is
more "corky" and
nipped or burnt by a
A bakery
boiler in
a
is
less pliable,
and also more
likely to
be
fierce or rash oven.
most handy
more than one
thing,
respect,
but,
and a good investment in the where crust gloss is essential
and one has no boiler, loaves can be washed or sprinkled and placed on a baking plate and covered over, say, with quartern tins, or can be placed in box tins and then uncovered before being drawn and put back to finish. Some put iron upsets filled with wet ashes just round the furnace or hottest parts of oven, and arrange the dampers so that the steam is drawn by draught over the loaves. Coils of perforated pipes have often been inserted in the hottest part of oven, or even a straight pipe running
down both sides. The objections are that the pipes become choked in the same way as a kettle or boiler gets furred by the deposits from the water, and also too much water is often allowed to run in, and therefore, not evaporating into steam, drips in the oven or on to the goods.
A
nice gloss,
altogether better than washing with water or anything else, can also be obtained by proving in steam before setting.
Referring to the pressure on the loaves of steam
in the
oven,
we
remember seeing a very novel, so-called, vacuum oven, from which the air, and also the steam as it came from the bread, was extracted the decrease in pressure was so great that the loaves rose without having been fermented or injected with gas, and were cooked at a lower temperature, water boiling in a vacuum at about 70 degs. F. The flavour of the bread for a change was ;
delicious.
This
is
described in the chapter on ovens.
YIELD OF BREAD PER SACK OF FLOUR
18
YIELD OF BREAD PER SACK OF
FLOUR TpHIS
an exceedingly contentious point.
is
working
in,
almost as
and
or superintending their manufacturing daily, they
many
closely arguing the
fact
is,
We
different answers.
were put to
no answer to
actively-
would give
have been writing on and discussing
matter for nearly twenty years, and yet
be dangerous and misleading
The
If the question
and observant bakers who were
ten well-informed, intelligent
it
would
to give a definite statement in a few words.
suit all
circumstances can be given.
The same
does not always produce the same amount even in the same bakery,
flour
or even on the
same day,
of bread, and
it
bakeries.
It is
or, still further,
even
same batch or ovenful same in different
the
in
certainly does not always produce the
a case governed by differences in the system of fermentation,
differences in the
amount of water added and the slackness
of
dough and
manipulation, differences in the quality of the flour, differences in ingredients
added, differences in the heat of the oven and the time of baking, and also
even
in
the particular position of the various loaves in the
We
once stated
Baker that a
certain Scotch firm
per 280
lbs.
respondence.
of flour,
We
and
this
led to a large
have also before us a
no
amount of conflicting coron a system of bread-
circular
to 112 loaves of 4 lbs. each can
country-milled flours, larger yield from strong flours." circular further says that country milled flour 4-lb. loaves.
We
have also an
result of twelve trial bakings that
10 quarterns per sack (always 280
be obtained from
The author
by ordinary methods
article before
were made
skilled in the art of bread-making," 1
said,
their
making, "by which
out 98
had
books confirming, that they produced when using 9 lbs. per sack, an average yield, extending over six months, of 100 quarterns
and showed us of salt
in the British
same oven.
in
of that
will turn
us that tabulates "the
1897 by friends
who
are
and the variations are from 87^ up to unless otherwise stated). Although
lbs.,
1
THE BOOK OF BREAD
82
they are statements in
be
fairl)-
print,
and technical
accurate before getting there,
We
without qualification.
we
journals,
and presumably should
them and also
ourselves cannot swallow
are in constant touch, both
by
visits,
more frequently by correspondence, with almost all the well-known large factories of Great Britain and Ireland, and even abroad, and the factories will never admit (and this is confirmed by one of the greatest authorities in Scodand, with
whom we
and who has had special concerning this point) more than 96 quarterns per sack for the square crumby bread. This yield means, after due allowance for evaporation, about 15 gallons, or 150 lbs. water added to the 280 lbs. flour. are often in
touch,
facilities
Although some
flours,
and some loaves from the same
flour, retain
more
weight than others, the great factor in yield per sack of flour must be the amount of water put into it and retained.
Dealing
first
with the above Scotch case,
it
should be noted that
some firms will make the square crumby, the French and the pan all off the same dough, that is, the pieces are all scaled off at the same weight, and then, when the batch is being moulded, the foreman would direct how
many
loaves of the various shapes he required
the yield for each shape would, where such a proceeding prevailed, be the same, that is, commerthere would be the
cially,
The French
;
same number of loaves sold as 2 dough, however, would often be tightened up,
would be put into and, on the other hand, flour
lose less in weight
;
it
lbs.
that
or 4 lbs is
more
after it was first made, therefore yield less would be in the oven less time, and therefore would have most circumference of crust, but less it
;
it
thickness of crust top and bottom. at
4
lbs.
in
the dough,
Other firms would scale the French while they would scale the squares at 4 lbs.
or 4 lbs. 5 ozs., and would thereby say they got more out of the French, say they had 10 1, or something like that. Many firms would make
6
ozs.,
separate and slack doughs for pans
or 170
lbs.,
they would get as much as 17 gallons, of water into them, and then also usually scale into the oven at ;
weight and draw them quickly, whereby losing less during baking. Some loaves lose only 2 ozs. on the 2 lbs. others lose 4 ozs. on 2 lbs., and
less
:
YIELD OF BREAD PER SACK OF FLOUR if
man was going
a
to
bake
well,
he would weigh
would weigh a quartern
3 ozs. each, but he
than double, and would thus save
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;do
get a cottage loaf
English and Welsh variety. that
have more
is,
pan or
flour
and
By
baking
probably 4
lbs. 5 ozs.,
We
quarterns.
all
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;from
in halfrquarterns at 2 lbs.
Scotland,
or less
very seldom
being chiefly an
it
reason of shape, such have to be tighter, loaves to the sack than
less water, therefore less
tin bread.
Here
also the
amount
management, the usual to
if
sometimes
at
183
varies very much.
London
rule of the trade in
man
If a
produce and account for 92 quarterns,
puts shops under
to expect the
is
manager
kinds included, for every
all
In Bristol the association has recently adopted
sack of flour supplied him.
The amount of water used on 93 as a fair amount for official purposes. an average in practice daily to a sack of flour as met with in our experience varies from 13 to 18 gallons, that
460
of dough.
lbs.,
There
will
is
(130 + 280
= 410
be about 10
mentation, but then there will be yeast,
salt,
perhaps, other ingredients that will replace most,
weight of dough weighed into pieces of 4 will
lbs.
)
of this lost during fer-
lbs.
cones,
and (180 + 280 =
lbs.,
)
and if
flour for dusting, and,
not
This
of that.
all,
6 ozs. for the 4-lb. baked
loaf,
produce about 91 and 104 quarterns respectively. In addition to the various causes of variations in the yield which
have already mentioned above, there are others, such as the getting
all
sack that
out of the sack that there
lets
also such as a mouse-hole in the
is in it,
out a certain amount of flour eVery time the package
is
moved,
also evaporation of water, not only from the bread, but from the flour
stored over the oven, and other circumstances.
when
a
2 lbs.
I
man oz.,
is
One
;
but only last week two
different parts of the country, each referring to a particular
different
brand
in
each case, declared that a
quarterns per usual sack.
As
a guide, then, to a
grade of
at,
say,
men
in
flour,
a
test
gave them only 80
man
estimating profits for
full-weight bread, he should reckon on the average in a
more than 96 for the three Scotch sorts referred
when
often hears of big yields
counting his loaves, which he weighed in the dough
and not reckoning baked bread
we
effect of sifting,
to,
mixed trade not
or not
more than 94
1
THE BOOK OF BREAD
84
for the
many
English cottage, and, in
stances above mentioned, he will get
Out
of a vast
cases,
depending on
all
the circum-
less.
amount of correspondence personally received on
this
point, one letter from the Midlands mentions an ascertained yield of 25 stone,
or 100 quarterns per sack, by adding 3
lbs.
of scalded material, as already
discussed in these columns, without which the correspondent could get only
That
94.
(or
1
tells
is,
when he omitted
2 half-quarterns
weighed
the 3
if
of scalded material, he got 6 quarterns
at 2 lbs. 3 ozs.) less in consequence.
us definitely that matter
parently,
lbs.
is
indestructible, but
in
Chemistry
these days
the above could be proved, can be created.
Another
it
ap-
corre-
found 94 quarterns cottage. Another English firm, doing a large good-class family trade, found their average, for all
spondent, making a
test,
sorts over a period, to be 95 quarterns out of the
of flour sent in
;
bakery for every sack
by machine
the loaves were always scaled
at 2 lbs. 2 o^s.,
modern steam ovens, with regular crust, and found good weight when cool. Another similar good-class firm found 94 to be the average for all sorts produced, highest-class flour being always used, and cottages
baked
in
weighed
A
he finds 96 a good average, with 98 as a maximum, and that an authority he consulted said 94 would be fair average to count, while Glasgow would, he said, get a little more because of lighter doughs and stronger flours. A Dublin correspondent, who is undoubtedly careful, calculating, and intelligent, says in at 2 lbs. 3 J ozs.
Belfast correspondent says
with his tight doughs he cannot average more than 89, and tries for 90 have also received some carefully prepared figures concerning an
We
accurately
over 3 1
made
test,
where a sack of
lbs. (thirty-one
flour, to
which was added a fraction
pounds) of other materials, consisting of
salt, yeast,
corn-meal, lard, malt extract, and sugar, produced just over 137 quarterns (one hundred and thirty-seven) per sack, nearly 25^ gallons of water being
added.
This extraordinary yield
will
be jokingly styled by our readers as
was prepared in detail and signed and sworn to before a commissioner of oaths by three prominent men as having been seen by them, and carefully watched throughout every stage "American," but the document setting
it
forth
YIELD OF BREAD PER SACK OF FLOUR
185
Every precaution was taken to prevent mistake, and irrespective of our knowing, and having accepted engagements from the persons interested in the invention that was being tested, it must be admitted that anyone is far more careful in signing and taking an oath on a matter than in giving a mere and casual expression of the process as therein described.
pf opinion, yet this tremendous figure of 137 quarterns per sack of 280 lbs.
came under our It certainly
By a
notice in the
seems impossible
we have found
two others of 80 quarterns.
as
to reconcile them.
amount
considerable
same week
American methods
of acquaintance with other
a fairly high yield to be 2 So
lbs.
bread to the barrel of 196
lbs.
and exceptionally 300 lbs., which would be respectively 100 and 107 quarterns per sack of 280 lbs. As in all places where there is much home flour,
more usually baked in tins than in the British Isles, At this moment we have before us an advertisement concerning a London made flour that is said to produce 100 quarterns per sack against 95 obtained by the usual mixture also a report of an expert on a Minnesota (American Spring) patent certifying 102 to 108 quarterns; also figures concerning a Vienna flour showing 108 to 112 quarterns. In France much of the bread contains more water than ours, baking, the bread there
is
taken as a whole.
;
having a quart or 2|
lbs.
of water to 3^ lbs. of flour;
majority of bread in England, of which the cottage loaf
has
its
or 140
dough made from lbs.,
per 280
onl)?-
lbs. flour.
its
made from
the
same dough, and but in the more
same medium quantity of water of England, such as Hull and Manchester
therefore contain the
northern parts
yet the great
a leading type,
weight of water, namely, 14 gallons, Where cottage bread is the rule, the tins
half
are usually, especially in small trades,
is
is
;
district,
there
a greater preponderance, and, in cases, almost exclusive use of tin bread
the doughs then are very slack, 16 gallons per sack being very
and 18
occasionally.
The
;
common,
other extreme, namely, of 13 gallons to the sack,
has usually been from the South of Ireland, the doughs of North Ireland
being slacker, and those of Scotland for similar bread being slacker
There are
still
other points of importance.
still.
There can be no big
1
THE BOOK OF BREAD
86
yield without
the water being added, but
is
it
equally important that
fermentation, manipulation, and quality of ingredients should be in accord-
The way
which some of the water is lost or evaporated has already been discussed under the heads of dryness and baking. Gluten, ance.
some of the
in
characteristics of
doubtedly an influence on
on which
which have also been explained, has un-
yield.
Mere
quantity of gluten
of flours and glutens, and also, as in the case of volume,
A
manipulation.
Hungarian patent
is
wide differences
to calculate, because there are
flour with
not a safe basis
in the character
much depends on
a smaller percentage of
gluten than an American low grade, will usually give the more bread.
some flours with an excess of gluten are worse than a more evenly balanced one of the same class.
Also,
retainers of water
As
a
rule,
how-
ever, a larger proportion of the right sort of gluten will enable a bigger
volume
be obtained, and the bigger the loaf the more water it will carry without showing it. A flour with a larger proportion of gluten is
to
also usually
more
gluten
is
and can thus be made up slacker without much in trough or on the boards. Where the
stable,
" giving " or falling off so
composed of too much
gliadin,
water, but afterwards "give," whereas,
of glutenin,
it
may
take
less,
but retain
it
will,
it
The
it.
may
take the
containing the right proportion
if
importance of the correct
percentage of these constituents which decide the has already been discussed, but
like starch,
qualitj"^
of the gluten
be mentioned here that a certain
patented process that aims at adjusting these two, claims to gain
i
lb.
of flour in every gallon of liquor used. It
has been
artificially
found
the gluten by adding starch and also that increasing the proportion
that decreasing
has decreased the
yield,
of gluten by washing out some of the starch has increased the yield.
Some
few years ago the author obtained from some starch manufacturers
a quantity of gluten, which to them as said by
them
ground up
into so-called gluten flour
is
a by-product, and usually sold,
at the time, for use in cattle food, but, doubtless, also
white flour had very
little effect
on
;
but the results of adding this to
yield.
YIELD OF BREAD PER SACK OF FLOUR The
effect of
manipulation
by the
easily seen
is
fact that
187
one can always
get a larger yield, in proportion, with a small test than with- the usual commercial
This circumstance often accounts
batch.
erroneous conclusions.
As a
blown up quickly by a
short, quick,
rule,
with the same amount of labour, a loaf
and vigorous process, provided
The gas
A
in the
one
volume, with the
case,
dough
ripe
will carry
skilfully
manipulated, so that
and the way
in
is
and
some
is
developed to the utmost of
The
folded.
its
latter is the case in Scotland,
way obtained
a very great deal in this manipulation of the gluten
which the
flour
apparent discrepancies
We
tends to
of gas to
yields out of comparatively soft flour are in a similar
There
one.
not obtained in a long steady
is
gluten
its
and well stretched and
France.
for
be
been well divided into stages and extra
has
the latter
unless
in the other,
The abundance
explained above.
effect as
process,
elasticity,
more than an unripe
and the labour and ripeness
extent in a quick process supplies what
in
it
hold more water and handle more easily with the extra amount
ripe, will
than a long slow one.
and big
and
for discrepancies
is
worked
in yield
have closely watched
into the water,
and often accounts
between long and short process.
results
from different machines.
Both
in
fancy
therefore a better yield,
we have found less flour required to make a dough, when added by instalments and worked in by gradual
kneading, instead of
at
in
ordinary bread
all
once at the
start,
and by grinding more.
By adding
gradually where the machine gives a good stretching action, the flour
enabled to take the right first is
all
the water
amount of
flour
is
it will.
It
may be
discovered, that
place, but, except in large
it
argued, with reason, that once
could be weighed and added in
and exceptionally well-managed bakeries,
not the rule, and the consequence
than necessary, and the machine
is
is
this
more flour is added know where the same
that generally
will force
it in.
We
two depots, one having machinery and the other not, gives more yield in the latter case, but it is no fault of the machine. Also, in the same bakery two different machines were each given a week's close test under the same conditions throughout, the one that took twice as long as flour sent to
the other to
make
the dough, enabled the latter to recover and be readv for
1
THE BOOK OF BREAD
88
scaling sooner,
and made the better yield per sack.
As
there are interests
involved, we cannot here state the case any more plainly. Sifting machines, by enabling the sacks to be more completely emptied without risks, and by loosening the flour and breaking any lumps, are a benefit to yield. There
should be less dry lumps, and less flour not thoroughly saturated, machinery.
While dough
is
fermenting there
is
evaporation of moisture and also
evolution of gas, therefore decrease in weight.
and the
sugar,
loss of dry matter in
medium
same as the percentage of natural sugar cent., or,
approximately, 6
lbs.
when using
The gas
is
made out
of
processes amounts to about the
In flour,
namely, rather over 2 per
per sack, in addition to moisture evaporation.
what we wrote in the British Baker ten years ago, but we see Professor Snyder of the Minnesota Agricultural College says he found the
This
is
loss of dry matter to be if per cent., or about 4 lbs. flour per sack in a short process of four hours from start to oven, and 8 per cent, or 20 lbs., in a process of twelve hours, that is, five times the loss in treble the time also loss of nitrogen was nearly four times as much, namely, two against 'j.'] per cent., ;
The 20 lbs. per sack is rather a startling amount, one thinking with renewed energy about quick processes. The author recently made two batches of two sacks each, all quantities, of course, especially in small tests.
and
sets
One was by long sponge, and the other by quick off-hand At throwing-out time the dough that had been preceded by a sponge was much the slacker, and had to have other flour added in order to make it carefully weighed.
dough.
same workable consistency as the off-hand dough. The fine bulky and light tin loaves of some districts that are made from such extra slack and quick doughs with large quantities of yeast, would not, without altering of the
the whole character of the bread, be aerated sufficiendy quickly at the finish to stand up or hold in suspension so much water if they were made from a
slow process with less yeast.
Such loaves are
lighter
and more spongy
than the good volumed loaves of Scodand, yet are made from softer flours. Regarding the adding of materials such as malt extract and potatoes, their chief effect
must be
their influence, according to conditions,
on the
YIELD OF BREAD PER SACK OF FLOUR seen
vitality of the fermentation, as just
They do dough
not contain
chiefly
by
much
their
and increase the weight of the Carbonate water, which could be otherwise added. it
increased the yield by checking diastasis
or change of the constituents of the ;
and
in
damp
the case of quantity of yeast.
solid material,
of lime used to be added, because
unstable
in
flour that
were already somewhat
seasons malt extract and the changed starch of the
scalded potato must increase instead of check this diastasis are therefore contradictory, except yield depends, like
189
volume and other
:
the two actions
showing, as instanced above, that
as
things,
on the regulation of the changes
amount of copious amount of gas
in the flour by process and by manipulation, by just the right
change, neither more nor
when
the loaf
It
is
is
less,
just about to
and the presence of a be baked.
thus obvious that the increasing or decreasing of the changes
can be advantageous or disadvantageous, according to individual circumstances,
and that no absolute rule should be
stated.
The
scalded flour or other scalded materials comes within the
addition
of
same category.
own heading in Section I., and also under colour and other points that it affects. The water is certainly better entangled when adding scalded flour or starch than when adding This
is
already dealt with
extra starch in a raw state
under
its
more soluble matter and therefore is less easily evaporated if therefore retained it must increase the weight and yield, although the weight, with a large amount of scalded matter, will often be found when handling the loaf by reason of its usually decreased volume. Having elsewhere given instances of our own concerning amounts with varying effects, we will here mention some trials by ;
it
enters into the composition of the :
Mr
Vass,
who found
that adding 20 lbs. of scalded rice, in place of flour, to
a sack of strong American patents produced a
total yield of
108 quarterns,
and adding 12^ lbs. to a sack of English patents produced 100 quarterns. Moisture, which may amount to nearly half a gallon per sack, that is, evaporated from flour kept
in
a moderately
a store over an oven, will be reabsorbed Also, on the other hand,
when wheat
is
warm
place, such, for instance, in
added when making the bread. washed or damped, which would
if
THE BOOK OF BREAD
I90
usually be done only in the case of hard wheats for the purpose of cleaning
and more
easily
decreased.
Some
removing the
Weather during
countries weigh
during
outsides, the yield
milling affects the yield of flour from
wheat
their flour light so as to allow for moisture absorption
transit.
There
is
just one other point, namely, that,
which
criterion of value of flour,
it
obtained should not be reckoned prize essay it
would not be appreciably
on the
is
relative merits of
if
yield
number when sold.
home
milled
and foreign
was the
sole
of quarterns
not, the extra
their price
at
even
In a certain
flours,
we
see
stated that the difference in value between a flour producing 96 quarterns
and one producing 93 is is. 6d. when the price is 6d. per quartern. That is bad arithmetic, which is unfortunate in an otherwise excellent essay. If 3 quarterns extra made the sack of flour worth extra at the rate of 6d.
of if
each, the sack that produced 96
it is
given at 28s. 6d.
93 are worth
28s. 6d.,
would be worth
The calculation is really one how much are 96 worth.
As 93
:
96
:
~ = 29s.
is
but the price
of proportion, namely,
28s. 6d.
:
96 X 57 93 X 2
This
48s..
,
sd.
seen to be less than two-thirds of the increase claimed.
It is
some-
times argued that the extra 3 costs nothing extra for labour and selling,
but this does not alter the fact that they should be considered only in proportion to the others, because
supply some customer
if
who would
they were not wanted,
if
etc.,
strict
they did not
otherwise be supplied from the same
and therefore worth nothing. The making of them does not necessarily sell them. If not
source, they would, of course, be unsold,
point
is
that the
accepting the principle of proportion, which cannot, however,
fail
to
be wrong,
Three quarterns per sack would be, on 100 sacks, 300 quarterns, and surely these would cost Extra trade with the same fixed expenses decreases cost of something. The above the whole, but extra production without the trade does not. one has only to multiply the result to see the
full
force.
YIELD OF BREAD PER SACK OF FLOUR
191
so very often overlooked, or would be explained in less
space.
fact
An
is
advertisement before
us,
although
announcing
flours that
we have
favourably reported upon, claims loo quarterns for a certain sack of flour against 95 as supplied by other people, which also claims to reduce the cost of sack to extent of 2s. id. for 5 quarterns at sd. If, however, the amount of flour in 100 costs 25s., that in 95 will cost about 5 per cent, less
of 25s., namely,
is.
3d.
SECTION V
MACHINERY, APPLIANCES, OVENS, FIRING, DRAUGHT, AND VENTILATION "
Our doubts
And make By fearing
are traitors,
us lose the
good we
oft
might win
to attempt.''
MACHINERY A T one forty
was very frequently stated, and very popularly believed, that machinery in the bakehouse did not pay with a trade of less than sacks (280 lbs.) of flour per week. We have always entirely disagreed
with
this,
satisfied
time
it
and can point the
possessors
to
many such
beyond
their
installations
which have abundantly
expectations,
and
fully
recouped
Some will admit the advantages with a trade of twentybut we will go further than this and state, according to five sacks, personal experience, that machinery, when suitably selected, can be made to pay in any business, properly organised and adjusted, that at the outlay.
present returns a normal commercial profit on capital and labour.
We
have before us a quotation from The Baker's Helper of Chicago, America, which says that machinery pays for a trade of 12 to 14 barrels weekly (8^ to 10 sacks of 280 lbs.), and that "in a shop using from 20 to 25 barrels of flour per
The 192
week
it
will
save the labour and hire of one man."
selection of the machinery,
and the organisation and adjustment of
~r
u Iâ&#x20AC;&#x201D; ^%SjU
:z;
< Q p:
u H O <1
7-^
fifci'jS'?
MACHINERY
193
more important than the size of trade, because one man, with a trade of the same size, and even There are instances the same price, will be successful where another fails. manufacturing and trading conditions to
are really
it,
where machinery does not pay because it has been selected of an altogether too elaborate, and expensive, and unsuitable character in proportion to the There are existing and prospective size and character of the business. other instances where people discard machinery, because they attempt to
continue exactly that one of
its
in
the old rut, forgetting that a machine
chief advantages, namely, uniformity,
to adapt itself to varying conditions, but
that,
is
a machine, and
must not be supposed a machine has been
when once
selected as nearly as possible in accordance with requirements, other conditions
must be altered
Close observation
very rapidly sister
the
;
trade
of
receiving great
to
fit.
will
show
revolution
milling,
and
impetus,
the
be very considerable.
that the bakery trade
will in
is
now advancing
undoubtedly be greater than that
revolution,
part played
which
by machinery
year
is
destined
to
this is
the
in
Quite a few years witnessed the great change at
enormous outlay from stone
to roller milling; prejudice there, as in
changes, ruled for a long time.
The
most
unbelievers lagged behind, but had
later when some of their trade had more progressive competitors, and they then found it more difficult to get back their own trade than, had they been first, it would have been to get that of others. It will be the same in the bakery trade, and the first man in a district to judiciously bring himself up to date in all his methods will pay for his plant by increased trade while others are in contemplation. Machinery in the bakehouse is now to some extent looked upon by
to
spend their money just the same
gone
many
to their
as merely a great convenience or a luxury, but
becoming a
necessity,
very shortly be the
and while now machinery
rule,
tendency of the times.
and no one can
is
it
is
very rapidly
the exception,
afford to ignore the
it
must
undoubted
Legislation, conditions of labour, public sentiment,
quicker methods of fermentation, desire for improved quality, competition,
improvements
in construction,
and a greater
selection in kinds
and prices of
THE BOOK OF BREAD
194 machinery,
all tend to the increasing adoption of the latter. While, however, the large variety of machines on the market enables one to say that all
classes of users can
be
looks into the question,
satisfied,
the variety, immediately one travels or
such as to cause bewilderment, which is often increased by the natural propensity of every manufacturer to believe his
own
is
production to be just the very one required.
Intending buyers, who very often buy their experience dearly, would therefore usually be well repaid by consulting some independent authority, who they knew to have not only a practical knowledge of the bread-making business, but also a full
acquaintance with the good and bad points and suitability to their
case, or otherwise, of the various appliances in question.
The
larger
and more
complete plants, such as
already
adopted
by most large firms, are greater savers of labour and waste, and usually more durable than the smaller and less expensive, but the latter have recently been brought to greater perfection than formerly. therefore, a
In
many
cases,
sum
of less than ^"loo has been expended with the good result of saving the men the exhausting work of dough-making, making them more
contented with their situation, reserving their energies, both physical and mental, for other important stages of the manufacture, improving the quality,
and increasing the trade with no further expense. W'hen considering motive power, the steam engine, although employed in some large bread factories, may be dismissed as too expensive for the ordinary bakery, the choice being between gas and oil engines and electric motors. gas engine is a heat engine in which the working fluid is atmospheric air, and the fuel an inflammable gas or vapour. The fuel is introduced directly into the cylinder and burnt there, instead of in a separate furnace as in the case of a steam engine. One of the best known types is that invented
A
by Dr Otto, which has been invented less than thirty years, and is now made by many firms at different prices, an Otto engine not always being the same in details of construction.
but
we need
There are three
consider only one.
distinct types of gas engines, In this the cycle of operations consists of
charging the cylinder with gas and
air
mixture at atmospheric pressure, then
MACHINERY
195
compressing into combustion space, then explosion of the mixture, then used charge.
There
usually one impulse given to the piston in every two revolutions.
Piston
expansion after explosion, and is
on forward stroke draws compresses
it
the latter
;
finally expulsion of the
in the is
gas and
air mixture,
then fired by the coming
in
on backward stroke contact with the red
The governor
hot or ignition tube at end of cylinder, sending piston forward.
by shutting
regulates
the load
far larger
The
light
is
off gas,
and thus causing explosions
and engine running too
proportion of heat given
light oil engines of
into
it
motor cars are
The
fast.
work than any steam engine. is
more
supplied by coal, therefore a gas engine using ordinary gas
finds
some
flour mills,
well-known
Dowson
producer gas
When
of,
and such larger
costly than that at a disadvan-
is
factories,
make
their
own gas on
This making of power,
principle.
or
heating,
the or
be referred to for heating ovens.
proceeding to start the engine the card of instructions usually
supplied should be carefully read. pulleys, then light ignition tube,
First, see that belts are
and then
cooling water for the cylinder jacket
flow not impeded.
is all
oil
the bearings,
right, the
on the loose
etc.
tank being
See that
full
and the
Sometimes the exhaust pipe wants emptying, because
of condensation of gases producing water in lighting, the ignition tube will lift
unit of
over 20 H.P. (horse-power), and thus one
say,
will presently
A
practically gas engines.
heat supplied to a gas engine in the form of coal gas
tage for large powers,
be missed when
to
gas engine converts a
it.
In about ten minutes from
be red hot, then put exhaust lever to
right,
governor temporarily, and turn on main supply of gas, give fly-wheel a until an explosion occurs, push exhaust lever back, and engine
few turns
should then be running properly. sary.
It is
necessary to see that the burner burns with a blue and not a
luminous flame
and
;
relighted.
The water
In stopping, the reverse would be neces-
if
the
latter, it
has lighted back, and should be turned out
Great damage would be done
to piston
if
not well oiled.
jacket round cylinder should always keep the latter sufficiently
cool so as to just bear the possible, with as
hand on
it,
and the water tank should be as high as
few angles as possible
in
the connecting pipes.
Sometimes
THE BOOK OF BREAD
196
these pipes get choked by accumulations of rubbish in tank and cause a
The valves must occasionally be examined to see they freely open and shut without any clogging by dirt, etc. The explosion with stoppage.
average work should not be at every stroke, and a different proportion to or,
the gas, which needs
if so,
according to quality, probably wants regulating,
air,
perhaps, the exhaust valve
leaking and wants cleaning or resetting.
is
In some districts the usual gas cannot be obtained, and the amount required for the engine plant for
making
too small to warrant erecting a
on the premises.
it
supply the gap.
is
Dowson
There are some good
These, although dating from the
oil
or other
engines to
practicable
first
one
made in 1 870, and about six years before the Otto already referred to, have not been so quickly or easily perfected to overcome all difficulties as the gas engines,
especially
the larger powers.
in
however, been made recently
is
it is
fed
This
is
is
oil to
America and other
country, but in
many
light oil engines
Oil engines are really explosive gas engines of
ordinary Otto type, with
vaporise the
this
scarcer and dearer, there are
for fixed or stationary use.
the
connection with motor vehicles, which
in
chiefly monopolise their use in
countries where gas
Considerable advances have,
special
be used, the
oil
arrangements to enable them to
engine,
when
the petroleum with which
converted to vapour, being practically the same as a gas engine.
proved by the
fact that
many engines can very
cheaply be converted
from one to the other by merely adding or removing the vaporiser and a few sundries, which is a great convenience in districts and countries where villages quickly
namely, spray
(i)
become towns.
where the
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;before
oil is
vaporisation, as
most general
;
lighting the
oil,
There are
at least three
where the
is
done
in the
types,
distinct
subjected to a spraying operation
â&#x20AC;&#x201D; like
a scent
Priestman type, which
is
the
and vaporised there and (3) where the oil is vaporised outside the cylinder and introduced in a state of vapour. They might also be divided by the method of ignition, or (2)
which
is
oil is
injected into cylinder
adopted, namely, whether by electrical spark,
incandescent tube, or other methods. for the
;
The
supply of
purpose of even working and explosion
in
oil
wants regulating
the same
way
as gas.
MACHINERY The
197
vaporiser must not be too cold or too hot, as in the one case
it
will
not provide sufficient vapour or gas, and, in the other, not in the right
The amount
condition.
of air admitted should not be
but should be increased
The
later.
exhaust,
when
much
at the start,
the engine
is
doing an
average amount of work, should be almost invisible and contain no soot,
which would
finally clog the
parts.
The
ignition tube requires cleaning
and the valves and other things require
occasionally,
similar attention, as
already mentioned concerning" the gas engine. Electric motors are the
and amount of
on the
size
to run
than gas engines.
most convenient form of power,
little
(horse-power) motor going into a box of about 7 or 8 cubic
and not requiring
3 feet at its longest side,
partitioned house, and, in fact,
it
floor
space, a 6 H.P.
feet,
no exhaust
to silence,
tube to heat, no back
can go into the space otherwise occupied by
There
no turning of fly-wheel, no waiting
firing, less noise,
machine, no shafting or belting.
handy
particularly
for
no
smell, and,
more laboriously and
and shafting that was designed cases,
of
for ignition
when attached
to each
This attaching to separate machines
usual hand machine, or instead of running
many
is,
is
knocking up during the day a small mixture of cakes
or sponge goods, instead of
as in
or less than
space or a separate glass
the water tank necessary for cooling the gas engine cylinder. course,
depending
more expensive
use, they are usually, at present,
They, of course, occupy very
but,
for the
all
less perfectly
turning the
the time the heavier engine
bread or night work.
Where
trade,
has increased through adding machinery, and as the
advantages of some machines were found, others w^re added, and thereby
them running
same time to overtax the engine, these motors are also very handy. The success of them depends, of course, on the power and character of the current supplied from the main, and although successful in some cases, they are not always so where the current is alternating, and sufficient of
required.
investigation
is
satisfaction
given,
The gas,
oil,
is
and
at
We
their
know very many
number
instances
where
entire
will certainly increase.
cost of engines varies according to the makers, but the prices of
and
electric, as
supplied by a certain well-known firm, compare as
THE BOOK OF BREAD
198 The gas
follows.
engines, including water tank, spanners,
obtained in almost any
etc.,
can be
a 2f brake H.P. costing ^32, a 12 H.P. costing ^106, with fairly proportionate intermediate prices in intermediate sizes.
The The
oil
engines of
|, 3,
size,
and 12 H.P. cost respectively ^32, .1^70, and ^160. and 10 H.P. cost
electric motors, including starting resistance, of 2, 3,
respectively £4^0, £^6, and £111.
engine of 4 H.P.,
about
£/\^^, £?>o,
it
will
Taking
be found that the gas,
and £6^.
There
purpose of comparison an
for
and
oil,
electric cost respectively
The
then the question of running.
is
smaller gas engines consume 20 to 25 cubic feet of gas per brake horse-power
per hour, and the larger, about
1
6 to 17 cubic
feet,
the proportions of gas being,
according to quality, about one part gas to every ten or twelve parts of
The
air.
cost can be reckoned out from these figures, according to the varying
price of gas in various districts,
and an actual instance before us
engine (brake or effective horse-power
is
of a 3 H.P.
always meant) making three to four
is
sacks of dough and sundries daily, at a cost of
3s.
8d. per
week.
Other
machines have been run by a 4 H.P. engine throughout the week, at an average of about 2d. per hour of working. It has been stated, in a prize light
by a Glasgow writer that in his factory 4800 dozen loaves (100 men at 48 dozen each) per day can be made at a cost, for steam power, of little over 5s. per day, the driven plant for his particular squad costing ^487 and taking 25 H.P. Regarding oil, the consumption in small engines is essay,
about oil
I
lb.
per brake horse-power per hour.
at 6d. per gallon for lid. per horse-power for three hours, or Jd. per horse-
power per hour. at 2d. per unit, is
A small engine has been run with
Electric motors are supplied in
and
in others at 3d.
and more
;
some towns with current
at the former price the cost
about i|d. per hour for a 6 H.P. motor, but this can be ascertained easily
by each individual for himself An instance is before us of a 6 H.P. motor making five sacks of dough with one unit at 3d., where the main current was alternating.
Machine kneaders
will
do better
required, that which will take
larger bakeries with
two men
in
six
or eight minutes or
fully twice or three
two kneaders, one man can do
less,
times as long.
in less
if
In
than half the
MACHINERY
199 In smaller bakeries, where
time more than double the amount of six men.
much cleaning and keeping in order for one batch as for ten, and where a minimum number of hands must be kept for other purposes, there is in point of wages, no immediate saving. The work, howthe plant requires as
ever, can be
done
exceptional business
and with
less time,
in if
less fatigue,
and
it
would be an
the increased mental vigour for thinking of improve-
ments, and the saving of time could not be shortly afterwards turned to
even
profitable account,
if it
more than save a jobber on a Friday Those engineers who want business have the advertising pages of this book, and also
did no
night or at other busy season. illustrated their
place
machines
them on view
in
at the annual
exhibitions
;
necessary to describe any particular machine, nor tion with the various types to give
an opinion
it
will,
is it
therefore,
in print.
Points to examine are the efficiency as judged by the finished durability as
not be
expedient in connec-
dough
;
the
judged by the general construction, and particularly the bearings
of the shafts or blades, the wear and tear and liability to leakage being, of course, greater tions, or
where the bearings are narrow.
and emptying, prevent
where two revolve on one
waste,
space,
capacity,
are
etc.,
individual circumstances.
all
power taken, coverings
needing consideration,
action
some seem
hand kneading.
to argue,
The
that
to
according to
on the dough should certainly be
stretching rather than cutting, but the best machine one, as
opposite direc-
Accessibility for cleaning, filling
compactness,
points
The
axis, especially in
is
not necessarily the
most closely represents the action of
best motor car
is
not the one that imitates the action
of a horse's legs, and a circle cannot be drawn better by hand than by a
when finished, and, if that is satisfactory, it matters not whether it is made by one, two, or three blades, Most machines have blades some or, in some cases, by no blades at all. do good work for small trades with one, when curved, but more generally two Those with rods and those with worms and plungers like a man's are used. arms, usually make the dough lighter and less compressed than many of compass.
The
test is to
look at the dough
;
those with blades.
THE BOOK OF BREAD
2 00
A loss,
longer time and less pressure during kneading
because the dough a.fterwards recovers more
is
not always a
The more
quickly.
compression, the more yeast or heat must be given to the dough for
the it
to
and the absence of this started the popular opinion about machinery There are some machines of a circular character that are fixed in the ceiling, thus occupying no floor space whatever, and being completely closed, are of large capacity for the size, and, with extra yeast to make dough become ready quickly they are emptied direct on to a table, thus entirely dispensing with any of the usual space recover
itself quickly,
" killing " the dough.
;
occupying troughs
;
this is
Some machines have
an advantage quite impossible
in
hand bakeries.
a special arrangement for fanning in air during
kneading.
Although a small dough can be well made by hand, during a hard
easier,
made
in
work,
many
machine
that,
night's work,
it
is
so
much
to stand and see the dough being
with the increased concentration of trades and more
of the hand doughs are less well made, containing
more
scraps,
and bladders, and liability to holes in bread than machine doughs. We remember, however, a baker getting more holes than before, but that was due to the fact that he made no allowance for the extra kneading given,
by extra yeast, or heat, or extra time, whereby there was insufficient recovery. A dough kneader does not of itself increase the yield of bread per sack, in fact frequently on the contrary, because, in the event of too either
much
flour
into, or
being carelessly
let
down, the
latter will
more
absorbed by, the dough than would be the case
easily
in
be worked
hand kneading.
However, as a rule, the installation of machinery compels or suggests a more systematic procedure than hitherto reigned, then the weighed quantities of flour, and measured quantities and temperatures of water, lead to results more economical and uniform. As a matter of fact, where the same flour has been sent to two establishments, the yield in the machine one was less,
because the foreman liked tight dough, which he would not have been
so willing to
make by hand, and
definitely ascertained.
the quantities of flour added were not
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V
Sectmn of Tin French. (ACTUAL
SIZE.)
MACHINERY Where in
flour
is
20
delivered in 140-lb. bags, there
making a blend of known weight, although, of
factory arrangement in
large
trades
is
to
not
is
much
course, a far
difficulty
more
satis-
automatic weigher
have an
There are some on the market that more conveniently hold and the whole batch. The consistency of dough
immediately above the kneader.
weigh a bushel at a time, and others that slowly discharge sufficient for
by
its
means, and also a measuring tank, can be obtained always exactly as
required, and without any watching during kneading, the saving of material
and the uniformity of mixing, and,
therefore, subsequent regular speed of
proof, are obvious. It is
stirring,
They
not necessary in England to have separate machines for sponge
although in Scotland and Ireland they are found of great advantage.
usually consist of a shaft with blades, that
is
let
down
vertically into
Like a kneader, they do the work
the ordinary sponge or ferment tub.
work well to the bottom of the tub, which These tubs, that sometimes take four is men to lift, are also obviously better raised and emptied into the kneader by machinery. Some people in England, when using a dough kneader, still have sponges, which are unnecessary and a nuisance, and, moreover, still continue to break them, which is still more unnecessary, before adding to machine better in half the time, doing the
not always well done
kneader.
The
by the arm.
fact that
a sponge can be thoroughly incorporated
in
a
dough, without pieces giving holes, and without previous breaking, shows the superior mixing powers of a machine.
added,
it
In the
need not be melted or rubbed into the
same way, when flour,
lard
is
but merely thrown
into the machine.
The average
baker, having
first
decided on an engine or motor and a
kneader, will probably find his next best investment in a tank, fitted with
hot and cold water, and a thermometer for the purpose of getting the right
amount of water at the right heat for adding to his flour, instead of the If, however, greater labour and uncertainty of pails and hand dipping. he had a mixed trade, he might prefer a whisk or sponge machine, whereby he would save labour, and certainly get better sponge goods and cakes, 2
c
THE BOOK OF BREAD
202 and more
yield,
properly done.
in spite of
The
some opinions of
better
goods by hand when
construction and quality of these tanks, like
other
Even when,
appliances, varies.
as in the best tanks, the hot water runs in at the bottom and the cold at the top, the mixture is not always
and is sometimes drawn off before accurately gauged in temperature by the thermometer. It is best to let the hot and cold run in at once, perfect,
regulating the flow as the
thermometer It
by inserting another thermometer
in the top,
ensure accuracy.
The temperature
Some have
alters.
perforated plate inside for mixing.
would be as well and a
a movable
to test occasionally
practice
little
will
of the water necessary to add to the flour
in order to get a
dough of a certain temperature, will have to be greater with a machine than without, especially for the first dough of the day in cold weather.
Other variations
will
be seen by consulting the
list
of tabulated
methods.
The
next machine that an average baker could well do with, if not running himself short of cash, and injuring credit with his millers, is a flour sifter immediately above his kneader. Not only do these reject a surpris-
amount of refuse, as can be seen at the tail of such machines at any time, but they enable the sacks to be more completly emptied and shaken ingly large
without harm, which
enhven the readily
flour,
is
often a larger item than
enabling
make an even dough.
after sifting than before. for
it
it
may
appear.
to absorb its full quantity of water,
Flour
They and
to
also
more
always be found to take more space Those that have brushes revolving on the sieve will
rubbing the flour through, do the work
in less
than half the time of the
vibrating sieves, where the flour gets through merely
brush pulverises any lumps, which
by shaking.
may sometimes be an
The
advantage, but
if
the lumps are discoloured by damp, or other undesirable matters are present, as occasionally, then, of course, the forcing through is a disadvantage. revolving reel covered with wire or silk, as in flour mills, is very efficient in
A
some
cases.
Having a sifter, one frequently next desires a blender. are mixed and allowed to stand together for a number of
When days,
wheats
it is
well
A SELECTION OF SHAPES.
THE BOOK OF BREAD
204 known
up to a certain point they considerably improve one another each day, and yield better results. There are certainly advantages in blending flour beforehand, say, once or twice a week, and storing in hoppers, and it is
that
sometimes worth doing even when again weighed
least assures exact quantities of the various flours
another source of irregularity, and can be
Some
risk.
It at
each day, and eliminates
to effect
economies with
less
blenders are merely hoppers, fitted with slides at the bottom,
and sometimes with
rollers, for
These work
veyor.
made
off in sacks.
regulating the flour into a
satisfactorily with
run less freely with softer
flours.
The
dry hard
flours,
safest plan
is
worm
or screw con-
but are apt to clog or
to shoot all the grades
into a blending machine, to be
blender and
sifter
mixed together, as in a kneader. The are sometimes combined in the same machine, with certain
The
advantages.
flour should certainly
the blending has been done
some days
;
be
sifted just before
doughing,
if
and there are certain advantages if one is very particular, sifting
occasionally in sifting before blending, so
could be done by a reel or vibrating sieve before blending, a:nd by a brush sifter before doughing.
There
is
another machine that might be adopted more than
it is
by the
At one time a good deal of loaf bread country, as it now is in others the brake con-
average baker, namely, a brake.
was braked
in this part of the
;
sisted of a long wooden pole fastened on a pivot to the wall, and being placed on top of the dough was not very comfortably "ridden" by the
made beautifully smooth and regular texture, but the work was hard. The old one has died out in these parts, and the new one has not been adopted. Most dough would be improved by more labour than it men.
It
usually gets, except at exhibition time, and such a brake, provided, of course,
recovery was given, would oftentimes supply the missing
smooth and regular
grow
into holes.
seen
when
they
will
baking.
texture, squeezing out the gas bladders
If the bladders
cutting a
moulded
loaf
be present, and usually In
and
giving the
holes, or envelopes of holes, can
through before baking, in
link,
which afterwards
an expanded degree
some towns of Scotland and Ireland brakes
it
is
be
quite certain
in the loaf after
are
much used
for
MACHINERY
205
the French and square or batch bread, the loaves being half
passed through the brake, whereby,
named, there alike,
other points already
in addition to the
a greater uniformity of firmness, so that
is
which they
will
moulded and
all
loaves prove
not do with the different handling of different moulders.
Uniformity as well as
and rendering moulding
finish,
Where
easier.
the
most complete, the brake is less required, because in the same way that a well-made machine dough, when quickly fermented, and not allowed to get dry, cold, or skinny on the surface, does not require bakery plant
is
dough that has passed through a ably compressed, and already braked as to need cutting back, so
manipulation,
moulders,
loaf divider consider-
a
is
being,
which
in
less
made
recently
their
or
Also the machine
almost half moulded.
fact,
have just
handing up
appearance,
give
the
desired uniformity.
The machine
loaf dividers
have evolved from the experimental
factory can afford to be without them,
The
question of ways and means. in time,
or the
number
of
men
and
Although hand
required for the same work is
men
that on occasions
Correctly speaking there
is
but, perhaps, the
recommenda-
established loaves of 2 and 4
lbs.,
and when found
taken as evidence of not having been weighed. doing,
is
and we oftentimes
may be hauled up
no legal weight
law merely requires bread to be sold by weight.
is
chiefly a
scalers get very expert, there are often considerable
receive loaves overweight from
knowing what one
;
the chief
variations, to say nothing of occasional straying lumps,
the contrary.
it is
large
best machines are a considerable saving
regularity, and therefore the saving in the weight, tion.
ones
in the smaller
stage,
No
and some of the types are now a complete commercial success.
In
England
Custom, however, has less
than this they are
Uniformity
in weight, or
certainly of importance to the seller,
for wholesale, family, or counter trades.
Large
;
for
the
factories
have
for
whether
some long
time been accustomed to a machine that was fed by dough previously
weighed
in bulk,
and then cut by
in principle to
away
knives into forty-eight half-quartern
These large ones for power the small bread or scone dividers, worked by
pieces requiring to be carried
were similar
its
in a tray.
THE BOOK OF BREAD
2o6
hand, to be seen in very dividers
is
many
small bakehouses.
now becoming superseded by
unweighed dough
at
This older type of loaf
those machines that are fed with
the top, and discharge the weighed pieces on the
moulding boards automatically.
We
know
expensive ones
most but
—
satisfactory will suffice
it
some of these
of
loaf-dividing machines
— even
the most
use in bakeries doing weekly less than loo sacks with
in
and economical
results.
Other figures could be produced,
here to repeat a printed statement of a Glasgow baker,
to the effect that three
men
did i6o dozen half-quarterns (1920 loaves,
960 quarterns or 10 sacks) per hour, which formerly took nine men. Times for other batches and conditions will be found amongst the tabulated methods at the end of this book. This completes the chief machines that are normally required in a bread bakery. Although operatives at one time opposed machinery, as others did railways, enough has been said to show that machinery means gradually raising bread-making from a domestic calling, which is,
to
it still
largely
More system
a more important and more concentrated industry.
will be created, with the result of more work in fewer hours, better health, and better wages, especially for the leading men, and also more independence and better results for the employer. One has only to look around take
the biscuit trade for example
—
—
to.
see the" real and inner meaning of these
remarks, and to realise the evolutions born of time.
When
arranging the position of machines,
a long drive, that
—and prevent and
is
a long
belt, will better grip
slipping, than a short,
last longer.
powdered,
is,
should be remembered that
a pulley
and also that the
— the larger the better
belt can thus
Resin, especially in lumps, and also even
destructive to belts, although an easy
machine driven, when not troubling resin only after dissolving in
because when wet the
oil
oil,
be slacker
when
when new.
and then allow
finely
means of getting the
to preferably shorten the belt.
latter frequently stretches, particularly
Where
it
It is
belt to
The
best to apply the
dry before using,
might increase the slipping rather than otherwise.
bearings are oiled by needle lubricators (inverted bottles with rod
OVENS AND FIRING projecting), if
the bottle
as well to see occasionally
it is
may
yet be half
The
full.
if
the
oil
is
207 flowing freely, even
grease lubricators are cheaper, more
and on heavy machines, but require attention, or turning, more frequently than the others, which they may not get in places where there is only a little machinery, and not well certain,
and usually used
cleaner,
in
mills
supervised.
OVENS AND FIRING BAKER
A
number of characteristics,
We all
so
different types of
as
satisfactory, the
they are
of opinions concerning them.
steam-pipe drawplate oven, which
but the smallest trades.
Some now,
the
are a large
ovens of very different efficiency and
number
and even a larger
will refer first to the
perfect
There
cannot be a baker without an oven.
is
suitable for
years ago these ovens were not nearly pipes
were fewer,
withdrawn plate supported on fixed
the
rails,
heating less
which were
in
the way, and occupied space in the bakehouse, and prejudice prevented
many men from even looking at them. It might be mentioned that being so well known to, and so closely connected with, the various engineers and oven builders, we are particularly anxious to deal with principles only and not willingly
in
drawplates, is
baked
iron,
is
but in
this place
favour or otherwise any particular firm.
whereby the
entire
surface
of
the
These
oven on which bread
drawn out into the bakehouse, are usually made entirely of some cases they have their baking surface covered with tiles.
These tiles, on which also the name of the baker can be embossed so as to mark his loaves, are more cumbersome, but more closely resemble in their effect the thicker and more porous bottom crust of the older fashioned These plates can be withdrawn, then loaded with the batch ovens. and set into oven easily in less than two minutes, and an even less time is Batches, with the exception necessary to empty it or "draw" the batch. perhaps of the first, can come out regularly throughout the whole day easily '
THE BOOK OF BREAD
2o8 at every hour.
We
know where
six drawplates, of rather larger size than
usual, are
doing 600 sacks per week, or 100 sacks per oven, but a more general
and a
allowance would he about
fair
fifty
sacks per oven per week, varying,
Not only
however, considerably with other conditions. in
there an advantage
is
time and baking capacity, but every loaf can be set exactly
and
also
by unskilled labour
one
in greater quantity instead of
the oven's mouth, or at most two.
(There
men
doors to a peel oven, enabling two
are,
in
man
skilled
some few
to set simultaneously,
another's loaves in the centre of the oven.)
in its place,
cases,
at
two
meeting one
All loaves going in and coming
out together, they get the same amount of baking, becoming uniform in colour and weight.
Some
of these steam-pipe drawplate ovens are costly, which hampers
by some space, however, cost, and fuel can be lessened per oven when two are built as deckers but, although the plates can be got very closely to one another so as to be worked from the floor level, their contheir adoption
;
;
venience and capacity
somewhat lessened
is
for quick trades.
,can be, and are, fitted to hot air and other special ovens.
complain of
bakeries
being
made hot by
drawplates,
but
Drawplates
Some it
bakers
must be
remembered that the plate is out for only a total of three or four minutes for setting and drawing instead of the door of peel ovens being open fully a total of thirty minutes and the furnace is almost always outside at the back instead of side flue and Scotch ovens and others being fired at the front, some of them under the oven door and very hot to the legs. Although drawplates are eminently suitable for crusty bread, we have seen good batches of crumb)-, and even Scotch squares, baked uniformly and in ;
less
time than
in
other ovens,
the loaves being kept square by a box
arrangement.
The pipe
is
principle of heating
about
1
2 feet long,
by steam pipes
is
the
same
in all cases.
Each
running only from the furnace to the other end of
oven, having no join or curve, and has about a ^-inch bore, which
is
partly
with 2 or 3 pints of water. The pipes being sealed and tested to a high pressure and slanted towards furnace, the water is boiled at a sufficiently
filled
OVENS AND FIRING
209
high temperature for baking, and the success and price of the oven depends largely on the differences in the quality of these pipes
them used. the
In
some
cases there will be one
bottom as against
more
in
others
row
and the number of
at top
and two rows
Some
one and one respectively.
at
of
and brick built ovens on the steam-pipe and peel system are expensive, but of good value, being marvellously durable others the
substantial
;
which are becoming very popular, are built of a more portable character, having iron plates lined with silicate cotton and merelv the furnaces of brick,
and
Prices vary according to prices of materials,
fired at side.
also according to the
work and
often have iron soles which give out heat
when mismanaged, but not
therefore,
Cottages baked
bottoms.
in
These peel ovens
details of building.
more quickly than
otherwise,
occasionally
and also
tiles,
and
burn
the
shallow metal pans are, however, often preferred
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;
baked on the oven bottom. Externally heated hot air ovens flues pass under and over them are usually low crowned and built in two decks, sometimes three, and therefore very suitable for cakes, the top one being to those
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;
cool
enough
for rich or
wedding, or other similar goods.
Vienna ovens should have slanting drawing
easily
which are facilities
Other ovens are of
rolls.
sufficiently described
of seeing
chamber ovens.
them than
One
soles for holding steam,
for
construction to those
above to any baker, who has now greater
formerly.
type that
different
and
is
Some
of these might be classed as
now coming more prominently
before the
trade consists, in principle, of two or three iron boxes placed in a chamber,
which
is
heated by hot
air entering at the
ing round the baking compartments,
top from the furnace, then spread-
and
finally,
by having circulated round the boxes or ovens,
is
when drawn
cooler and heavier, off,
contrary to any
other type, at the bottom, after being therefore economically used to the utmost.
used
in
In these the heat can be quickly regulated.
America, but only seen by the writer in
consist of a
Other ovens that are one bakery in this country,
huge chamber, round which the products of combustion
in flues, instead of directly entering, as in the case just described, it
a revolving reel or
drum with
trays, 2
D
being constructed,
filled
circulate
and within
and emptied
THE BOOK OF BREAD
2IO on
same
practically the
Exhibition, and at
principle as the big pleasure wheel at the Earls Court
Blackpool,
perfectly regular baking of
all
The
etc.
continuous character, and the
the loaves, and the suitability for tin bread,
is
sufficiently obvious.
Another
American
oven
known
is
as
same
under the writer's
firm,
prepared
different
is
this
specially
oven has come
notice, in connection with other inventions of the
he does not know of any working
in this country.
The dough
is
manner, and, not being baked by direct exposure to
in the usual
the heat rays,
" crustless,"
Although
designed for sandwich bread to save waste. specially
the
steam-heated
in a
completely closed iron tank on an entirely
system to the so-called steam, or steam pipe, ovens hitherto
The steam is derived from the exhaust steam of the plant. Another uncommon type, which makes delicious cake like bread, and which also we believe originally came from America, is the vacuum oven, only one installation of which we have seen in this country. The air is exhausted from the oven, whereby, the pressure being removed, water boils at a low mentioned.
temperature, and the bread
is
raised entirely, without
any fermentation, by
the absence of pressure, and by the steam produced from the water within
There are
it.
electrically
flour-testing purposes
;
heated ovens, chiefly used on a small scale for
also reel or rotary ovens for biscuit-baking,
trays or tins of goods are put in at the other.
The
reel or
drum
unbaked
at
where
one end and delivered baked
oven, as described above,
is
loaded and
unloaded at the same spot.
This completes heated ovens, that
practically all the chief types of so-called externally
is,
where the products of combustion do not come
contact with the interior.
In spite of their
many advantages
baking, the firing being kept going while the batch
made up ready
for next batch, the
with goods, the absence cleaning out with is
very wet
still
erect,
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;the
damp oven
of
soot
cloths,
is
in
of continuous
baking and even
absence of fumes and dirt in contact hangers, the
absence of scuffling or
â&#x20AC;&#x201D; especially
when the scuffle many bakers who prefer, and
and injuring
soles, there are still
the internally heated ones, such as the so-called
"furnace"
OVENS AND FIRING
211
or chaffer, and the
wood
Lancashire, and has hitherto been
very
or side flue oven, the Scotch oven, the
wagon
oven.
The wagon
is
peculiar to
popular, with, however,
now
of a movable
consists
It
signs of
furnace
waning
in
the Manchester district.
or basket fired with
coal
and wood,
draught through a long iron pipe of about 4 inches diameter. This pipe has its opening in the centre of the oven door, and is shortened
deriving
when
its
wagon
the
shifted,
is
Wood
the opening.
for
purposes of regular heating, nearer to
ovens that are
fired
by burning faggots on the
sole,
some because of flavour, although there have recently been cases of poisoning by burning painted wood, and also because of so-called economy but we know cases of four oven soles being required in three years, each sole consisting of sixty tiles, costing, by the time all was paid are liked by
;
for laying, etc., about a shilling each.
The Scotch oven
is
a difficult one to root out of Scotch favour.
It is
by coke, and is certainly economical and durable. The furnace is usually in the right hand corner, and is fired entirely, and relieved of its clinkers In some recent cases there is a special entirely, through the oven door. arrangement, whereby the furnace bars are not fixed permanently as usual, and can be raised so that clinkers can be extracted through the ash pit door instead of oven. The crown is high, carefully shaped for purposes of draught, and the soles are frequently made of stones or tiles 8 inches thick. There
fired
is
one
flue placed, as
in the front,
the furnace it
opposed
to the
English furnace or "side flue" oven,
about a foot from the crown, on the is
on the
The Scotchman
right.
left
side of
says there
is
oven door when
nothing to equal
for close set bread.
The but
is
side flue, like the Scotch, usually has
fired
its
furnace on the right side,
through a separate furnace door, having
its
one
flue in the
diagonal or back corner, controlled by a damper or register at the front. It
is
when
fired usually
with coal, but occasionally more economically with coke,
built with a differently
and cheaply converted.
shaped and larger furnace,
The coke
or, as it
can be, easily
furnace requires to be wider, bigger,
2
THE BOOK OF BREAD
1
about 3 feet high and nearly half as broad, and firebars as long as the height, and then a shaft about ten times the height of
and higher,
say,
furnace.
This completes
the leading types of ovens, with the exception of
all
those for portable and caterers' or 1
2 feet,
up
Gas ovens, with no flames
field use.
household use, can be obtained from an internal to 4
X
2J
X
inside, for
size of 2
x
2
x
5 feet.
1
In conclusion, one need merely say the selection of ovens must be
according to cash at command,
size,
Some
space or ownership of premises. others, but
and scope of
falls to
builders give better value than
dear at any price, and the greatest personal caution,
obtaining
or the
of an independent outside opinion from anyone
whose business
make a
fully repaid.
special study
of the subject, will
styled according to the
which, of course,
is
amount
misleading
Theproperfiringof ovens
of
always be
The
large.
crumby
size of
an oven
of long loaves,
of the utmost importance.
it
Two
set or plain bread
when thinking is
into the
as occasionally seen, are, of course,
pieces,
ovens are always better than one
and
trade,
some low priced ovens, where the top one soon sags
or otherwise
bottom,
character,
it
tins,
is
is
to
small often
will take,
or crusties.
First of all, there
owes its origin and degree to the differences in weight between the air in the chimney and the air outside. Therefore, as hot air is lighter than cold, the hotter the air in the chimney or shaft, the greater is
the draught, which
Further, as a long chimney contains,
the draught.
more hot likewise.
air
Therefore,
it
follows that a furnace,
air.
when stopping the
off
greater
Similar, in principle, to this
by holding a newspaper, or blower,
or by stopping up one
As seen in air when
more
excess,
is in
better
Likewise, the admission to the chimney of more
cold air than necessary decreases draught.
fire,
when once started, draws
because the outside air, being colder and heavier,
contrast to the inside
meet.
other things equal,
than a short, the longer the chimney, the greater the draught
in cold weather,
domestic
all
flue,
in front of
is
a
when, in the same chimney, two
the article on ventilation, a shaft over a gas-burner draws the burner
is
lighted
;
also, the shaft
draws better when
OVENS AND FIRING
213
smooth, and with no rugged places, and with no big places, or with no narrow parts,
and should not have a narrow pot on Although an excess of cold
necessary.
more bends, than absolutely decreases draught in a chimney by
top, or
air
equalising weight, there must, of course, be sufficient admitted to the furnace, as otherwise the capillary attraction, caused by the velocity of- the wind
passing over the top of the chimney, which always exists in proportion to the velocity of the wind, even with no
fire,
Thus, the
could not be permitted.
importance of removing clinkers and keeping fire-bars
be detected, by looking under the bars when the
clear.
These can often
fire is
burning, by the
dark places produced.
A
steam
draught,
increases
by
heat,
or
jet,
tray
when properly
and,
brightness
and chemical
of burning
popular
idea
science.
As heat depends on
on the amount of
steaming
of
fuel, it
hydrogen,
is
underneath
water,
indirectly
regulated,
changes,
which
not
but
opposed
is
the
increases
because
of
the
laws
the
to
fire,
of
the completeness of the combustion rather than
no economy — in
on the contrary,
fact,
—
to
put
on rubbish, as often done, which only impedes the combustion of the other If the object
fuel.
is
merely to get
rid of the rubbish,
and
to
check combustion
when banking up fires overnight to save time in morning, in the same way that wet coke and cinders are added, the circumstances are rather modified, as that perhaps
is
preferable to the worse and ineconomical evil, in
the case of most continuous ovens, of letting out the
fire
When
entirely.
properly banked up overnight with wet coke, the damper should be out only a a
little
little
way, and then when
additional coke
jovens, should be
is
fully
drawn
soon produced.
in
morning, a bright
The
being nearly pure carbon
—the
coal
coke, in the case of pipe
at once,
are
all
cannot do with the same effect
making the
fire dull,
and
minus the gas and water
of about 95 per cent., wants about ten times it
with
broken small, and very evenly spread, added at frequent
intervals in small doses, so that the fires remain small
properly, which
fire
its
bright.
—
Coke
to the extent
weight of
air to
burn
put on in large quantities and unless spread over the pipes evenly, which if
separate from one another, the oven cannot be
equally heated.
THE BOOK OF BREAD
214 Too much "
fuel,
blow back."
and also impeded draught,
sometimes make ovens
Also, small fires require less draught for
and the bigger draught often
On
will
the other hand, too
carries off
much
good combustion,
of the heat.
makes soot and smoke with known as carbon monoxide, to which eminent M. Zola recently owed his death. This gas is
coal,
makes with coke
fact
even the
little
draught, which
a poisonous gas,
unfortunately almost odourless, therefore giving no warning like ordinary
and
i
quantity
is
gas,
This gas
per cent, of
is
in air is sufficient to kill,
it
Even a bunsen
dangerous.
while one-third of that
burner, however, evolves some.
very stupefying, burns with a blue flame on the furnace, when
does not escape to do
and combustion of the coke being thus imperfect, much heat is lost. In fact, it is owing to imperfect handling that these pipe ovens often take more coke than necessary, and in cases are it
less in favour
its
mischief,
than they deserve.
Coke, by-the-by, should be measured
To
render
now arranging
to fire
each day, and be well selected, hard, porous, and not dusty.
management
easier,
some two or three
firms are
these ovens by gas, not the ordinary kind as referred
to,
and expensive
to
use in ordinary gas ovens, but the non-luminous gas as previously mentioned as being made on the Dowson principle in connection with gas engines. This
can be ready each day before commencing to bake, and by playing on the pipes overcomes unequal stoking, or badly regulated draught, saves room, saves
wear and tear on pipes, and a nicety from the bakery and front of the oven by the
clinkers, therefore increases efficiency, with less
can be regulated to
foreman
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;advantages that
in large places, the cost
will probably be found will more than compensate, and working of the gas-making plant. This would
overcome the objection
in
some
cases of using the ends of the bottom pipes
as furnace bars, instead of having separate bars, although, of course, these
ends must always have some water burnt through
been erected over Referring
left
and unconverted
much sooner than some we have seen
in
to steam, or
would be
Hampshire
that have
thirty years.
now again to
the internally heated or side flue ovens, the coal
should likewise be put on in small instalments frequently, and then at the
OVENS AND FIRING
215
hot or burning coal being pushed back. The smoke from the newly added coal has then less opportunity of showing itself at the top of front, the
the shaft or wasting, being
more consumed by passing over the hotter and
brighter burning coal, and also for a
be
left
little
while the furnace door should
Small and dusty coal
slightly open.
is
more
likely to clinker
on
Although side flue ovens are built of brick (the more more the heat is absorbed, and then afterwards given out gradually) they, by their internal and non-continuous firing, quickly rise and fall in heat. They require knowledge and judgment in the time allowed for them to equalise or "lie down," and for setting the different sorts of bread, the furnace bars. material the
because, although required to be fairly evenly heated so as not to burn or boil,
the back wants to be cooler than the front, because the loaves there
and come out last, and the other cool place is close to the oven door where the loaves go in last and in the ordinary way, unless shifted
go
in first
during drawing, come out
first.
The
lack of uniformity here
is
an advantage
some cases and a disadvantage in others. Brick radiates slower than making thicker and more porous crusts, and stone makes harder crusts than porous tiles and all such masonry work, when ovens are new, requires in
Iron,
;
heating and drying very gradually, and for a longer period than those ovens built
more
A
list
largely with Iron,
If
cracking
is
to
be prevented.
of the different heating values of fuel has been published
elsewhere, and here
it
will
be merely necessary
In
by us
connection with draught
mention that
i lb. of coal requires for combustion 300 cubic feet of air, coke 270, wood 130, and coal-gas 340, and that if the air were supplied to the furnace hot, as, for instance, by passing where heat was going to waste, the fuel would be better consumed. In writing to a correspondent the other
to
day concerning in
his fuel
bill,
we
burning "close on," as he
said
said,
he had nothing much
a ton of coal per
to
week
complain about
for four
ovens of
ordinary furnace type, but that he did not need four ovens for forty-five to fifty
sacks.
Nothing was said as
to
baking other goods
in
addition to
bread, and bread alone should be done In two ovens, which would not, of course, take as
much
fuel as four.
We
mentioned having ourselves done
THE BOOK OF BREAD
2i6
one side
oven at a push, and it is easier work to do two ovens, of which we know instances. Instances of drawplate work are given above. We remember, some few years ago, listening to a
thirty-five sacks in
flue
sixty in
paper when the reader said his of bread
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;one
fuel (coke) cost
him
i
|d. for
baking 6 bushels
sack.
Taking two instances immediately under our present acquaintance, we find one business baking twenty sacks per week in fifteen batches, and about ;^ 5 in confectionery goods with one oven, and 5 cwt. of coal (costing ÂŁ per ton), namely, 5s. per week for the twenty sacks, or 3d. per sack (this was also the exact figure and condition in a larger trade), when not reckoning the smalls, 1
\
which practically cost nothing, as they are baked between the batches, and after the bread is out, using the heat that would almost as readily be lost
Another instance
before the next day's baking.
per week, and smalls
which works out
two ovens
in
at a
is
a trade of thirty-six sacks
consumption of 3 tons a month,
at about 5d. per sack, at the present usual price of
ÂŁ1
per
For the ordinary furnace coal oven, we used to reckon \ cwt. for first batch, and \ cwt. for second. So much, however, depends on the oven, the ton.
construction of furnace, the kind of
of sacks baked, that
fuel,
best to answer
it is
the size of batches, and the
by
number
instances, as other noted person-
ages did by parables.
average of 3d.
300
at 5d.
;
Other actual cases are 300 sacks per week, at an per sack another, 200 sacks at an average of 4|d. another, ;
;
another estimate
small ovens, two working anthracite,
which
is
clinkers less.
all
Wood
2d.
per sack for 300 sacks weekly, and 4d.
day, take per
like coke,
but in some places
is
Others work out at 4d. to 6d. per sack, and some
for smaller quantities.
is
day
i
cwt. of coke.
Some
prefer
burning almost smokeless, giving good heat,
cheaper than coke, requires more draught, and
takes less draught, and gives less heat.
TROUGHS
2
1
TROUGHS A
CCORDING
to standard dictionaries, a trough
for containing food or water, etc.,
instead of " tro,"
"trof"
The
neglected in
and
is
many
districts,
and such
a long, hollow vessel
correctly
but one never hears anyone
care of troughs
is
call
pronounced
a baker's trough a
like utensils is often
but in Scotland this
Because of the
more importance
in
many others very much more is
of
and quick, where,
in
on fermentation, cleanliness of utensils
effect
long and
very much
detail, like
that account for the high average of skill there, receives attention.
" trof
slow processes than in short
the latter case, larger quantities of yeast are added from other sources instead of having to be in
grown
in the
When at a bakers' exhibition at Mayence
bakery.
Germany, exactly ten years
ago,
and also on many other
visits to the
author particularly noticed the large amount of iron and
continent, the
enamelled troughs exhibited,
which,
although perhaps not
common
in
must have considerably more demand than in this Many were fitted country, or they would not be on sale in such quantities. continental bakeries,
with a lining or hollow jacket for the purpose of adding hot water in winter or ice in
summer, so
the year round.
as to
keep the doughs at a more even temperature
The bottoms were
cylindrical, or
all
rounded at the junction
with the sides, so that there were no corners to scrape out, and, in
fact,
while the enamel remained in good condition, cleaning and keeping sweet
was obviously reduced to a minimum. Although they would not wear away like wood or require relining with all the risk of a putrefying mass accumulating behind, the enamel would chip occasionally and act in the same way as the other enamelled utensils more usually used here. These enamelled troughs have much to recommend them from a public or inspection standpoint, giving a inviting than
much
even a clean wooden one.
such as sanitary authorities are
better appearance and being
They
now more
more
were, of course, on wheels
often insisting upon, so as to
THE BOOK OF BREAD
2l8
give dust and refuse more chance of being removed from under them.
Although feehng colder
hand than wood, they would be of exactly the same temperature. Everything in the bakehouse, no matter of what material it may be made, is of the same temperature as the surrounding air unless, of course, some artificial heat be applied to otherwise affect. The air equalises all in the same way as everything, whether wood or iron, when put into a bucket of water will be of same temperature. Although it is necessary to mention the above in order to answer many curious ideas received in letters on this subject, iron troughs, and the same thing in this respect large kneading machines, certainly have an effect on doughs made to the
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;
in
them, according to the following conditions.
An
as sometimes said, in
man
compared with a wooden one does not chill the dough, the same way as the first plunge into a cold bath chills a
iron trough as
but because iron
;
is
wood it allows the heat of same way as taking off one's coat
a better conductor than
the dough to escape through
sooner, in the
it
does not immediately strike cold but allows the heat of the body to exude sooner. is
The body
removed,
get cold, or have the sensation of cold,
will
strictly
accordance with the heat of
in
it
when
a coat
as generated
by
vigorous action, in accordance with the difference in temperature between it
and the surrounding
removal of the
coat,
air,
that
and is
it
in
accordance with the time,
exposed
further words, will be seen to apply in
A
hot dough will more quickly lose
made
colder, will not
iron trough
be
points to a
heat, but a cold
chilled, in fact, as
This, without
dough one
in a trough.
will not
sometimes might be the
when
reason of the above
one thing to make a dough
it lie
ever, of a fairly large business
there afterwards to prove.
where there
is
till
in
an iron trough
We know,
how-
not a single trough in the bakery^
doughs being made by a very quick process and kept
of which there are several,
to rise
a bakehouse warmer than that
finished making.
it is
or machine and another to let
in
be
case, the
would on the contrary allow the temperature of the dough
required for the dough
all
the difference.
its
sooner than a wooden trough, by being
By
to all
by the
ready for scaling.
The
in the
machines
larger the trougn
A SELECTION OF SHAPES.
PRIZE IRISH BATCH, OR TURNOVER, LOAF (hALF-SIZE).
2
THE BOOK OF BREAD
20
or machine, or the there being
more
more material about to absorb the heat,
certain well-known massive
it,
the greater will be the loss of heat,
and we have frequently found that a
machine required water lo degs. hotter
in order
same temperature as that made in a smaller wooden trough, or lo degs. hotter for the first dough than required for a second, which followed quickly and was of the same temperature, when made this would more particularly be the case when the water was put in first and some few minutes allowed to elapse while the engine was being started and to
make a dough
of
;
the flour let
down from
the sifter above.
In"the matter of keeping the troughs in good condition, desirable to lard
are used.
The
greasing of a
for its effect to
which
them
once or twice a
or an iron kneader,
tin,
lard, butter or oil
after the trough has in the first place,
is
it
to the
be found
will
amount they
sufficiently general
be well known, but the above applies to wooden troughs
in the great majority of cases
The melted
week according
never get anything more than a scrape.
should be put on with a rag or brush only
been thoroughly scraped
but
it
will
save
it
;
it is
no substitute
afterwards, as the
dough
for scraping
will
come out
cleaner, that is, will stick less. Another little dodge not universally adopted and worth the doing is to sprinkle the trough with salt at the last turn when making the dough, this keeps the trough moist and thus renders scraping easier, whereas cones dry and stick on. There is nothing like injecting into old troughs a jet of steam once or twice a week to bring out any accumulations
of scraps
and germs that always,
worn and
lined with slate or another piece of wood, get just
especially with troughs that
have been
where
it is
the
Steam has softened and brought out evil-smelling A wash once a week matters that were never thought to have been there. with warm water will also be worth the doing, and lids should be left up to sweeten troughs when the day's work is done, especially on Saturdays, when, as a matter of fact, in small businesses they are more often full of flour to save shooting on Sunday, when a sponge or dough is made over night. Lime is as well to use occasionally. One of the most handy aptiseptics is most
difficult to scrape.
a solution of bisulphite of -lime, a two-gallon jar of which can be obtained
VENTILATION
221
cheaply from any chemist, and the troughs should be well saturated occasionally with this at the close of work, the sulphurous
case kept in as
much
fumes being
in that
as possible.
VENTILATION npHE
subject of ventilation, which
special
and long
on the trade by the in
last
discussed by the author in a
article just fourteen years ago,
New
Factory Act, and
order to show that this
feel the
was
is
pinch like to believe,
a far it
is
not pleasing to the pocket
;
but
subject than
many who
well, in passing, just to
quote the
more important
would be
has recently been forced
words of such an eminent authority as Dr James Johnston, who, in speaking of impure air, says " that ague and fever two of the most prominent features are as a drop of water in the ocean when comof the malarious influence
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;
pared with the other
less
obtrusive but more
dangerous maladies that
human fabric under the influence The impurities likely to be found
silently disorganise the vital structure of the
of this deleterious
and
in the air are legion
;
invisible poison."
and when recently studying a sample of
through the microscope, the author was much interested
in
some
air as
seen
of the solid
But, notwithstanding the deleterious effect that an excess of flour-
particles.
dust would have on the lungs,
let
us pass over the visible substances, and
consider the so-called "invisible poison," which consists of vapours, gases, and,
more
especially,
Many
when
in excess, carbonic acid
of these impure gases, exhaled from the
drains, cannot
be detected by smell nor
taste,
in
a short time,
Therefore
in
if
the impurity
many cases,
to those
still
body or
rising
from
and are inhaled without any
knowledge on the part of those who breathe them but
gas or carbon dioxide.
;
others are smelt at
first,
remains, the nerves lose their delicacy.
surrounded by the poison, there
is
an absence
of warning, which warning remains to be given only by any chance person
entering
the bakehouse whose nerves have not been acclimatized.
The
THE BOOK OF BREAD
222
amount of carbonic acid gas
pure
in so-called
every 10,000, but the air exhaled by a man, even exertion, contains just a easily
hundred times more of
be seen how soon pure
air is
about four volumes in
air is
when not undergoing any
this
noxious gas
;
so
can
it
Besides that exhaled
rendered impure.
from the lungs, there are also exhalations from the
skin, eliminations of
organic matter, formations of watery vapour, and escape of gases from the
dough. If,
we wish
therefore,
keep the
to
air of
such a composition as to
be consistent with health, we must have arrangements
man in the bakehouse with at least 3000 If we employ ordinary gas lights, tl^ese There
air-supply account.
is
for supplying
each
cubic feet of fresh air per hour.
again have to be taken into our
a great difference between lights from which
the products of combustion are drawn
off,
and
lights
from which the products
of combustion are allowed to remain in the bakehouse.
For every cubic
foot
of gas consumed, about 2000 cubic feet of air must be admitted to properly dilute the products
;
so a small burner, burning, say, only 3 feet per hour,
makes it equal to two persons and this is only a very moderate estimate, some authorities contending an ordinary requires 6000 cubic feet, which
;
burner destroys the air as much as six or nine persons.
our bakehouse require two
is
men
20 to
and 10
feet long, 15 feet broad,
work
in
contains 3000 cubic feet of
it all
air,
entirely
and two men,
renewed four times
feet high,
and that we
Since the bakehouse (20 x 15 x 10)
night.
to
burner, require collectively 12,000 cubic feet,
must be
Let us now suppose
in
which we must add one gas
we
see that the atmosphere
every hour.
How
we can do
this
without the sensation of draught, and without, in cold weather, checking
our fermentation, or required,
is
how we can
legitimately decrease the
Thorough
ventilation
And, secondly,
sensation of draught. sionally
air
the next point to be considered. consists chiefly of
two operations.
carrying off regularly and constantly the air which has used, etc.
amount of
become
in introducing fresh to take its place
Perfect ventilation
is
Firstly, in
vitiated
and
without the
not brought about by occa-
opening a window or a door, but there must be a system
in
which
VENTILATION The
the inlets are balanced by the outlets.
must be introduced
at a level
best air already in the
occupants before
it
room
next axiom
that fresh air
is
low enough to mingle with the coolest and or bakehouse, and yield
oxygen
its
to the
contaminated by the hotter gases floating near the
is
All irregular entrances for
ceiling.
223
by badly fitting windows or must be introduced in such be felt. Thin windows are a cold surfaces cool the hot and
either
air,
The
through open doors, should be stopped.
a manner and at such a temperature as not to hindrance to perfect ventilation, because their
air
used gases, and thus cause them to descend to be breathed again by the occupants.
On
account of these cooling surfaces there always seems to be
a draught near a large window by reason of the current of cooled air
although there
may
not be a single crevice in
it
;
and even
if
we
falling, fail
to
away in a trough underneath hours would be more sensitive. In summer,
personally discover this draught, a sponge set
window for some eight means should be provided for cooling warming it. The most efficient means the
the incoming
air,
and
for carrying off the
upright shaft leading from the ceiling direct into the outer tion
is
more
effective
and quicker
if
the shaft be
warmed
in winter for
impure
air. ;
air is
The
an
opera-
the longer, -the
and warmer the shaft, the quicker the exhaust. Having enumerated the chief principles, to which, however, details could with advantage be added, let us now see how to apply them practically. Draught that is felt is due to one of two causes, either that the incoming straighter, the larger,
air is
improperly diffused, or that
it
the air already in the bakehouse.
is
of a widely different temperature to In order to concur with the axiom
concerning the height at which the fresh air is to be introduced, we must have dados, or trunks or pipes, leading from the outer air into the bakehouse, at a height of about 3 feet from the ground.
The
dados are covered with perforated
the current of the
incoming
air,
and
this precaution against
that storing air in the
extremes of seasons. v/hich, in the
zinc, so as to diffuse
draught
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;
tops of these
â&#x20AC;&#x201D; taking into consideration
dado reduces gusts is found sufficient, except at These dados could be furnished with water-pipes
extreme winter could be supplied with hot water, and with
THE BOOK OF BREAD
2 24 which
trays,
in
extreme summer could be
air as required to
temperature
suit
may seem
either
filled
with
ice,
so as to temper the
These precautions
season.
for regulating
excessive to some, but the author has visited several
large bakeries that find similar arrangements serviceable, particularly in the
and sponging rooms.
store
The amount
of inlet space allowed to a single
person should be about 24 square inches, although four times this amount
much for The dados
of opening will be found to be too
enough
large
simple
for
any one
admit of the
in construction, to
Now we come
inlet.
to the outlet,
near the roof of the bakehouse.
is
should therefore have valves,
being regulated.
which should be
Outlets should not be near the
inlet.
inlet
four persons, and 48 inches
inlets, but,
in strict
proportion to the
on the contrary, should be
Particularly also in the case of bakeries,
where the draught of the furnace is sometimes so strong as to draw air from all openings, whether designed as inlets or otherwise, all outlets should be fitted
with valves.
These, conveniently of mica, are for preventing any
reversal of the organised system
the top and thus falling by
draught to be
felt,
and
its
whereby cold
and cooling the impure vapours and to the top, and would, when cooled by
wrong
place, again
The
being carried away.
mingle with and pollute the fresh
outlet shaft
is
more
heated, and after taking in at the ceiling of the bakery should,
run up alongside the furnace
just
when
in at
also condensing
cold air coming in at the
matically increased,
coming
greater weight on the workers, causes the
gases that by their lightness had risen
air instead of
air incorrectly
when
shaft,
whereby
its
it
might have
if
when
possible,
be
would be automaking the shaft hot,
efficiency
the furnace was going and
otherwise, as explained,
efficient
difficulty in acting at
all.
Shafts or exhaust pipes can also be rendered highly efficient by being placed
over each gas flame, tapering out and placed, like the usual so-called " smoke consumers," over
lights.
This arrangement would not only ventilate the
bakehouse generally, but would obviously at once take
off in a concentrated
form the products of the gas flame that would otherwise mingle with the rest of the air
and then require a corresponding greater ventilation
efficiently extracted.
to
be
VENTILATION
225
While speaking of the products of gas flames, it will be useful to refer some exhaustive experiments recently published in the " Home Office
to
Report on the Ventilation of Factories and Workshops." full details,
After giving the
the authors conclude with the significant words
shows
clearly
used.
Their much more general employment
the great
economy
:
â&#x20AC;&#x201D; " The
gas consumption when mantles are
in
and workshops
in factories
very desirable, with a view to avoiding excessive vitiation of the the
same time obtaining a good and
the incandescent electric light
all
table
perfectly steady light.
By
air,
and
is
at
the use of
the inconvenience due to air vitiation and
heat from gas-jets can be avoided, though the extra expense as compared
with incandescent gaslight
Much
is
considerable."
has been said about the difficulty of ventilating underground
bakehouses, but
if the
mentioned above,
it
matter be thought out, in accordance with the principles
will not
be a
difficult
thing for anyone
the question to advise and arrange for efficient
about considerable improvement conditions. to
know
It
in
has studied
and be able to bring
various ways, according to the individual
however, curious that
better, but are
peculiarities
many people who might be expected
handicapped by not having given attention to the
and necessities of the bakehouse, cause much money to be spent
unnecessarily, to
is,
relief,
who
and also without much
benefit.
Much bad
bad regulation of the currents irrespective of the
opening, and this
is
now
ventilation
is
due
size or position of the
recognised in connection with railway tunnels,
where there is a big difference in ventilation between one tunnel to accommodate the up and down lines and separate tunnels for each direction. If the place is so small and awkward that these currents cannot be sufficiently supplied on the one hand by the dados or Tobin tubes, the air bricks in the Sherringham valve or slanting opening for directing the draught upwards, and, on the other hand, by the shafts over burners, or near or up
walls, the
the oven flues, or other regulated and valve-covered outlets, then a fan or
must be placed in the wall near the ceiling. These fans are now more often worked by electric power, and can also
propeller
be hydraulic or water worked.
The way
in
which
difficulties
can be over-
THE BOOK OF BREAD
226
come could be illustrated by instances from mines, and also from the familiar bee hive. These dome-shaped buildings are without windows or openings anywhere except one small hole in the front at the bottom, yet are numerously inhabited by active workers, and known to be well ventilated. If
one takes small pieces of paper attached to threads, hanging them
front of this hole in the hive, there will be noticed
two
one entering and the other leaving.
naturalists, there
According
to
distinct currents,
two rows of bees continually vibrating
just inside this door
in
wings
their
are in
produce these currents of air would seem far more difficult than the
their respective opposite directions so as to
to probably ventilate a place that
worst of bakehouses. In ascertaining the amount of organic matter or impurity in the
well-known ammonia process or other direct the impurity
is
test is
air,
the
seldom employed, but
estimated according to the amount of carbonic acid gas or
carbon dioxide found present, because the two usually bear a fixed ratio to
This
one another.
hardly
is
the case of bakeries because, as will be
fair in
seen, the proportion naturally present in the air
appreciably increased by the gas, which the fermentation of the dough. injurious of
itself,
filled
for this extra source
but,
oven furnaces, there
known
;
with
Oxygen
so small that
it,
life
is
same
it
can be
kind, from
not poisonous or
and suffocating anyone de-
and allowance therefore should be made
on the other hand, through mismanagement of the sometimes present a far more poisonous and stupefy-
is
.....
as carbon monoxide.
Nitrogen
is
of exactly the
This carbon dioxide
although not supporting
scending into a well
ing gas
is
.
Carbon dioxide
The
composition of air
....
.
.
.
.
when pure
is
79-oi
20.95
00.04 100.00
Although there are traces of other gases, such as the recently discovered argon, and also ammonia, and, in bakeries particularly, sulphurous acid gas,
VENTILATION
227
the above table clearly shows the relative importance of carbon dioxide,
which
is
treated as an impurity
when exceeding
.06, that
is,
six parts in 10,000.
There is more of it in the air at night, plants then exhale it, than dlay, and more in summer than in winter. In bakeries the amount will practically always be above the six parts per 10,000, but in a recent report of the Departmental Committee on various trades both the amount of this gas and In cloth factories the temperature came out very favourably to bakeries. the allowance is nine parts, but even in schools and lecture rooms various tests have shown fifteen and twenty parts. By reason of the well-known action of this gas in making lime water turn milky, it is very easy to test for oneself the air of a bakehouse by taking a flask of a known capacity, filling with the air to be tested, and adding a definite quantity of this lime water. flask
For
would be one holding 10
of clear lime water.
and be removed
A in.
fluid ozs. of air
where
The amount forms,
it
On adding the
^ oz. lime
air,
fill
the flask,
the
latter,
of
water and shaking for about
provided the amount of gas amounts to
declares the air to be impure, namely, 6 parts per 10,000,
of the impurity will be
and the
required to test the
it is
five minutes, the milkiness will form,
the point at which
together with half an ounce
rag should be put into and completely
in the place
course, then rushing
calculation purposes, a convenient size of
intensity of
it.
It
gauged by the
rate at
which the milkiness
can easily be increased, and the variations
noted by way of experience or curiosity by inserting a tube and blowing into it
one's breath.
However unwelcome
it
may
be,
and however impossible of
however unnecessary compared to other trades, it is a fact, nevertheless, that the 250 and 500 cubic feet of air space per man recently proposed by the authorities is not, in cases where gas is required for lighting and where men are in active physical work, in universal attainment in the bakery trade, or
any way unreasonable or excessive, according hygiene.
to the
recognised laws of
SECTION VI
METHODS OF FERMENTATION AND MANUFACTURE " With caution judge of possibility,
Things thought unlikely, e'en impossible, Experience often shows us to be true."
METHODS OF FERMENTATION AND MANUFACTURE IVyT
ANY
hundreds of times throughout a very large correspondence and
by personal contact with a very large number of bakers, the writer has been asked what is the best method of bread-making. There is no also
universally best systern, except the one that gives an aerated loaf suitable to one's requirements in the
most simple,
shortest, or
convenient manner in accordance with circumstances.
formula of method
will
and digestible
most
Exactly the same
give different results with different people, and often
made from very different methods can be distinguished only with difficulty. The different tastes and localities, the differences in men, loaves
materials, appliances, conveniences, style
and
size of trade,
the details of any method that one might wish to adopt ing this point, tables
of
it
has been deemed advisable to append the accompanying
methods
and
also
illustrations
constitute the leading feature of this book,
of
loaves,
228
which
together
and have been prepared
very great cost of time and money, quite unprecedented the bakery trade.
;
must govern and recognis-
in
at
a
connection with
FERMENTATION AND MANUFACTURE
that are thus classified in counties or districts are only
The methods a
229
very small proportion of those recently received from correspondents,
and with the exception of some supplementary ones
to
make them com-
Each one has been by the details selected because of some given, or its relation to other methods, and the remarks made by us on the The methods given amount to no less than loaves that were produced. 360 different ways of making bread arranged under thirty-two headings, pletely
given exactly as sent.
are
representative,
special lesson that
and
it
teaches, either
supplemented by ourselves, are selected from
in addition to others
upwards of looo that have been sent by correspondents from the world
when seeking
to study than
parts of
professional advice concerning their bread, which
has been discussed either
Tabulated matter
all
the press or else direct by post.
in
sometimes passed over as being more
is
continuous letterpress, but in this case
it
difficult
must be remem-
bered that the methods here given and the remarks on the loaves there-
some years bread-making operations and results, and a convenient form of far more writing
from, the excellences and faults of them, are the essence of of close study of actual practical
the concentrated
information
than elsewhere contained
in
in the
present book.
As such
therefore
the
compared and thoroughly considered, will convey more information, answer more of the questions so often received, and give more new ideas than could possibly pages of methods,
be done
in
many
if
closely studied, closely
They should be
other ordinary pages.
studied before
reading further here, because the following remarks, although necessarily full,
are but supplem'entary
contained. far in
A
and connected by, the information there
to,
very large proportion indeed of the senders of the loaves,
excess of what might reasonably be expected, have subsequently
been winners
at the exhibitions
desired in connection with character, can be
By
had on
this
;
and any other information that may be subject, or any other of an individual
application.
studying the tabulated methods
district of the
Kingdom
is
have been seen that every represented, and also every system of breadit
will
<
THE BOOK OF BREAD
230 making bread
that
methods
;
is
at all general.
The
collection
is
certainly unique.
Good
be seen to have been produced from the widely divergent
will
in fact, at all
times quality
is
as much, or more, dependent on the
management and workmanship as the formula. Although good bread is still made from long and intricate processes, as seen by the Scotch list, it can also, as at exhibitions and in other instances given, be made from short and simple ones.
The
best all-round system will usually be found between the two
extremes, because for commercial purposes quality must be judged and be largely subservient to convenience and economy.
thumb handed down from generation experience of results without knowing
to
Tradition, or rule of
generation by the accumulated
must now be governed by science, which, correctly defined, is nothing else but the experience and perfected knowledge acquired by trained, intelligent, organised, and reasons,
systematic observation.
Not everyone has
the training to correctly understand
all
experimental results, or the pluck or opportunity to tamper trade with a system they already know. cellent results
condition
is
Many
a
To
altered.
such men,
who on
in their daily
man can do
what he has always done, but completely
the phases of
daily with ex-
fails directly
that account
any
do not believe
anything can be right but what they themselves do, the accompanying
For years we have been advocating more simple systems than formerly in vogue, and have countless letters from those who have, as a result, discarded their prejudices, and who now make as good and better bread with less trouble and anxiety. Some of the most obstinate of our correspondents are now the most loyal and There is no doubt that systems are much shorter than they enthusiastic. were, that the former necessity for their length is no longer a necessity or
tables should be of the utmost value.
shorter and
advantageous, and that the next few years
will see
even a greater average
shortness and simplicity of methods of bread-making throughout the world.
Let us not forget that at one time ardent travellers thought they knew the entire world,
and then Columbus discovered a continent that was bigger
than their own, and
is
to-day of vast importance and prospects.
FERMENTATION AND MANUFACTURE The most prominent amongst straight or off-hand
dough method.
the case, to consider a
straight
systems
short It
however, erroneous, as
is,
dough
known
that
is
necessarily
as
231 as the
is
often
synonymous with
A straight a short process, because a straight dough can be a long one. dough is a dough that has been made from the whole of the yeast, salt, water, and the whole of any other ingredients, at one operation, that
is
to
It is dough that has not been preceded by a ferment or sponge. incorrect, as is sometimes done, to speak of a ferment and then afterwards to speak of the dough, into which it has been put, as a straight dough, and also to speak of the time as " from start to finish," as is also sometimes
say, a
The
done by correspondents, as being from the period of making dough. preliminary start that the yeast gets
bucket with a
little
say,
for,
a quarter of an hour in a
sugar, or malt extract, just while other things are being
got ready, cannot be called a ferment as ordinarily understood, to
be recommended.
of
280
With such a preliminary lbs.
start,
would be three and a half to four hours
flour
80 to 85 degs. F. when made, and 1
1 lbs.
yeast
(distillers'
different qualities of flours
one another, according to the
conveniences,
etc.,
conditions
for all-round
In country trades, or where time
and yeast
dearer,
it
is
and
made of the
much
would usually be better i
lb.
trade
could be given at 70 degs.
when
finished making,
;
and
object,
to
and and
2 to 3 ozs.
is
in
Longer time
thus nine to ten hours
and 8
ozs. of yeast,
intermediate times will usually be found to work out at about the mixed dough, or
results.
flour
have six hours
of yeast.
can be given with success, although not so desirable
The
yeast,
for batches
average commercial
not of so
trough at 80 when finished making, and
of heat in
trough at
in
but the above will be found a good standard to which
keep as closely as possible
softer
for a sack
16 ozs. sugar, i^ to
8 to
Variations will need to be
different kinds of bread.
to
3J
lbs. salt,
is
compressed), the variations being given to allow
for different seasons of year,
following
method
a good average
and
and the
2 to 3
degs.
of yeast for every hour.
great advantage of knowing different methods and studying the de-
THE BOOK OF BREAD'
232
as given in the
tails
accompanying
to suit one's convenience.
tables, is
being able to arrange one's work
Many have grown accustomed
to
what they
would consider great inconveniences if they had now to commence, and Such any change seems more troublesome than it otherwise would. a system as suggested above
is
undoubtedly a saving
in time, labour, risk,
frequent attention at inconvenient periods, trough room, flavour, and waste, etc.,
therefore any extra cost for yeast
is
Even
abundantly compensated.
greater quantities of yeast, as dealt with under that heading, are not wasted, as,
when
properly managed, a more vigorous fermentation will cause a loaf
up better when containing more water, and anything up to 2 lbs. of yeast per sack can be made to pay for itself, although in many places it does to stand
not.
Flour of only moderate strength direction, namely, is
not stand an extreme in either
will
either a very long process or a very short one,
best suited by average time, as above.
changed too much, and extra heat
In the long
in the excessively short
required taking
" the
belly out of
one
method
gives no
it
Heat
it."
is,
it
size,
and gets
the
of course,
developed during fermentation by the chemical changes, and the sponge or
dough
will thus increase,
provided
its
surface and surrounding circum-
stances are such that the developed heat .
as often
is
the case.
Extra heat has more extra yeast,
is
effect
is
is
already normal,
of the chief reasons for failure
when
the forgetting of the above and adding too
order to clear
it,
it
is
but extra heat or
when
the latter
starting with off-hand
little
and then not
or handling
Although some labour and time sponge and the
air,
money makes money.
heat, as
of less effect than extra yeast
that there has been no sponge, in
not evaporated to the
on speed and production of change than
provided the latter
extra yeast food
One
Heat thus makes
is
yeast,
low.
doughs
and also the forgetting
sufficiently
sufficiently after
is
kneading the dough
throwing out of trough.
saved, especially that of breaking up the
details appertaining thereto, a loaf to
be well finished can well
do with some of the labour that was saved, by having no sponge, applied to it during dough-making and after. With better flour than formerly, with more
FERMENTATION AND MANUFACTURE
233
more concentrated form, with machinery, with trades, with higher wages, shorter hours, and with
reliable yeast, with yeast in a
the tendency for larger
more
difficulty to get
space
in large
towns, the simplifying of manufacture
is
not only more possible, more convenient to the rest and recreation of the men,
and
to the master
who does
not want his bakery occupied at
the day and night for one day's work, but
This
of cost. factory,
will
it
is
all
hours of
also imperative from a question
is
true because, except in an exceptionally well-organised
always be found that the reduplication of stages during
manufacture leads to loss of time and
less ease in getting
out the quantity
of sacks per man, that
is, more bustle with less result, the appearance of more work than indicated by the quantity of product.
In spite of several expressions of opinion, that are not always borne
out by
facts,
concerning dryness, yield, colour, volume, and
who
dealt with fully elsewhere, very few
return
their former longer
to
English prize bread
is
try short straight
that are
doughs ever
Inasmuch as the majority of
systems.
made from
pile,
short methods,
it
is
certain the latter
are capable of the best of quality, and in order for this to be experienced in is
daily
commercial operations the one thing needed
obvious that the quicker the method, the more
is
is
precision.
It
the need of pre-
same as with an express train but with the many modern appliances and materials that leave less and less to chance, and by keeping a careful record of the details of each day's work, which becomes easily done when once started, this necessary precision is not unobtainable. In days of mere guess work it has been found handy to have a dough on which to rely, so as to correct any errors made in the sponge, but in these more advanced cision
and close attention
days there
is
no excuse
for
the
to details,
compared with a luggage one
;
such errors.
revolutionise one's system in a day,
and
One in
cannot, however, successfully
order to be successful both as
regards getting the system right, and also as regards satisfying customers
who
are always suspicious and fault-finding
necessary to
concerning alterations,
make any change by very gradual
day by day. 2
G
stages,
comparing
it
is
results
THE BOOK OF BREAD
234 The number
of loaves discussed,
and the number of methods, and also the varieties of the methods given, are fairly well in proportion to, and representative of, those received from the different places. It will be seen that every county in England is represented, and that the national loaf from the Midlands to the South is undoubtedly the crusty cottage,
other crusty sorts
and
tin
extinct.
loaves are less
numerous, and the crumby ones comparatively Further North, as in Lancashire particularly, and the coast of
Yorkshire, the majority, on the contrary, are of the tin variety, and Lancashire very easily
comes
first, as having sent the highest average quality of In Scotland, as here, there are many sorts, and, although there are " French " loaves and pans, the cottage is very decidedly in the minority, and the full-faced, crumby all round, is distinctly typical. The
any county.
Scotch cottages are more "squatty" and with bigger heads than ours, paler,
and similar
many
Welsh cottage, as illustrated they are! although more spread, bigger and lighter than ours, less highly baked but smooth and short in crust, less sweet and more salt. It is necessary to here study the illustrations inserted throughout the book in order in
respects to the
;
to better
understand these and following remarks. Ireland, especially in the north, is more similar in style to Scotland than England, and has big and highly fermented bread, and a good deal of crumby. As a rule, its bread is from tighter dough than Scotland, less highly fermented and less well finished. The crumby, plain, or batch loaf in the north is not of the oblong Scotch shape, but often with four square sides, like the rapidly departing
parts
is
more London household or crumby. The crumby in other
long and narrow
in Dublin, where tight doughs rule, it is unique, being most usually hexagonal, or six-sided, which sides are not greased like in many of the other districts. In the South of Ireland the crumby is usually ;
of the turnover shape, moulded in one piece, something after the style of the Scotch French, but more particularly that of Guernsey. Other shapes are occasionally received. The pans are like Scotch pans, and not like so-called
English
tins.
As
in Scotland, the
crumby
is
the rule and the cottage very
exceptional, but almost everywhere crusty shapes, which are usually
made
FERMENTATION AND MANUFACTURE
Crust and sweetness
from shorter systems, are decidedly gaining ground. is
bound
to prevail in the future.
The Welsh cottage
loaf
closer,
more dumpy, more cakey,
smaller,
more
is
As
that of the county districts in the Midlands of England. whiter, firmer,
235
a
rule,
delicious,
like it
is
and
shorter in eating than cottages in the South of England.
doughs
Straight
made They are
have
just indicated as crusty.
such
more progress in the districts rapidly becoming the chief method in far
being, comparatively, scarcely used for
have had some
failures
From
general.
much
but in Scotland they are as yet very
districts,
the exception,
We
any but fancy or pan breads.
from there, but success
time become more
will in
both the North and South of Ireland, however,
we have
some excellent plain or crumby loaves, first cousins to the Scotch and suitable to Scotch trade, from straight doughs and short pro-
received sorts,
we know
In Dublin (more central Ireland)
cesses.
straight doughs,
and
fifteen
who do
only one firm that adopts
not, the conditions of labour
In the South of
being at present the chief deterrent.
difficulty of altering
and the
we have correspondents who say they are pleased with what is almost a new system to them, and will never return
Ireland particularly,
a good
at
trial
to their former ten, twelve,
England
now
quantities of salt
;
and fourteen-hour sponges.
chiefly
uses
distillers'
compressed
yeast are quickly succumbing to the march of progress
swept
in,
although yeast,
Distillers'
all
the time they say, curiously,
with, however,
in
Ireland,
and more so than
the
way
As
distillery yeast
become
is
in
they are being
;
they prefer the old.
Scotland) and longer times than in England, has
even
small
larger quantities of salt (less salt than
in
to gradually,
and
yeast
the supporters of patent, or home-made, and brewers'
some
made
parts of Scotland, but
in the latter country,
supplant
all
progress
fair
others.
is
At
destined
present
blocked by Glasgow's example, for similar reasons as at Dublin.
quicker.
supplants the barms, so will methods of bread-making
This yeast
in
other parts of Scotland
general, but chiefly for use in the half-sponge system,
adoption of straight doughs far more
easy than
is
and
any
becoming will
other;
fairly
make
the
Straight
THE BOOK OF BREAD
236
doughs are perfectly possible with Parisian and compound barm, but the uncertainty of the strengrth and condition of the latter, and other reasons,^
do not allow
compare so favourably for this purpose. Straight doughs, by usually extending over shorter periods, are not so it
to
by climatic changes, but of course cannot be so corrected as longer and divided processes. The greater evaporation,
subject to be affected easily
which, however,
largely water, during a long
is
As
short, is dealt with elsewhere.
or proteid matter,
the flour especially
it
is
it
than during a
composed largely of nitrogen must consume this and get it from
yeast
obvious that
process
is
when growing, and reproducing itself, but in straight doughs, when short, the consumption must be very small. As a rule,
would be less skin and scraps with a shorter or single stage. by using flour too harsh, instead of nicely mellowed, for the time and fermentation given. A ferment strictly speaking is any body capable of setting up fer^
also, there
Some less
fail
mentation, and the latter
a chemical change connected with and in-
is
Yeast
separable from micro-organisms. bakers' language the latter
sponge or dough.
It is
therefore a ferment,
but in
a stage of bread-making preliminary to a
is
more
is
correctly a decoction of flour, potatoes, sugar
The
or other matters in which a ferment (yeast) has been set to grow.
primary object of a ferment best conditions for this are
home-made and
is
to increase the quantity of yeast,
brewers' yeast
it
is
more
to the batch as of the latter.
by being usually weaker or than the brewers'
;
thirteen hours or so
The home-made
initially
or
less concentrated, will require
but, although
when containing no potato results,
be so easily
compound barm, longer to ferment
some ferments have been
should be fully enough for all-round
With
essential than with distillers',
because sufficiently large quantities of the former cannot
added
and the
described under yeast manufacture.
all
right
skins, five or six
and three hours or
up
to
hours
less
can
be given according to conditions. Although a ferment, being slack, soon rises with a cauliflower head as it should, and soon falls, it merely settles down, and does not cease to
FERMENTATION AND MANUFACTURE work
(as some,
seem
think,
to
develops a bad flavour which
is
unless
but often
kicked or disturbed),
communicated
237
to the loaf, that
may
look,
may be developed in the ferment, although the flour in the dough may not be overchanged. The heat when finished setting should not be above or much below 80 to 85 degs. F., and, if stood in a moderately warm and draught-
and even
smell,
The
perfectly healthy.
acidity
should not be covered except by a wire sieve to prevent The case of a barm or ferment standing a anything falling into it. The rapidity or otherwise lono- time as in Scotland would be different. less place,
it
working can be conveniently ascertained, in addition to the bubbling and frothy appearance of the surface, by holding over it a lighted taper or a match which will be affected and extinguished according with which
is
it
amount of gas being evolved. As that particular gas is heavier than there will always be a certain amount of it lodged in the tub if the latter
to the air,
be deep or not
A
fairly filled
with the ferment.
ferment should usually contain only a small proportion of the total
liquor, all the yeast,
no
salt or lard, all
malt extract, glucose or scalded
flour,
such yeast foods as potatoes, sugar,
which are considered under special
and a small portion of raw or ordinary flour, because of the body The it gives and its albuminoids, its enzymes or unorganised ferments. raw flour thus added should be a soft kind, as it works more rapidly and makes a better head and in Scodand, where the system of barms is more chapters,
;
general, there are soft flours specially supplied for this purpose.
In the
case of a small batch of buns where the ferment liquor would be small and the sugar large, stage, as too
a part of the latter should be reserved
much checks
the yeast.
cent.,
With a brewers'
yeast ferment
distillers'
as stated.
yeast at the
One
dough
it
is
the
dough
In a very strong solution of sugar,
yeast would not ferment
say about 50 per
till
also
at
all,
but be preserved.
often advisable to
stage, therefore not
all
add a
little
the yeast in the ferment
can also add, often with good results, a soft flour that has
been baked, by putting into a slack oven on a baking-tin, and turning The objection over as soon as pale baked and then sifting before using.
THE BOOK OF BREAD
238 to this, however,
that
is
often gets overbaked and of bad colour
it
many
of course very digestive, and the basis of
and could often be turned
A
ferment
to account
handy
is
as giving
one's yeast, before adding to
add any other
forgotten,
many
usual
all
Where
of
it
to
the
yeast,
as to the state of it is
difficult
has been
however,
it
over the dough cut up
small pieces, and then kneaded and allowed to prove in trough as
whole dough
than throwing the dissolved yeast on the completed and
at once,
all
and making a sloppy mess.
developing and getting the yeast into a vigorous
dough, when one does not want to use a
in the
is
be added after dough-making, by
batter of the yeast, and plastering
this is better
;
by a pushing baker. one a reliable test
it
special foods,
the flour of the batch, after which
yeast.
we have known
making a thick into
fresh
all
and
infants'
;
A
ferment,
state, will often
lot of
by
save time
yeast and hot water
dough right off, which otherwise would be necessary. As one power of fermentation, and can have without great heat a good gets a
for a quick
also
short time in dough, therefore short time in contact with flour, the process
of ferment and dough
and
for
a good one for mellow and softer kinds of flour
busy trades without much bakery room.
or with straight in
is
doughs with,
With ferment and dough,
say, 3 lbs. of yeast per sack,
an actual instance known, to do an enormous trade
small
space
;
there
is
in
it is
possible, as
an exceptionally
not a trough on the premises, except a series of
machine kneaders, which occupy no
floor space,
because suspended from
and there would not be room for a tithe of the troughs often required, especially when the oven drawplates are out. In all cases the individual ceiling,
element
is
a controlling factor, and most of the recognised methods being
good, successful bread-making grasps
all
slavish following of
The sponge is
losing
is
more often due to the masterful mind that knows all the points, rather than the
the circumstances, and
is
any stereotyped method. another preliminary stage to the finished dough, but
popularity in
most
districts.
It
important part in the Scottish system, and there than in any other part of the world.
is
still,
however, plays a very
more
successfully manipulated
In England, especially in London,
FERMENTATION AND MANUFACTURE it
239
used to be universal to have the three stages of ferment, sponge and
dough, and this method had
made
yeast, or the " thick
"
advantages when using patent or home-
its
or liquid brewery yeast, but
now
there
The most usual method
a ferment at same time as a sponge.
is
seldom
now
is
fast
which as seen by the tables has enormously increased of late, then sponge and dough, then ferment and dough. Sponges in England are sometimes of a batter or thin consistency, and of short or
becoming that of
straight dough,
"flying" duration, of an hour or
less,
but more usually they are of
stiff
consistency and of about eight hours' duration, with, less usually, an hour
or two either more or
Although generally
less.
as to their size or proportion to the whole batch
about half the
being very
total liquor, and,
by a haphazard
half the total flour, but
there
stiff,
is
hardly any rule
they would usually contain
;
slacker than a dough, about
little
style they will often
be much
less
than half In in
Scotland and
the
Ireland
England, and are divided principally into
being respectively quarter and half the
and
however,
half,
is
usually larger
is
bread, and in a series of batches the
second. sixteen, tub, is
and
it
if
The and
fifth if
quarter
is
known
best larger than the
hours and occasionally
in the
south as a ferment
before
being made into a dough.
should be kept well
It
only a small one, or in cool weather, so that the liquor added
for
next stage, or big sponge, need not be so hot.
one batch
may seem
and do not correspond
a
little
to the slack
The two
strange to the south countryman,
ferment and the tight sponge of
the South, inasmuch as they also sometimes are both employed in
batch with
distillers'
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;about
yeast
primary reason of them was, as to
being
making crusty and cottage
for twelve to fourteen is
so-called quarter
three-fifths,
of moderate stiffness, and stiffer than the short sponge into which
is
for the
sponges
first
usually stirred in tubs, such as
made
covered to
The quarter, which lies is
far
total liquor.
respectively very often a
varied to suit convenience, and
it
more uniform than quarter and half sponges,
sponges are
grow the home-made
4 or
in the
5
ozs.
to
sack
same
â&#x20AC;&#x201D; although
the
ferment and sponge, undoubtedly
or Parisian barm.
There
is
also a ferment,
sponge
THE BOOK OF BREAD
240
and dough system adopted in Scotland, by the tables, salt is added even to the
As also seen
as given in the tables.
amounts being given
quarter, the
in
three figures to indicate the additions respectively at the quarter, " the"
The
sponge and dough. quarter,
and the
hard, strong or spring wheat, flour
and the sponge (the second sponge is and good coloured to the dough, the
is
added
to the
usually called " the " sponge)
soft
but not always and necessarily
so,
flours there
much more kept
distinct
being as a
and
classified
rule,
than
South, where sponging and doughing flours are more often blended together and used indiscriminately for each stage. in the
One
of the advantages of the sponge system has been claimed to be the
greater facility offered for using very divergent varieties of if
different varieties
blended together
The
for
flour,
although
be blended for offhand dough and allowed to stand
some
days, they quickly assimilate to one another.
coarser and darker flours need,
and
stand a longer and more
will
elaborate system of fermentation to bring out their colour by bleaching, as
they will be dark
if
immature,
and also
to
prevent them making
A
the bread harsh,
flinty, foxy, dry or chippy. soft flour on the other hand, wants to be worked moderately quick and warm, but not exces-
sively not, little
Where any
so.
especially the
sugar can be.
lard or malt extract
former, be
usually used
The temperature
is
in
is
in
usually given as
the second quarter, according, of course, to
cooler
should have
when
its
its
would
it
the quarter, although
water and not of the quarter when finished, and conditions,
the bread
in
size
a
that of the
a series of batches,
and other individual
water lo degs. cooler, or be, say,
5
degs.
finished mixing.
The
extent of ripeness must depend on the flour and what is to and the drop of a sponge is not always a criterion of its ripeness, because a small, tight sponge in a deep, narrow trough would have confollow,
siderable difificulty in falling, but a quarter should always have a
drop when taken, and even to the second or third time. yeast an inch would be enough, or even with
other barms anything from
2 to
With
slicrht
distillers'
compound barm, but with
9 inches can be given, the smaller drop
FERMENTATION AND MANUFACTURE The
needing warmer liquor when making into big sponge.
depends on the consistency, and others
The
tight.
Scotland and
in
some
quarter system
drop, of course,
places the quarter usually adopted
is
241
is
slack and in
the
in
West
of
in factories such as at Glasgow, being liked in large trades
but sometimes adopted
in small,
and
is
associated with fuller volume than
the half sponge on the East Coast, and has the perfection of texture and an
exceedingly white and bleached, not yellow, crumb. white crumb
is
This bleached or
shown up and contrasted by a very deep and top crust colour, obtained otherwise than by
usually further
nearly black, but not burnt,
hot oven. Difference of opinion runs very high on the relative advantages
of
more often adopted in smaller towns and villages and on the East or Edinburgh side, being considered better for flavour, but it is to be noted that the Champion Cup has three times gone to the same small town on the West and also usually to the West. The champion has also been won with high marks for flavour when the two systems, the half sponge, which
the bread
was made from
and thought by some
to
yeast instead of the sometimes almost
distillers'
worshipped Parisian barm, which,
is
like patent
and brewers'
be unapproachable
yeast, is
supposed
Although
in this respect.
all
Scotch bread made on these lines must contain a good amount of alcohol (there
is
said to be about half a gallon in 300
which south countrymen always
quarterns) and also acid,
sour, the fermentation
call
managed, especially considering the previous barm
stage,
is
usually well
and not so very
often accompanied by that repulsive sourness often obtained from comparatively short sponges, say, a total of ten hours, in other parts.
The
big sponge that follows a quarter (being well broken to
sistency nearly of milk)
is
usually about half of total flour
whole of the water, making a batter
have
it
like porridge,
fairly thick), as its ripeness is
it
is
better the stirring the better the sponge rises, it
should have risen about a
foot, 2
and nearly the
but not too thin (some
harder to judge, and when commenc-
ing to drop in about one and a half hours
stances
con-
H
ready for doughing.
The
and under normal circum-
and be taken when just beginning
THE BOOK OF BREAD
242 to fall in the centre is
and not
sometimes done only on top of
machinery
is
especially to
The
at the sides.
stirring
is
not nice work, and
tub, instead of getting to the bottom,
be recommended
and
The tempera-
for the purpose.
ture depends on ripeness and size of the quarter, the strength of the flour,
and will
and the variations for the different months and conditions, as be seen in the tables, to which these remarks here are only intended as
time, etc.,
supplementary where explanation
is
useful.
ing to the month (excluding extremes),
always being much cooler than
A good average, however, accord-
is
80
to
for the water,
90 degs. F.
South, for the quarter, the sponge or
in the
In a series of batches, as in the quarters, the second sponge
for the dough.
should not only be about 10 degs. cooler in liquor, but also thinner or slacker. If
sponge
is
well risen,
where the quarter was sponge
will not
it
ripe,
be necessary to wait for a
a half one and not preceded by a quarter,
is
fall,
especially
but where the quarter was young, or where the
According to the amount of strong
flour
used, or the
it
should
amount
fall.
of softer
mixed with it, and the ripeness of sponge, the dough can usually be short, and, to some extent, can adjust too little or too much maturity allowed previously.
The
by a
half sponge, not preceded
quarter,
is
now becoming more
general, especially on the East side with the gradual spreading of the use
of
distillers' yeast.
men
It is
made moderately
tight, the last
thing
when the
and taken when they come at 5 a.m., being twelve hours with 8 ozs. of yeast per sack, and a quarter of the total salt, namely, about i| lbs. out of 6 lbs. to the sack, and more in warm Although the first of a series of sponges when taken should weather. leave at night, usually at 5
p.m.,
be well risen with bubbles of gas coming off and breaking rapidly, the gas should not be coming off too rapidly, as if like boiling, and the next sponges should, of course, be less free.
The
time of dough following these Scotch sponges, of course, varies
according to conditions, as given in tables, but a good time after
and
doughing
till
loses flavour
;
oven.
and
if
If too long, loaf gets rank
too short,
is
small, uneven,
is
four hours
and crumbles
in centre
and perhaps close and
FERMENTATION AND MANUFACTURE One
foxy.
243 Some
should judge whether dough feels short or tenacious.
first rise and take at second. If a quarter has been employed can dough be made slacker than if following a half sponge, and the the bigger the proportion of liquor left for dough stage the longer the dough
cut back at
will
be ripening.
Sponges
England are
in
made
seen them otherwise, stirred,
and broken up
vertical
sponge
stirrers
in
usually, practically always, although
troughs and not
dough-making, by hand and not by the special
for
used
The breaking
in Scotland.
if
time
when
done
well
We
in a large trade.
over one sponge thus occupied, and two
sponge and make
a very important
sponge
in
is
men
used,
it
is
took one hour to break the
Even
appearance
all
If
it
in well
is
stirred
amalgamating the If the
should be only a small one, and have
it
is
sponge
salt like the
has a greasy, slimy, and wet, instead of a healthy dry,
along the trough,
and
yeast, or cold,
a sponge
time than necessary for the breaking alone.
to ferment a long time,
Scotch quarter.
if
not necessary to break the
such a case, as the machine will succeed
in far Jess
much
have just seen twenty minutes
into 15 bushels of dough.
it
when a dough-making machine
is
is
holes in the bread are to be avoided, and this frequently takes
part
whole
we have
and they are usually
in tubs,
unready.
it
will
have been too slow, with
insufficient
Instead, however, of waiting longer,
it
should
be taken and made into dough, with extra heat and also with additional yeast,
and can thus be better compensated. When thus unripe it will probably have a smooth, uncracked, and rounded surface, and be resisting to the arm
when pushed
in,
instead of breaking open or falling in with a rent
when
touched, and puffing off gas with a kind of hissing, and a piece will also be
tough to pull
We them
dough
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;
when
will
to spare,
usually
the latter
is
breaking short.
distillers'
and with no harm.
enough yeast and
sponge,
know
have taken plenty of
to drop,
usually
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;the
in the fingers instead of
With
yeast sponges without allowing distillers'
or dried yeast, there
and temperature
make up
for
judged as
to
any its
of sponges that have been over-ripe,
little
in
is
a subsequent stage
backwardness
readiness by
its
in
drop.
the
We
and have not dropped, and.
THE BOOK OF BREAD
244
on the other hand,
by
stimulated
it
is
not impossible for a fairly slack one to be over-
heat, giving off gas rapidly for a while
and then
falling,
but without sufficient power and size and yeast growth to carry the subse-
quent dough
One drop
in the usual time.
enough
is
for distillers' yeast,
but patent and brewers' are better with a second or taken on the second
A
turn.
strong
an American, or a very stable one, although not
flour, like
necessarily of coarse strength, like Hungarian, will not drop so easily as a
A
softer.
will
sponge should not be
get ready sooner
The
when
softer the flour,
tight, especially
slack.
with a strong
flour,
and
"'
and therefore more rapid the degradation, the
smaller the sponge should be, so as
to save the loaf
Sponges usually being longer than doughs, the
rule
is
from looking poor. to put the strong
flour there, but in the case of short or flying sponges,
the soft should
be used, as being more rapid and also easier to break up when making dough. Small sponges are always best for flavour, by being usually less changed and leaving more sweet flour for the dough. If a sponge is
over
ripe,
it
should not be taken up cold and starved, as often done, but will
make sweeter and
better bread
dough thrown out sooner than at various times for
if
usual.
taken
warm
with more yeast and then
We have before us some tables prepared
guidance in taking up liquors for setting sponges, or
making doughs, according to the time atmosphere. These are best prepared
to
be given and the heat of the
for
each bakery according to the
conditions ruling, the consistency of sponge,
amount of
yeast, etc.
There
are also instruments sold for automatically indicating the variation required in
the liquor, according to the rise or
mercury.
Taking
sponges for a large
have liquor
3
figures at firm,
we
of the temperature of the air table
we once prepared
and for
see a sponge to be ready in twelve hours should
degs. cooler than
temperature at 60.
fall
random from a
Also with the
for eleven hours latter at
with the atmospheric
62 the liquor should be
2 degs.
cooler in each case.
We have already said
that the remarks under this section are intended
as merely supplementary and for the purpose of explaining, and connecting.
FERMENTATION AND MANUFACTURE
245
the facts mentioned in the accompanying series of tabulated methods.
One
many methods
of the objects of giving those
which similar results have been obtained, be done to
suit individual
mind
borne
in
and
further emphasised
is
order,
some
your
between
degs.
manhood
F.,
letters,
experts
John Blandy (No.
no
letter,
This should be
i)
?
gives,
is
flour,
lbs.
stage
worth reproducing.
''Re the quick method
will you kindly Taking them in in
four
his
2I
to,
answered by us some time
extent, answers itself: in
in
which practically anything can
in
by an interesting
Phases of a Loaf,' the recipe: 280 water
ways
different
circumstances and requirements.
advocated
differences
Mr
show the
again come under notice, and
as follows, and, to
of fermentation
apparent
to
connection with the sponge-setting tables just referred
in
ago, that has just It is
is
article lbs.
reconcile the
alphabetical
on the 'Seven
yeast,
2\
lbs.
salt,
and a half hours, maturity
Mr
Jago (No. 2), at National Association Conference, two years ago, gave 280 lbs. flour, 19 ozs. yeast, 3 lbs. salt, water 95 degs. F., dough to lie three and three-quarter hours. Mr Owen Simmons (see prosix hours.
cess No. 3 given in the table a few pages further on), in a booklet written for a firm of yeast lbs. flour,
and malt extract manufacturers, gave, amongst
\\ lbs. yeast,
i
lb.
malt extract,
2 J lbs. salt,
others,
water 115 degs. F.
280 (in
dough to lie two and a half hours. Mr Jago said that three and a half to three and three-quarter hours was the shortest time to give the dough, even with more yeast, to obtain a satisfactory (cottage) loaf, and Owen and Owen seem, as, I understand them, to endorse this, but in other
large iron machine)
an hour
letters give recipes for in
your opinion,
is
less
the shortest time
than I
Mr
Jago said was required.
What,
can get a batch in the oven with, say,
cottage bread? You mentioned in a recent letter that some firms use 3^ lbs. yeast to sack. I have made up small lots of Hovis' and Eurissa,' and put in oven under the hour, but that, of course, was tin or 3i
3 lbs.
lbs. yeast,
'
'
bread, and very slack dough."
and
it
shows we have
Let us give two
The
first
we
at least
This
is
the letter from beginning to end,
one man who studies his trade.
test batches that
give (No. 4) was
made
have recently claimed our attention.
at the
Borough Polytechnic Bakery,
THE BOOK OF BREAD
246
in sight of three of
Two
bushels best
the above experts, by a very celebrated prize-winner.
flour, 2
yeast, 2
lbs.
was 56 degs.
gallons), 23 ozs. salt, flour
malt extract, 60
ozs.
F.,
water was 115 degs.
water (6
lbs.
F.,
and when
mixed the dough was 82 degs. F. Quarter of an hour afterwards the dough was 85 degs. F., and after another hour it was 88 degs. F. This was handmade at 5.15, and was in the oven at 7.35 {two hours and twenty minutes). This was a small batch of about eighty half-quarterns of beautiful bread. It was good size, but a few minutes longer on the boards would have been by some of those who saw it most of those present, however, bought and took away a loaf or two at 3d. each. Another batch (No. 5) of a sack capacity was 91 degs. F. when finished kneading, yeast li lbs., salt 3i lbs., liked
;
four hours in trough.
was
the loaf
This was very
The
as one dare go.
and
large,
and fermented as
materials were good, and the oven
Had
excellent.
stable, the freeness
ripe,
was very
fully
hot,
and
the oven been cooler, and the materials less
and fermentation would have shown themselves
to
have
been excessive.
We
can vouch for
all
the five recipes for off-hand or straight-off
doughs given above, although, as far as they go, all different, being good enough for good bread. No absolute recipe can be given we find this
when
difficulty
very
writing
briefly
correspondents
Even
the speed of the maturity of dough.
be given, that
;
if
by govern
the temperature of the water
not always a criterion of what the dough will be
is
kneaded, or what
varying
accompanied
particulars concerning the various other conditions that
full
trough
â&#x20AC;&#x201D; unless
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;
its
mean temperature
will
be for
all
the time
it
when
is in
the
the temperature of the flour, the temperature of the atmosphere, hourl)', therefore
the temperature of the troughs,
etc.
Not only
is
the time and heat affected by the season of the year, but also by the quality, character,
and quantity of
faster than a tight, in
flour used.
and so does a weak
A slack dough comes along, of course, than a strong. The time how long it will be on the and when recipes are given, as
flour faster
trough and the heat in trough does not say
boards, or the heat
some of the above
it
will
are,
be on the boards,
from actual
tests
made, these particulars have often
FERMENTATION AND MANUFACTURE The
affected.
style of bread also affects
;
the
more labour put
into
247 it,
the
more the fermentation will be checked. By reading and comparing recipes of some of the best loaves sent us, one will see they vary in their quantities of yeast and heats and times,
made mostly by
although the best
—
all
off-hand doughs
— taken
given above.
No. 6
list.
is
tabulate a few of
random, being the
entirely at
that catch our eye in looking through the five recipes already
We will
the off-hand process.
Nos.
i
first
to 5 inclusive are the
a batch from which
we saw an
well, and was good splendid to eat it was made because the bread order had been cut too short. No. 7 is a Bristol loaf, that for a long time was the best loaf we received, and earned a total of ninety-two marks it had nineteen each for crust colour, flavour, and volume, eighteen for crumb colour, and seventeen for texture. No. 8 is a loaf that obtained even more marks,
excellent
loaf;
size
it
as
large
cut
required,
as
;
;
won
having is
ninety-five.
a Blackpool
Bolton
loaf,
loaf,
No. 9
is
which received eighty-seven marks.
represent the time required
make
all
the times
minutes where the time included baking.
I
Where
No.
No. 10 1 1
is
a
particulars give
we have added one hour and a half to from throwing out until commencing to set, so comparative, and we have deducted forty-five
the time only up to throwing out,
as to
— eighty marks.
a Liverpool loaf
which was awarded eighty-eight marks.
THE BOOK OF BREAD
248 These
comparing and studying.
figures will repay
All the processes
The room
given will produce, and have produced, good bread.
in
which
now writing, at 11 p.m., is, with all the windows open, 80 degs. F., whereas we have frequently seen the same thermometer in the same place at we
are
This is quite sufficient to alone account for any differences 45 degs. F. in the maturing of various doughs, although at the same temperature when kneaded.
It
runs to No. it
should be noticed
The
3.
witnessed by the writer, and is
before,
how
loaf
made by No.
made
effect
extremely important is
respectively in winter and summer.
is
the heat,
It
cooler
we have
more so than the
already a reasonable quantity of the
than extra yeast.
is
7
Nos. 4 and 6 were actual batches,
salt.
latter.
when mixed, showing
is
said
yeast, pro-
Extra heat has
can be seen that these two were
different seasons, because, although the water
the dough
good
a big difference in the yeast there, showing, as
vided there
more
closely the
has slightly less yeast, but, on the other hand,
latter
has more malt extract and less
There
how
made
at
hotter in the one case,
that the flour
and
utensils
more
than compensated for the extra heat in water, also indicating that the atmos-
phere was cooler, and that the tendency for the temperature of the dough to
increase
while
fermenting would
The
be more severely checked.
temperature of the dough when mixed, and also the mean temperature of
more important criterion than the temperature do not give this. of the liquor used, and many We have read somewhere that there are rather over 100,000 bakers in
the bakehouse,
is,
therefore, a
recipes
the United less
Kingdom
than 1000
of which about one-fifth are masters and, bv-the-bye,
first-class
roller mills.
The
bakers are distributed into
about 85,000 in England and Wales, 19,000 in Scotland, and 3000 in Ireland, it may seem therefore that, in these supplementary notes, we are giving Scotland and longer,
and more
Ireland
intricate,
undue prominence, but
systems are
and the smaller number of methods given
do not allow so much space would not be necessary, however,
tables
their
in
for inserting this fuller information.
to apologise
even
if
the It
giving prominence
to the smaller number, because one usually wants to read about that
which
FERMENTATION AND MANUFACTURE one does not know so much, and, especially
in the
249
baking trade, much
in-
formation can be obtained by thinking out the doings and the principles
Much
underlying the results of others.
We
can be learned from
should say that the Scotch bakers, as a whole, possess and show in
their bread
a higher general average of skill
bakers of any other
district
already mentioned for good correspondent, to find
the
who made a
writer
in tin
the
and
intelligence than
Kingdom, not excepting Lancashire Although a certain Australian
point of recently calling on us here, was surprised
possessed so few grey hairs,
of this country as well as of
above statement only
all
we have an unusually all districts
the chief parts of the world, and
make
to answer, as a matter of business,
we have been
any inquiries
frequently surprised at the extraordinary
and incomprehensible lack of knowledge of many who are engaged trade, but
anywhere.
we In
the
after consideration.
Although always pleased information,
the
bread.
intimate acquaintance with the breads, and with the peoples, of
for
Scotland.
in the
get far less of that sort of thing from Scotland than from spite,
however, of the
skill
and comparatively greater general
knowledge of the trade usually displayed, the goods produced are certainly
more for the eye than the palate. There are nearly as many Scotchmen in England as in Scotland, but we never get an inquiry from England for Scotch bread, but often get an inquiry for English bread from Scotland.
Englishmen do not like Scotch bread, and attempts to sell it in England have not been so successful as contemplated. We intimately know many Scotchmen in London, many of them are very prominent, and do large trades here and just recently, as before, one of them returning here after a ;
visit to his native
get
some bread
finds
colour,
highland country, remarked what a treat
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;the London â&#x20AC;&#x201D; that
pile,
texture,
volume
he could (last
At
eat.
to
now
the exhibitions one
champion,
year's
was
it
a
plain,
was
6f inches long, 3 J broad, and 6^ high when a week old), yield, and moisture are usually very good and the extent to which these points are valued may ;
be gauged by by the judges
the fact that the
maximum
of
into five for crust colour, ten
marks has been divided crumb colour, fifteen for
fifty
for
THE BOOK OF BREAD
250
and ten for texture, whereas the maximum of a hundred taken by the English judges, has been divided recently into four flavour, ten for volume,
divisions of twenty-five each for colour, flavour, volume,
and
The
texture.
Scotch crust colour
is taken at a low maximum, because there is a good deal of difference in the custom of different parts, that of the west coast
being of a darker character than that of the
east, and, of course, in a Scotch a vestige of crust anywhere but top and bottom, the sides being completely crumby.
plain, there is not
These crumby
sides, that is, all the outsides of each pair of halfquarterns or half "loaves" (a "loaf" is a quartern) are greased with a brush with melted lard, or some vegetable oil mineral oil should
not be used
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;
to
make
the sides part smoothly and easily, the only rough
side being the one next to the other half loaf.
This
is
also
done
in
some
parts of Ireland, but hardly ever in England, at least not for the ordinary
run of English crumby bread, we knowing of only a few exceptions. This greasing not only improves the appearance of sides by causing them to part more smoothly, but also makes a large batch of crumby much easier to draw
from oven. tin
Some
have an assistant with a brush, others have a of melted butter or lard on the oven stock, and dip their hands into it, setters
applying, in that case, at last that give the
good
pile
moment when on
peel.
The
plain loaves
and volume (they are usually smaller on the
east
coast than the west) are from slacker doughs than the smaller proportion
of Scotch crusty, such as Coburg and cottage.
The
smaller proportion
of the latter received and seen are very different to the English cottage,
they are bigger,
lighter, shorter, riper,
crust, indicative of longer fermentation
more and
salted, lard.
and with smooth pale The French loaves are
not like the bread usually called French elsewhere, such as
bread and crusty
all
rolls
and small
round, but are, as seen in the illustrations, a relation of
the Guernsey shape, and originally were copied from France.
The French and pan and
other crusties are fairly generally recognised
by bakers and local authorities as being " fancy " and not expected to weigh 2 lbs., and do not have the weight, like many of the plain loaves, stamped
THE BOOK OF BREAD
252
or docked on their top
but pan or
;
Like "fancy" bread
fancy.
tin
bread in England
England, there
in
Where
plain bread.
there
none of the
is
in
not,
is
"
between so-called
a very distinctive difference
Scotland,
not recognised as
is
shape even as sold elsewhere as "plain"
pafts of
French
"
and
same
as such, the
latter sold is
all
sometimes called "French."
Like the various sorts of English bread, the two
even when of
sorts,
same dough, and sometimes not even Lard, however, is by no or added to by lard.
different shape, are often off the
tightened up by
more
flour
means always the rule. It is quite an exception in England, but not unknown. The putting of French bread in a shallow pan just before baking does not disqualify a cottage
Section
pan or
cottage,
;
but
in
the English
when thus put
and now getting very general,
as here called,
tin,
competitions
pan
a
called
loaf,
the
in
it
into
a
disqualified.
is
Crusty and fancy sorts would, be very often made by a shorter system
The
than the ordinary, sometimes in three or four hours.
cookies,
are a sort of bun, are often taken off the sponge before adding
and then sugar, and shortening
is
This finishes
added.
all
all
we
which
the
salt,
can, in this
chapter, say concerning Scotch bread.
As mentary very
reader must be again reminded,
this chapter, the
to the
little
to
what
is
said there, and also under other important
chapters, such as that on digestion of bread. is
to
make wholemeal dough There
long time.
which
is
in excess,
longer than white bread
by making doughs too after first
making.
put into oven almost for
drawing
A
very
common
too sloppy, and then bake
it
error,
how-
slowly for a
is no advantage, in fact, on the contrary, in adding water and must therefore, in order to prevent clamminess, be
afterwards driven off in the oven.
much
merely supple-
360 tabulated methods, which should be read first, there is say concerning wholemeal, brown, fancy, milk, and other
breads, in addition to
ever,
is
is
The common
distinctly
practice of baking meal
wrong, and has only come about
slack, or rather not tightening
Wholemeal made only last,
in nearly the
as
it
usually
same time
is
in
them up
like a slack
sufficiently
dough, and then
a mixed batch, should be ready
as the white bread, instead of being
FERMENTATION AND MANUFACTURE then baked, the better, and, as better place for
Although
and
The
and given longer baking.
shifted
it,
left in
this is
due
it
quicker
it
253
made, handled, and
is
does not burn as soon as white, there
is
no
in the case of the side-flue ovens, than near the furnace.
longer usually than
white',
it is
more usually undersoaked,
often, not only to the excessively slack
dough, but also to an
excess of malt extract
â&#x20AC;&#x201D; this has been noticed particularly at the exhibitions.
When
is
more
golden syrup
added, which
and therefore with
refined,
than the similar substance
good
is
for a change,
less impurities
known
as
treacle,
and which
is
and possible bad flavour there should be no malt
amount depends on the system of fermentafor consuming it and preventing the tion, stickiness. The stickiness will decrease the longer the dough is left. Hot water, and plenty of yeast, and short time is the secret of good brown bread the latter comes along more quickly and undergoes unextract, although, of course, the
and the amount of yeast added
;
desirable changes in flavour quicker than white, because of the ferments in
the bran and the presence of
and sometimes anything in
the
tin,
which
is
is
more
impurities.
If the
meal
is
considered good enough for meal, too
not strong,
much proof
always to be avoided, causes the crumb to sink
in the
making heaviness in one place and a large hole just under the crust. Although a loaf is not " wholemeal " if any white flour is added to it, the latter is frequently an improvement from a saleable standpoint. This point wants centre,
watching as regards inspectors and exhibitions.
The
safest plan
the bread as "brown," and not "wholemeal," and this frequently necessary than
many
consider.
is
article
to sell
very much more
Quite recently there have been
several prosecutions and convictions for selling a perfectly
some
is
good and whole-
Wheaten flour is, of course, flour when asked for it, have thought brown
merely by a wrong name.
made from wheat,
but some assistants,
meal or wheat meal was meant, and on supplying such have found themselves branded
A
wholemeal which has come under our notice as being much liked by bakers, and in preference to others of the district,
like felons.
we know
to be
certain so-called
made by
an ordinary good sack of
flour.
the miller adding 25 per cent, of offal to It is
a fine meal, and works well.
This,
THE BOOK OF BREAD
254 of course,
make
may be due
the fact that
to
meal from as good a
their
many
millers
— not
all
—do
wheat as they use
grist of
not
for their
flour.
Meal, to be really good, should be
made from
the
same wheat as the
best flour, or, perhaps, one should say, from the best grist of wheat used,
because best and worst flour
A
fine meal,
although some ask for coarse because of
the intestines, will usually often better
sometimes made from the same wheat.
is
still
into a tin that
with a
is
to
make
little
its irritating
the better cutting loaf
When
strong flour added.
be turned over, so that loaf
is
The
action on
be
latter will
brown bread
baked under the
is
tin,
put
one
should be careful to put the closing squarely at the bottom, and not give
much
proof, so that the closing,
and breaks out
when
loaf
is
turned over, comes at the top
of being "blind."
prettily instead
closing
If this
carelessly put at the side or not at the bottom, the prettj' top
Of
course, although flavour will
be improved by proving
is
be
spoiled.
in tins less, the
loaf will be correspondingly closer.
For a brown one should take,
and
2
or 3
loaf,
composed
meal and barley meal,
chiefly of rye
for a small quantity, 5 lbs. rye meal, 5 lbs.
lbs. (or
more) of the strongest white
flour.
barley meal,
Dissolve in a small
bowl 4 ozs. yeast, 2 ozs. golden syrup, and handful of flour in small portion of water at 90 degs. Prepare bay of the meal and flour well mixed on the boards, take water very hot (less than a gallon altogether) and 3 ozs.
—
—
of
salt,
partly mixed, then
add the dissolved yeast
;
the whole
when then
mixed should be of medium slackness and of a temperature, as accurately shown by thermometer, of 90 degs. F. Scale at once when mixed into tins, giving about half an hour there until well risen, and then bake with ordinary batch of other browns.
much better than dipping therefore much yeast and heat is
This
is
out of sponge.
Such meal must not stand necessary. If wanted richer, take half milk, dissolving the yeast in it, and i oz. of lard Rye and barley bread are a great exception in Engto the quart of liquor. land, except in the northern counties, where in some districts, particularly ;
Cumberland, they are rather popular.
This
is all
that need be said here on
FERMENTATION AND MANUFACTURE
255
brown breads, because we must leave proprietors of patent or special sorts to do their own advertising at their own expense. Amongst the tabulated methods we give the essence of some of our correspondence with, and the methods by which bread has been made and received from, Guernsey (Channel Islands), Kimberley, Capetown and other places in Africa, Queensland, New South Wales and other places in Madeira, Canada, America and Australia, New Zealand, Tasmania,
At various other times we have
Gibraltar.
bay and Calcutta
India,
in
every large town in Europe.
also seen bread
from Bom-
from Malta, from Egypt, and from practically
Perhaps the chief points impressed upon us were
the great differences that exist in the various products that bear the one title "
bread," the great differences between the taste and the skill of the
various peoples (the quality and the character of the bread in almost cases indicating the financial prosperity
and the
state of civilization),
all
and
also the great differences in the keeping qualities of the various breads.
Many
of the colonial breads were despatched five and six
arrival here,
and although
still
remaining quite wholesome
in
weeks before
many
cases
Some of the European more than twice the better state The chief points to account for this would be that the of preservation. majority of the colonial bread was in larger loaves and slacker baked, and also in tinned lined cases, which prevented evaporation of water and the free inside,
were
badly mildewed
very
outside.
breads were about half as old, but were
drying of the loaves.
in
The European, on
the other hand, consisted mostly
of small loaves, more baked and with more surface of crust, and also not in tin
cases,
but in
ventilated boxes.
many
instances were, on the contrary, sent in specially
Bread kept
in
a closed earthenware
householders will certainly keep moist longer, but
it
will
pan as by some become mildewed
and of bad flavour much sooner than when exposed to the air or merely wrapped in a cloth. At the present moment we have before us some half-dozen loaves that have been cut for examination
dry and cracked
in the
;
some are now very
crumb, and have practically no smell nor
moisture and flavour having evaporated
;
while
some
that
taste, all
have had their cut
THE BOOK OF BREAD
256 crumby
the others are
all
was
closer
We
regret to say
ornamented
and the moisture
we very
in the centre of
less able to evaporate,
often
have loaves go
whereas at other times a single loaf
When how very
will
going abroad, and staying
nice
is
keep in
with very pretty moulds.
like this in quite a
in
few days,
a cloth a long while.
the best hotels, one often thinks
the bread, but one forgets the fascination of change and
sufficiently interested
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;
all sauces^ appetite and if one, like the writer, and desirous of finding out the character of the bread
the increase in the best of is
crumby sections of the crumb, where the contact
surfaces or sections placed in contact with the
of the ordinary population and lower classes, a very different state of things will often
be found, and the general average
our idea, distinctly below the bread of has been our
own
"
will be, at
the people
personal experience and
"
we have
any rate according
Such
in this country.
before us
to
many
letters
and give other useful information, such as one from Mr Jansen of Holland, and also a large pile of cuttings on this subject that from time to time have been collected and filed in their proper place for ready that bear out this
reference,
and we propose
to give
some of the information obtained by supple-
own remarks in the tables by quoting from the British Baker and the Bakers Helper on this interest-
menting, for a change, our
National Baker, the
ing subject, namely, the methods of fermentation and manufacture.
For
instance, in support of the above,
remoter parts of Sweden the poor people year,
it
will
be found that
make and bake
in
the
their rye twice a
and store the loaves away so that eventually they are as hard as bricks. still, bread is made from barley and oats. In Lapland, oats, with
Further north
the inner bark of the pine, are used are
made
into large flat cakes,
;
the two together well ground and
cooked
Kamchatka, pine or birch bark by
in
itself,
a pan over the
fire.
well macerated,
mixed
In dreary
pounded and
baked, frequently constitutes the whole of the native bread food.
The
Icelander scrapes the " Iceland flour,
which serves both
for
moss" off the rocks and grinds it into fine bread and puddings. In some parts of Siberia,
China and other Eastern countries, a buckwheat.
fairly palatable
bread
is
made from
In parts of Italy chestnuts are cooked, ground into meal and
FERMENTATION AND MANUFACTURE used for making bread.
Durra, a variety of vanilla,
countries of India, Egypt, Arabia and Asia
bread
for
In Persia the bread
The
called "lawash."
size of a
the
barrel,
Persian oven
sides
is
made from
is
built in the
being smooth masonry
the bottom and kept burning until the wall
Enough dough
thoroughly heated.
about two feet long sole leather, then
is
it is
or
bread
is
A
Rice
;
ground, about the
the
;
fire
at
oven are
of the
sides
built
is
wide and
rolled until about as thin as
taken up and tossed and rolled from one arm to the
and thrown on a board and slapped on the side of the oven.
other,
the
in
and milk
rice-flour
to form a sheet about a foot
thrown on the bench and
only a few moments to bake, and when baked
is
spread out to
It
takes
This
cool.
cheap, sweet, and nourishing.
specimen of the "hunger bread" from Armenia
mixed with edible
seed, flax, or linseed meal,
can be said of Armenian bread
is
that
a case of the survival of the
does not
last
long on
fittest,
made
is
The
grass.
will
it
sustain
dose for people accustomed to the loaves from our
is
much used
is
making bread.
the staple food of the Chinese, Japanese, and a large portion of the
is
inhabitants of India. it is
Minor
257
best thing that as
life,
own
of clover
it
a hard
is
bakeries.
It
is
and a person with poor digestive organs
"ek mek," which
is
the Turkish
The
not a delicacy, but a stern reality.
flour
is
name
mixed
for bread, as
in a
it
bowl to the
consistency of dough, the dough being rolled out to the thickness of blotting paper, and placed on a
back of the shield cloth, is
shield,
which makes a smooth, oblong
and lowered
placed,
round hole
fitted
bottom
tile pipe,
which tile
padded
;
is
a
into the
up with a
kindled in
it.
its
surface,
"toneer"
heated
its
When
is
a white
this the rolled
dough
The "toneer"
is
a
larger at the top than at the
in this
for the fire
manner, and the
heat for a considerable time after the "toneer" has been relieved of
lowered by hand, and the dough slapped against the surface, requiring but a few such slaps to bake the dough, and
the shield tile
is
Great heat can be secured
soon becomes very hot, retaining
fire
for baking.
and
tile interior,
and over
through the bottom, provides a draught
the ashes and coals are removed.
The
which serves instead of a pan.
a straight board, and over the padding
is
is
2
K
THE BOOK OF BREAD
258 the bread
being a
is
removed from the oven, an
article
of food, but far from
Great quantities are cooked
in this
manner, at each baking
relish.
enough being made to last the family from three to six months. After being removed from the oblong pad, it is hung up in the store-rooms, or This stretched on lines between poles, to prevent depredations by rats. bread resembles wheat in its apparent indestructibility, and will last for a long time, being the principal article of diet in the breadstuff department. It
can truly be called a "staff of
The
dyspeptics.
Turks,
even
life,"
in raiding
in
many
does discriminate against
Armenian households, can destroy most
of the stores quite easily, but this bread
the raids and prevents,
if it
hard to destroy, hence
is
it
survives
extreme want.
instances,
In the Molucca Islands the starchy pith of the sago palm furnishes a
This
white, floury meal.
baked
Bread
receive the loaves.
South America. poison
To
made up
is
if
it
also
dough
is
for bread, the roots are ;
cells to
parts of Africa
soaked
for several
days
in water, thus
is
if
obtainable,
loaves,
if
not,
and baked
life
is
in
water
is
used.
meal
it ;
is
excellent
the ripe fruit
savage spots
in
and very nourishing. is
The
The
hot ashes or dried in
the banana and plantain.
unripe bananas are dried in the sun and reduced to meal, and bread
from
and
the fibres are picked out, dried and ground into
In the Tropics the staff of
the sun.
some
of roots in
oblong
;
mixed with milk formed in little round
This
made
into
made from manioc tubers these roots are a deadly raw state, but make a good food if properly prepared.
washing out the poison flour.
oblong loaves, which are
flat,
It Is
eaten in the
prepare
is
into
each oven being divided
in curious little oven.s,
plantain
is
roasted or boiled and then eaten.
The made
not reduced to
There are some consume
the wilderness of the world where the natives
earth as a part of their diet
;
but earth-eaters
Europe seem an anachronism and an anomaly.
in
Yet
a civilised country of this is
given as a fact
of Sardinia at the present day. It
has been stated by Deputy Cavallotti, that "While at Galtelli they
are taking the roofs off the houses to
make them
into bread, that at Ulzulei
sell
and
the at
tiles in
order to buy oats and
Baunei they eat
'
earth bread.'
FERMENTATION AND MANUFACTURE It
seems
incredible, yet
A
strictly true.
it is
provision of a yellowish earth, which they infuse
Next they proceed addition of a
in
wooden
water, in
is
the
make
there to
vessels.
knead the residuum of mud into a paste, with the ground from acorns, and put the so-called bread into
to
little flour
The
an oven to bake.
situate in the vicinity
hill
The women go
granary of these two miserable hamlets.
259
loaves have
all
the appearance of fire-proof bricks.
In the evening they mix this bread in boiling water with
some
strips of bacon,
and place a similar mess before the labourers on their return from work,
mat on the
fortunate to be able to repose their weary limbs on a
a burning log after their frugal repast"
men whose
lives are spent in
Hence
mental organisation.
It
!
must be taken
the coarseness, the brutality, and the greater
This
the main, indeed,
is
the unique cause of their rancour against Continental Italians,
In process,
many
without
Hungary good bread
of
Two
yeast. this
;
handfuls
large
the several ingredients are
warm
then deposited in a
the following boiled
for use,
till
this
mass
well mixed.
water
this
trough, and, after
It
pressed out.
The
air,
and may be kept
3 quarts of
liquor
of the size of a large loaf contents
is
enough, and
put upon its
is is
which are dried by being
when The ferment
but not to the sun
for six
manner
:
months.
For baking
;
six large
warm
poured through a sieve into one end of the bread
is
it,
4
will
it
loaves, six handfuls of these balls are dissolved in 7 or 8 quarts of
water;
in
place for twenty hours and afterwards divided
applied in the following
is
are
When
of leaven.
lbs.
into small pieces about the size of a hen's egg,
thus prepared
of hops
worked together
placed upon a board, and exposed to a dry
dry they are laid up
made by
is
poured upon as much wheaten bran as
is
moisten, and to this are added 4 or 5
warm
more lucky
in the gifts of fortune.
parts
quarts of water
near
such conditions are not well disposed in their
frequency of delinquency amongst the Sardinians.
than themselves
floor
granted that
for
it,
surface
is ;
warm
water, the remaining
mixed with
this is
sufficient
dusted over with
flour to flour,
and the whole covered, and
commenced
to crack.
mass being well form a mass
the sieve with
left
till
it
its
has risen
This forms the leaven or
THE BOOK OF BREAD
26o sponge.
Fifteen quarts of
warm
water, in which six handfuls of salt have
been dissolved, are then poured upon quantity of flour
mixed), and for half
is
added
the dough
(after the
through the sieve
in
a
;
the necessary
water and leaven or sponge
then well kneaded.
is
an hour or more
it
This
is
left,
is
well
covered up
warm
place. It is then formed into loaves, another half hour to prove, before being placed in the oven, remaining there from one to two or three hours, according to their size.
and
left
The
great advantage of this kind of ferment is that it may be made for use in large quantities at a time, and would be found convenient for sea voyages, etc., or for persons living at a distance from any town, and where yeast cannot be
readil)'^
procured.
For the usual bread of France instead of using yeast, the start is made with a piece of dough of about 3 lbs., which is left for this purpose from the day before. This leaven is called "levain du chef," or, in short, "chef";
made fine in 3 quarts of water, and with a medium firm sponge. In a couple of hours this is
additional flour this is ready.
worked
As soon
into
as
it
begins to drop, with 6 more quarts of water the sponge is broken fine, and more flour added. This sponge should be well worked, and a little
slacker
While
than
the
this is rising, the
drop, from
1
2 to
ozs. to 8 ozs. to
sponge.
first
oven
is
This
heated, and
the
is
"levain premiere."
when the sponge begins to amount of salt (from 6
24 quarts of water with the usual 2 quarts) is
put into the sponge, the sponge broken fine and worked into a good tight dough. One-third of this dough is put back and penned up. This is the second sponge for the next batch of 1
The remaining dough
bread.
(given a
start), is
after letting
it
come up for about ten minutes moulded into loaves at
scaled right out of the trough,
once, put into long cloth-lined baskets, the shape of the loaf
about three-quarters proof. the loaf cuts,
is
turned upside
put in the oven on the
colour.
The French
It is
given
The oven has been scuffled out by this time, down on to the peel, given three or four slanting
flours
sole,
and baked
the start, should either be put in a pail and
to a nice light
The
are mostly soft. i
old
brown
dough used
for
quart of cold water added,
FERMENTATION AND MANUFACTURE or
more
it
from getting too sour.
flour
worked
into
it
and
As we do
moulded loaves
well to set the
rolled
up into a
is
do just as
will
it
cloth-lined boxes, like the Vienna, and
in
much
very
keep
cloth, well dusted, to
not have the baskets,
A
pinch the cloth up between the loaves. with a straight dough,
261
loaf
made with compressed
yeast
sweeter.
The native Indian makes a leaven from sour buttermilk. The process of making the active agent is a very simple one some flour is mixed with the milk, and a small quantity of "massala" is added. This massala is ;
a secondary agent of a very unimportant character, except Indian baker.
It
the composition
is
has been described as a
in
is
of trade superstition, and
relic
Massala
is
be
It will
not highly developed, technical
is
bakehouse as what
as jealously guarded in the
Great Britain.
â&#x20AC;&#x201D; Gum
eyes of the
regarded by native bakers as a trade secret.
thus seen that even where the trade
information
in the
it
used to be
formed from the following curious ingredients
powdered
:
powdered nutmegs, coriander seeds, cardamoms, saffron, cinnamon, powdered liquorice root, seeds of the lotus, popcorn or parched maize, and a kind of coarse meerschaum which comes from the sea-coast, and is called "samunder sukh." Europeans in India make their bread in the following fashion: Take some fresh toddy mastiche, myrrh,
cloves,
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;
that
is
in
a state of fermentation, and pour
dry flour and a teaspoonful of aside
to
palmyra peas is
in
rise. is
The toddy
is
This
salt.
warm water
soaked
in
dhye
The
ready for use.
known
as
for ten or
fermentation sets in actively.
To make
a
A
made by soaking This liquid
it
"kummier."
A
and
is
fresh,
dry
strained
and
a curious sort of
certain quantity of
for a couple of hours,
lie
who
away
it
is
when
it
100
;
uses the massala ties up in a
for twelve to fifteen hours,
portion of this
batch of bread of
set
When
palmyra.
twelve hours, and then strained
native, however,
rag his sour milk dough, and stows
or
The Mussulman has
then mixed with flour and set aside to is
is
of good,
2 lbs.
into a stiff dough,
date
the
until fermentation begins.
leaven for raising his bread, is
made
not to be had, a fermenting liquor
used for fermenting the dough.
aniseed
is
made from
bay with
into a
it
is
lbs.
when
used to make a dough. of
flour
in
the
Dutch
THE BOOK OF BREAD operates as follows â&#x20AC;&#x201D; The yeast to be used,
262 manner one 2
some lukewarm milk of about
previously dissolved in
lbs., is
The
F.
from
:
flour
is
then put on one side of the kneadiÂŤg trough
;
i
^
to
'j'j
degs.
part,
about
mixed with the dissolved yeast, and with as much luke-warm milk that the sponge be not too tight, about \\ to if gallons being required, 14
lbs., is
When
according to the quality of the flour used. sponge, which should F.), is
made
now have a temperature
into a lump, covered
When
twenty minutes.
and
left
properly mixed, this
of about 25 degs. C.
(j']
degs.
alone for a quarter of an hour or
fermentation has advanced sufficiently, this sponge
mixed with the remaining flour and milk of such a temperature that the dough when finished making is about 25 degs. C. {']'] degs. F.), and in such
is
a quantity that the necessary firmness be obtained.
During the kneading
from
taste
i\
to
2
lbs.
of salt are added, according to
The dough having been
flour.
and remains covered up
made
the batch
left to rise until is
which are quite
made
again
minutes
;
much
then the dough
is
is
covered
attained,
when
Larger batches and those made with water smaller proportion of yeast.
are indebted to the well-known technical publisher,
Hartmann,
into a lump,
different to English,
about half the size of the loaf
put into the oven.
instead of milk require a
We
it is
for fifteen to twenty-five
into the desired shapes,
again and
well kneaded,
and quality of
Mr
William
for permission to translate the following article, with additions
of our own, on the Bread Trade of Berlin. Berlin, the
German
Imperial
city,
and the
the end of 1900, about 1,900,000 inhabitants, for
which bread
is
about 1800 bakers
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;bread.
produce one special kind, whereas
bake more or
whom
There are about ten bread manufactured on a big scale, and which mostly
provided the most important food factories in
capital of Prussia, had, at
all
less quantities of fancy
other proprietors of bakeries also
bread and cakes.
To
this
has to be
added, of course, a considerable supply of country bread from the environs.
Before
we
begin to speak of the kind of produce of the bakeries,
it
is
advisable to give the following particulars of general conditions.
The work
is
divided in
all
the larger bakeries
;
the foreman arranges
FERMENTATION AND MANUFACTURE the
dough and the
He
dough.
yeast, with the exception of the
weighs the
salt
263
bread and milk-bread
and barm, heats the oven and bakes the goods.
Bread and milk-bread dough are made by the kneader independent of help, whereas the third and fourth journeyman or the apprentices look after the
The working
other doughs.
The foreman makes
is
way
generally carried on in the following
:
the yeast pieces ready, which are to be used by the
and other ingredients, During whereas the kneader makes the leaven and the milk-bread dough. When the rising of the yeast the v/ood at the back of the oven burns down. third or fourth journeyman,
beginning to
make
and he weighs the
salt
the doughs, the interior part of the oven
and the oven so treated that
it
down
has time to cool
drawn
is
out,
before the baking
doughs are ready, the salt cakes are moulded first, whilst the other dough waits for half an hour to one hour, in order to
process begins.
If the
The men goods are, afterwards made up in that is, Blechschrippen, Semmel a perfect
effect
rising.
breads, milk-bread,
English bread,
use this interval for their supper. the
same order
rolls),
and
at
(rolls),
barm-
salt bars,
last
Blechschrippen (better class
All cakes,
etc.
as they are to be baked,
(small loaves), Schrippen
Kniippel (hard kind of
The
of
rolls),
Hornchen (little horns), etc., are placed on tins, whereas the white dough is placed on boards, covered with cloths, and has to stand in an airy room or in the yard before baking, to stiffen it. As soon as the cakes have risen enough, baking begins. Then come the salt cakes, and, if there is still sufficient heat in the oven, all the other goods.
oven, the bread dough
more
rolls, etc.
The
is
made, and prepared
If the last
goods are
Then
for baking.
oven, which has been emptied by this time,
is
in the
follow
heated
with wood.
and
A
short time after the bread
if
there
is
vacant places.
morning
enough
heat,
is
put in the oven
one begins
These second goods
this process of
baking
is
to
its
position
is
changed,
bake the white bread on the
are generally the best.
During the
repeated generally once more, so that
there are fresh goods put in three times daily.
making up the other bread and the second
lot
The
interval
of cakes.
is
used
in
The remaining
THE BOOK OF BREAD
264 time
employed with the necessary clearing up, and
is
many
In
tions.
Berlin baking into three parts
The
bread,
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;the
shapes
loaf,
divide the
white bread, and cakes.
appears
flour,
The most known shape is the long The usual price is and other shapes.
the trade.
in
but there are also basket
one,
One can
pastries.
bread
making prepara-
of rye flour, mostly with a quantity of wheat
made
in different
make
bakeries they also
in
they also bake loaves at 75 pfg. (gd.), and i mark (is.) for smaller requirements they often make loaves at The bread is made 25 pfg. (3d.), and 15 pfg. (2d.), the last mostly round. with leaven. principal item in this baking process is that the so-called
50
For bigger
pfg. (6d.).
families, etc.,
;
A
Vorteig (old sour, half sour, and
The
state.
old sour
By mixing further,
a remnant of the batch of the previous day.
with ih to 2|
litres
one gets the half and
of water, one gets
full sour,
old sour,
the
that form about half of the
Considerable competition for the Berlin baker
be made.
to
is
good healthy
sour) should be in a
full
from the village bakeries
in the
is
and
dough
experienced
environs of Berlin, which often causes so-
by the town bakers. bread just spoken of, many bakeries
called country bread to be sold
Besides the loaf bread."
This
is
made
also sell " black
of bread dough, but with the addition of second quality
But one must not confuse this " black bread " with the black bread as made in Holstein, Mecklenburg, and Hanover, which consists of rye groats. rye
flour.
The
Berlin "black bread"
is
baked
in
a long shape, and
small rolls
made
dough
of this black bread
proof, "
is
is
lbs. to
4
etc.,
one puts
lbs. into
5
lbs.
of
mixed
to
5^
flour (rye
is
by
Berliner buys
To make barm and
currants, rounded,
lbs.
For
of dough; for
the divider, which cuts out thirty.
the exception of the salt cakes,
made
rolls.
pressed five to six times by hand or with a stamp.
Semmel,"
2i
mixed with some sugar and
distinguished
(four for i^d.), which, sprinkled
over with caraway seeds, constitute breakfast the dough
is
The
a darker colour and sharper taste than the usual bread.
four pieces for 10 pfg.
and wheat) with water,
salt,
and
breads,
after the
" Schrippen,"
barm
The
breads,
price, with
Salt cakes are yeast, in weight
of 350 grams to 450 grams for 10 pfg. (six pieces for ijd.).
To make
Section of Milk Loaf. SIZE.)
FERMENTATION AND MANUFACTURE "
Knuppel
"
and milk
pure milk, and some
one uses only the best Hungarian wheat
rolls, salt,
sold in four pieces for
addition of butter and sugar.
it
we
flour,
to be,
it
In
creamless milk, with the
may
This translation, with additions,
should like
It is
not be
and would be omitted except that
some, points of interest.
contains at least
Mr
Writing of Canadian bread,
following ingredients to one pail (8 (granulated),
flour,
and good yeast (no mixture with leaven). lo pfg. {i8o grams to 250 grams weight).
poorer districts they use cheaper wheaten
so intelligible as
265
and 6
:
quarts):
â&#x20AC;&#x201D; "8
ozs.
salt,
8 ozs.
Here
be added at proper time.
ozs. lard to
pail batch illustration
Wright, of Ontario, suggests the
â&#x20AC;&#x201D; Twelve hours sponge, shop to stand
at
is
sugar a 10
80 degs. F.
Sponge: 5 pails water, 70 degs. F., 5^ ozs. yeast (compressed), if bags This amount of water and flour of Manitoba patent flour, 75 degs. F. Where a machine is used to do the mixing makes a good medium sponge. this will be dropped, well and sufficiently worked in twelve hours, but bakers
know
flour
sometimes stronger than others, at
is
least different
brands are
not always the same strength, and care must be taken that the sponge not on the rise inches of drop
;
when mixed, but down the second drop
water 80 degs.
F.,
5
of
lbs.
added, and the sponge and shapes) can be
made from
flour,
salt,
5
work
is
couple of
for this sponge.
the sponge being ready, 5 pails of sugar, and 4 lbs. lard are now
lbs.
broken
all
this,
made, brown, whole wheat,
generally sufficient
is
With a medium strong patent
the centre about a
in
Different kinds of bread (or
up.
such as Dutch, Vienna, snowflake, home-
etc.
After the breaking-up sponge process,
if bags flour, Manitoba patent, 80 degs. F., is added to full lo-pail sponge and water a good medium dough -will be the result of this mixture. ;
This should prove
and scale
in the
trough one hour.
off at required
into the pans, put
away
in
prover
till
raised
require about one hour, and should get a for
b'aking.
400
degs.
This
When
differ
in
the
enough
medium
leads us to the oven.
Ovens
ready, throw out on tables
mould well the oven this will
weight, hand up on the table, then
length
It
for
;
proof.
It is
now ready
should be heated to about
of
time
required
to
bring
THE BOOK OF BREAD
266 them to
to the
necessary heat.
The average
draw, and one and a half hours lay down.
oven has an* even heat and
is solid.
about one hour
will require
In
this
Before the dough
is
way a good taken from the
damper is drawn and the right amount of coal put on at once. is handed up on the bench, the oven is shut off Allowing the time it takes to pan and the proving of the bread for the oven to
trough, the
When
bread
lay down, in the baking process
down
to
350 degs.
weight or size of the 1
The
if
oven
is
the temperature will go
filled,
time for baking varies according to the different
loaf, 2 lbs.
bread taking one hour
Although many other methods and many other could be given,
we
think this chapter
important to have, by
The
itself,
tables both in preparation
and
costly,
will
is
concerning them
already sufficiently long,
fully justified
and
details
have been exceedingly
be found to contain the information for answering the great
ordinary course of their business.
number
and
the publication of this book.
in the printing
majority of questions that are being continually asked by bakers
large
oven,
in nice solid
bread not more that three-quarters of an hour."
1 lbs.
of practical
They give
in
the
the results of an exceedingly
experiments and operations, saving therefore
much time and money when seeking progress, and give much food for we must therefore be pardoned for saying that they cannot further ideas ;
fail
to
be of immense importance, returning value
with the time
and intelligence spent on
their
strictly in
accordance
examination and
close
studying.
HOME-MADE BREAD T TOME its
baking, although at one time
more
universal,
greatest extent, as far as this country
is
seems to linger to
concerned, in the four or
most northern counties. We studied it closely when visiting Leeds and Newcastle. In Newcastle and district there is a population of about
five
300,000, and yet, with the exception of the Co-operative Society, there
is
HOME-MADE BREAD we
only, as far as
30,000 people
could ascertain, about one leading firm of bakers to every
whereas
;
267
in
London
4000 master bakers
there are nearly
(about 13,000 journeymen), or one firm to every 4000 of the population
many
{one of them doing nearly 3000 sacks per week), and
be given where the proportion
home baking abounds, home baker
bakers, there doxical
if
;
Bakers say they have to make
it
like that
where better looking bread is made by made by the housewife, which would seem para-
nevertheless,
less of
is
have noticed that where
bakers' bread, with exceptions of course, seems far
less appetising in appearance.
of the
We
higher.
is
instances could
it
There might be
the former assertion be true.
by the
dislike
housewife to sponginess and lightness after being accustomed to her
more
product, or suspicion of whiteness that might be thought to be
filling
artificial,
but
daubs of dry
we cannot flour,
see any reason for the roughly finished exterior, the
and the
sickly paleness, absence of bloom,
and uninviting character of nearly the conservatism of those
ignorance of what
sumed
all
who make
and
certain bakers to
sections of the Press are so constantly referring
lectures
to
which some
and grossly exaggerating.
much good could be done
if
periodical
popular
were given concerning modern methods of bread-making, pointing out
the difference between what was and what the cost of yeast per stone of reckons,
of
to prejudice against the pre-
and uncleanly ways of
seems, then, that
and half-baked
we saw in one large town. Much their own seems to us to be due
really costs them,
it
nefarious tricks
It
own
is
by no means the
flour,
is,
and that the three halfpence
which seems
total cost of
to
be
all
baking
at
home.
for
that the housewife
Explanations
concerning the economy of producing bread on a larger scale would certainly tell is
against those
customary
in
women who bake
some
for
some dozen of
Then, the man with a corner shop, with rear, could,
their neighbours, as
places. his
bakery on a level
at the
without the expense of formerly, equip a neat machine bakery,
and, instead of inviting periodical also forgotten
visits,
by the public (unless a
which usually
special visitor's
day
fall is
flat,
and are
set apart
special demonstrations or lectures given), he could put plate glass all
and
down
THE BOOK OF BREAD
268
same as he would to his shop, and, having everything in good order, there would be no objection to being on view from the street always. There would usually be onlookers, as there always are at even less interestthe side, the
ing operations, and those that only looked once would feel that constant publicity
had dispelled
their former prejudice,
and the advertisement would
be such as to well repay the structural alterations and the white jackets
The men would
the men. in sight
and not
in contact
not be distracted by the visitors
who were only
they would soon get used to
and take more
;
it,
pride in their work, and the quickness with which they could do
knowing when to
friends or superiors
and
The
were looking.
be interested, and try goods out of
at trade exhibitions,
curiosity,
if
they did not like the
if
sort,
lady
it,
never
public could not
nothing
disposed to try some other kind they had seen made.
would have a
for
else, as
fail
they do
they might be more Such a constant view
than the occasional invite to the well-dressed
far greater effect
who had bought something in
the shop, and also a
more
beneficial effect
than the costly and injurious system of house-to-house free samples.
home
In the North coals for
use are cheaper, but
home baking
is
far
more general in America than here, and there coals are scarce and dear enough at the present moment. In the North the domestic ovens are different to that of the South they are mostly open ranges, with the oven, at the ;
side, raised so that its
bottom
is
on a
level with the top of the
fire,
enabling
the flames to draw under the bottom, up the far side, and over the top, instead of the oven being lower and side
by
side with the fireplace, as here.
The home method we found mostly adopted was occasionally, milk being
added
one or one and a half hours to the
oven from the
start.
loaf from a lot of yeast
whereby
it
;
a batter sponge, sugar and,
â&#x20AC;&#x201D; stand half hour, then make dough and stand
scale direct into tins, being about three hours It
seems that
if
bakers supplied a well-finished
and off-hand dough of about two hours
was sweet and
close, imitating the inside of
in trough,
a home-made loaf
and not the outside, instead of usually now the reverse, and well-pushing, as indicated, to remove prejudice that they must gain trade always, instead of just at the time
when
the working class of
women
are busy at
work and
HOME-MADE BREAD Even
unable to bake.
in the districts
269
where every house has a suitable
bread-baking oven, and, moreover, every
woman
taught to bake, the hot
weather or sufficiency of employment often decreases the home baking, and then
whereby the In some cases,
the bakers' chance to supply something extra good,
is
housewife
not require to resume making her own.
will
made
however, although
at
home, the bread
is
taken to the baker to be
We
have found many correspondents gradually gaining ground, where they supply a good variety of sorts as a change, parespecially ticularly of the brown and fancy class, and by attention show the baked.
housewife
We
how very convenient it is to buy instead of making. have said that home baking is much more general in America
than here, but In
there also gradually becoming less in the large towns.
it is
New York
there
is
already comparatively
becoming
less in Philadelphia,
have been
built,
and
The
as here.
Crosby Co.,
milk, or water alone)
pressed yeast and
stir until
of salt and three
some
districts, is
is still
large,
and bakers'
not supplied so cheaply
was prepared
for the
Washburn-
in the tables.
a dough
is
formed
add two half-ounce cakes
stir
When
in
a mass.
;
salt
and sugar are
be turned from the mixing bowl
The
liquor should be about three quarts
excellent results, about
of com-
with a wooden spoon until
in well-sifted flour
sufficiently stiff to
moulding board
(i oz.)
completely dissolved, then add one teaspoonful
table-spoonfuls of sugar.
thoroughly dissolved,
Knead
is
one quart of lukewarm liquor (composed of equal portions of water
and sweet
to the
it
be useful to reproduce, as supplementary to other domestic
methods already given here and
To
home baking
following process, which
will
done now, and
Minneapolis some excellent bakeries
in
but in Baltimore the
bread, in spite of cutting prices in
little
quantity of flour used to above
to this
two table-spoonfuls of
flour
lard
if
may be added shortening
is
with
desired.
dough, adding, if necessary, a little flour, from time to time, becomes smooth and elastic, and ceases to stick to the fingers or moulding board. Then put it in a well-greased earthen bowl, brush until
this
it
lightly with
melted butter or dripping, cover with a bread towel or blanket
2
THE BOOK OF BREAD
70
and
set to rise in a
as light,
and
warm
As soon
place for two hours, or until light.
knead well and again place in earthen bowl, covering as before,
set for another rising of
form gently into loaves or
an hour, or
rolls,
until
light.
As soon
as light,
place in greased bread or roll pans, brush
with melted butter or dripping, cover again with the towel or blanket, and let
stand for one hour and a half (li), and then bake.
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;
The following points are also desirable to remember when light enough to bake, should be nearly double the size first set to rise, and should be as light that when lifted in :
(
it
Dough,
)
i
was when
the pan the
sense of weight will be scarcely perceptible. (2)
at the
Bread should be put to bake as soon as
commencement
(3)
and the oven,
to
brown
flour in
two minutes without
it.
The
time of rising, of course, depends upon the temperature of the
place where kept (4)
light,
of baking, should be at a temperature of 375 degs.
by the thermometer, or hot enough burning
it is
;
7 5 degs. is the best.
During the
rising see that the
The temperature must be kept
dough does not become
chilled.
uniform.
(5) In using compressed yeast see that
it is
fresh,
and not too
soft.
METHODS OF MANUFACTURE >.
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SECTION
VII
USEFUL DATA "
With
all
thy getting get understanding."
Proverbs
iv.
7
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES T
TNDER
this
heading
may be found
in
it
not intended to give fully such tables as
is
any arithmetic book, or
else in the British
Baker
much of what has been written in make various calculatiohs that one
Diary, but, in order to understand fully the present work, and to occasionally requires,
centrated form
some
it
more
will
easily
be extremely useful to have set out
of the leading measures of weight
their relation one to the other may be
that
easily seen.
some consideration should be given
to the very
in a con-
and volume, so that
It is also
many
imperative
different
mean-
ings that such simple words as pint, quart, quartern, gallon, bushel, and
quarter have in different districts of the country, and even in the district
that
The most known as
and
if
adopted
needed. litre,
same
under different conditions.
The
simple and convenient system of weights and measures
the metric system, and universally adopted on the continent, in
the United
is
Kingdom
the present article would not be
units in this system are the metre, being that of length
that of capacity
advantage
is
;
and the gram, being that of weight
that the unit of weight
and capacity are
;
;
the
and the great
directly connected
with one another, the former being exactly a one-thousandth part of the A further advantage is that greater, or smaller denominations are latter. 315
THE BOOK OF BREAD
3i6
expressed by prefixes, the words looo,
and lo
loo,
and
;
hundredth, and tenth
kilo, hecto,
and deci meaning one-thousandth, list one has only to remove
centi,
milli,
and deca meaning respectively
so that in the following
;
the decimal point to translate one to the other, instead
having to multiply a yard by 3 a foot by
2 to find
1
the
in
our system,
order to find the number of
in
number of
of,
feet,
and
inches.
Thus a Metre = 39.37 inches or Kilometre
= 39.370
Mile=
3.28 feet.
= 1093!
inches
1.6 kilometres.
yards.
Litre= 1.76 pints = 6i.o cubic inches = 35.2
Gram=
15.43 grains, or 0.03527 ozs., or
i
fluid ozs.
c.c.
at 4 degs. C.
Kilogram = 35.27 ozs., or just over 2 lbs. 2I ozs. avoirdupois. Kilogram = 2.20 lbs. avoirdupois or 2.679 lbs. troy. 1000
c.c.
Grain
=
1000 grams, or
= 0.06479
i
litre,
or if pints.
of a gram.
Ounce = 28.35 grams, or 437.5 Pound = 0.45359 of a kilogram Cubic inch = 16.38
c.c.
grains, or 10 farthings. (or kilo).
(cubic centimetres) or 252.5 grains.
Cubic foot= (12 X 12 X 12) 1728 cubic inches. Cubic foot of water = 62i Gallon of water 160
ozs.,
= 4541
c.c, or 4.54 litres, or
Quart of water =
or
F., or
2 pints,
2 of
or J gallon.
above quarts (used
in laboratories).
2 lbs.
Quartern of bread = 4 lbs. Quartern of
62 degs.
lbs.
2 J lbs.,
Quart (Winchester) = about
Quartern
lbs. at
lbs.
bread = 8
Quart loaf =
10
or 70,000 grains, or 277.27 cubic inches.
Gallon of flour = 7 Gallon of
lbs.
=4
,,
flour
Pint
=i
Pint
(Scotch) =
=
lbs.,
once legal, according to the Bread Assize.
according to custom.
3^ lbs.
a quart, or ij i
5 h ozs.
lbs.,
or 20 fluid ozs.
a gallon or 5
lbs.
See below.
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES Or
A
A
I
sack
5
bushels
=
of flour
I
?>^1
"sack"
of bread,
6 bushels
or
20 pecks
24 pecks
20 stone
24 stone
40 gallons 80 quarterns or
48 gallons 96 quarterns or pottles
pottles
160 quarts or half-qtns.
192 quarts or half-qtns.
280
384
lbs.
sack of
fruit,
vegetables, or coal
,,
wheat
,,
flour
â&#x20AC;&#x17E;
bread
,,
bran
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
large sack (or a poke) of bran
Cental
= 100
=
lbs. (relatively)
3 bushels
=4
bushels.
=5 =6 =6 =8
bushels.
(Chaldron
=
1
2 sacks).
bushels.
bushels. bushels.
lbs.
Quarter =2 sacks. Quarter of wheat = 8 bushels or 480 Quarter
â&#x20AC;&#x17E;
,,
=496
sold " to arrive."
lbs. off
lbs.
stands at
(Imperial).
Mark Lane,
or
480
lbs.
when
See below.
Quarter of malt = 336 lbs. Quarter of bran = 16 bushels. Stone of bread = 16 lbs. or 8 half-quarterns. Stone of flour = 14 = 196 lbs., therefore 10 barrels = 7 sacks. Barrel = usually 5 bushels of 56 lbs., sometimes 4 bushels. Sack = 240 lbs. (Liverpool). Pack =140 lbs. (usually gross weight). Bag Area of round pipe = diameter x diameter x .7854, therefore 2-inch ,,
,,
,,
,,
,,
,,
,,
,,
,,
,,
,,
pipe
equals four times the capacity of a i-inch.
Circumference of round tub = diameter x 3.1416.
To To
convert barrels into sacks multiply by 10 and divide by
7.
convert grams to ounces avoirdupois multiply by 20 and divide by 567-
THE BOOK OF BREAD
31
To To To To To
convert kilograms to pounds multiply by looo and divide by 454. litres to
convert
litres to pints
as 5
multiply by 88 and divide by 50.
convert millimetres to inches multiply by 10 and divide by 254. convert metres to yards multiply by 70 and divide by 64.
When it
gallons multiply by 22 and divide by 100.
convert
referring
lbs.,
It
to the pint as
amount
or four times the
adopted
in
Scotland
we have given
of the pint understood in
we have always understood
the kingdom, and correct.
above
that
most parts of
and that only
be
to
appears, however, according to considerable correspondence on
somewhat elastic term, such as a quarter of wheat, because some Scotchmen in writing us concerning their bread refer to their
the point, to be a
pint as being 4 lbs.
the
same thing
;
;
another says
This pint
6 ozs.
lbs.
referred to there in exactly the
is
England, namely, without any qualifying about the same as a Scotch tories
equal 20
another says he thinks his pint
says he found his pint 4
and
5 pints
is
4
is in
same way prefix.
which, of course,
lbs.
4
ozs.
is
and another
;
general use in Scotland, as a pint
would be
The Winchester
although used extensively
pint, and,
throughout the kingdom,
is
lbs.,
not adopted even
in
in
quart
is
in labora-
Winchester
for
general use.
A quarter of wheat is even more elastic, and the baker
who
tions that
he
in flour.
He
name
closely follows markets
will find
will see the
in
There are
;
one may be equal value to the other.
This
the weight of the quarter, according to the position,
whether "on spot" or "to seller.
to
usually in the wheat quota-
same grade or brand of wheat quoted under its on the same day this is not due to differences
at widely different prices
due to the difference
it is
information and warning as to what to be prepared for
in closeness of quotation, as is
;
and
must often be mystifying
arrive,"
and
is
understood between buyer and
variations in details, according to the country
whence the
Then, again, the Government returns concerning the prices of English wheat are made up per Imperial quarter of 480 lbs., but the wheat was probably sold by its "natural" weight, which may in cases vary to the
wheat comes.
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES extent of nearly bushel,
10
lbs.
per bushel or 80
lbs.
319
A
per quarter.
Winchester
by which curiously we have seen American crop returns made,
A
about double an Imperial bushel. according to temperature
weigh 90 grains baker, and even
less.
in
;
A
letters
at
5
gallon of water varies in weight,
degs. F.
" pail "
is
more than given above
it
will
a measure often spoken of by the
and may mean any-
of details to the author,
thing; an ordinary 28-lb. lard pail
will,
however, hold about
3 gallons of
water. Degrees Centigrade.
1675
wood (20 per cent, water). kiln-dried wood (10 per cent, water). kiln-dried wood (without water). gases from wood charcoal.
1750
gases from coke.
1575.
Pyrometrical heating effect of air-dried
1675 1750^
1850,
gases from coal.
1750
best air-dried turf (25 per cent, water).
2000.
best kiln-dried turf (without water).
1800,
air-dried fibrous lignite
(brown
2025
kiln-dried fibrous lignite.
2200,
sand coal
2350. 2450,
anthracite (5 per cent, water). air-dried black charcoal.
2200
air-drieid
235O'
best air-dried peat charcoal.
2350.
good coke (10 per
2400,
best coke (5 per cent, water). best coke (no water).
2450, 1
9
10,
is
(5
per cent, water).
red charcoal.
alcohol burned in
cent, water).
air.
2458
carbon burned
4521
alcohol burned in oxygen.
6000
carbons
9873 (17803 F.
carbon burned
in air.
in electric arc in
lamps.
oxygen.
coal).
THERMOMETRICAL SCALES. Table Bhswingr the relative Proportions of the Fahrenheit, Reaumur, and
Oentlgrade Thermometrlcal Scales.
THE BOOK OF BREAD
INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS Prize Tin
....
321
THE BOOK OF BREAD
122
WORLD'S FINEST TLOUR ^ OYER
^ 40
FVfORLDUGHT]
AWARDS
'W0RLDLI6HT' is
obtained
described
dnring as
1902, '
incladiog
Champion
Silver
Cnps and
MILLED
_ FINEST Flour
by the 'London
17 Gold Medals
^
BEAUTIFULLY
6
TfemasRjgliY&SgnE!'
Miller.'
'^
LIVERPOOL.^
In Cotton Bag^s, 140
lbs.,
as above.
"WORLDLIGHT" FLOUR USED ALONE ALWAYS INCREASES TRADE
THE BOOK OF BREAD
INDEX TO CONTENTS PAGE
Acetic acid
I I
I
See Sourness
Acidity. in
Air.
09,
See Chemicals
Acids.
Age
I
Flour
129
See Ventilation
Alum
64
Antiseptics
220
66,
Barm
(see also Yeast
,,
Virgin, Parisian
Barley Bread
.
and
tables)
and Compound
.
.
58
.
58,
60
.254
.
Baked Flour for ferments 237 Baking 171 to 176 and tables 271-314 248 Bakers, number of, in U.K. Baking Powder (see also Self-raising Flour and Chemicals) 64 .
.
.
.
.
Belts, care of
.
206
.
Binding Dough Bitterness
160 .
.
.
28
.
Bladders
127
Blenders
204
Blisters
127
See Colour of Crust Boric Acid and Borax
Bloom.
.
Brakes for Dough
Bread, Composition of
.
„
Rye
\Bursts in Crust
.
.
1
Carbonic Acid Gas/ Carbolic Acid.
Changes
in
.
.
.
Carbon Dioxide
.
.
See
66, 67
204 135
175, 307-8
.254
.
.
85
84,
.
.
Brown. See Wholemeal 138,
and Barley
.
.
„
Butyric Acid
.
.... .
109,
.
.
Ventilation
1
11
157
and
Fermentation
See Antiseptics
Flour during Storage
.
129
Changes
during
3^3
PA-
THE BOOK OF BREAD
THE BOOK OF BREAD Enzymes
.
.
.
.
.
Engines, Gas and Oil
.
Exhibition Points and Bread
25
.
194
'.
.
.
81
.
.... ....
(and tables) 286, 287 (10 and 11)
Motors
Electric
Ferments
Fermentation, loss during
Methods
197-8
25>
236
.
of.
(and also tables) Finish of Loaves
Ovens
Firing of
Foreign Bread Fuel.
.... .
.
212-
See Firing See tables
Flour.
.
.
,,
Composition of
,,
Scalded
,,
Gluten of
„
Self-raising
.
,.
•
.
See Gluten
.
.6
.
.
Flavour of Bread in
,,
Flour
.... ..... ..... .....
Gas Engines Glazing Gloss
Glucose
Gluten, Glutenin, and Gliadin 34-40, 130, 186
Gluten, Percentage of
.
.....
Bread Glycerine
.
'.
.
.
.
35
.
.39, 40 102, 132
Gram Greasing Sides of Loaves
Hard Layer
Loaves
in
Handing up Heat (see also Baking) .
.
Holes
Home
in Bread.
Baking
.
Hops Hydrofluoric Acid
Illustrations,
.
.
.
.
llustratiori of Prize
90
.151 293
.
88, 120-127, 281
.... .
315 250
.
266 and methods, 292
Remarks
Particulars of
.
... .
.
.
.
Tin Loaf
70
and
on, •
66, 51
•
.
.
.
i
j
.16
S^'S
THE BOOK OF BREAD
326
JOSEPH BAKER & SONS, LIMITED. HIGHEST AWARDS AT THE WORLD'S EXHIBITIONS INCLUDING
34
GOLD MEDALS FOR
BREAD AND CAKE MACHINERY, BISCUIT MACHINERY, PATENT CONTINUOUS BAKING OVENS.
BAKER'S
NEW PATENT DECKER DRAW-PLATE CONTINUOUS
BAKING OVEN.
COMPLETE MODERN BAKERY PLANTS OF ANY Illustrated Catalogues, etc., seat free
SIZE.
on application.
ENGINEERS. WILLESDEN JUNCTION, LONDON, N.W.
THE BOOK OF BREAD
Z'^1
SONS, & JOSEPH BAKER LIMITED. BEST AND MOST UP-TO-DATE MACHINERY FOR
CAKE-MAKING.
ILLUSTRATION OF BAKER'S NEW PATENT CAKE MACHINE, COMBINED WITH EGG-WHISKING MACHINE, BOTH DIRECT DRIVEN BY ONE ELECTRIC MOTOR AND BAKER'S PATENT SPEED-REDUCING GEAR.
BAKER'S PATENT DOUGH KNEADING AND MIXING MACHINE. DIRECT COUPLED WITH ELECTRIC MOTOR AND BAKER'S PATENT SPEED-REDUCING GEAR.
AN INVALUABLE COMBINATION WHERE SPACE
IS
LIMITED.
ENGINEERS, WILLESDEN JUNCTION, LONDON, N.W.
328
Lactic Acid
THE BOOK OF BREAD
THE BOOK OF BREAD
329
WERNER, PFLEIDERER & PERKINS' STEAMPIPE OVENS FIRED WITH
PRODUCER GAS
''
Universal" Kneading^ and Mixing iViachines
Sifters,
Tempering^ Tanks, Water Heaters,
&c
PLANS, ESTIMATES AND AI,L PARTICULARS ON APPLICATION TO
REGENT SQUARE, LONDON, W.C,
THE BOOK OF BREAD
33^
WERNER, PFLEIDERER & PERKINS' X^ATEST INDENTION
"POINTON'S" PATENT
MOULDING MACHINE
Perfectly Moulds
all
Classes of Dough as fast as delivered
by the
"
LEWIS
&
POINTON " DOUGH DIVIDER
FOR FULL PARTICULARS ADDRESS
REGENT SQUARE, LONDON, W.C.
THE BOOK OF BREAD Methods
continued
n
Zl^
THE BOOK OF BREAD
THE BOOK OF BREAD
?>?>3
THOMSON'S NEW PATENT
WMl
DOOGH OIVIOIHG
PATENTS
IN
APPLIED
ALL
FOR
COUNTRIES
This Machine sub-divides accurately from bulk all kinds of bread doughs in any workable The parts are made interchangeable and to gauge. The Machine combines simplicity, compactness, and accuracy, occupying small space, requiring comparatively little power, perfect in action, and embodies all the points experience, skill, and workmanship can produce. The Machine is made to scale any unit. Indices either British standard or metric. The Standard Machine has a range of from 20 to 40 ozs., and when so required, from 8 to 40 ozs., rising by drams. Output, any required number between the rate of 2000 per hour as lowest, and 4500 as highest. Colour, lightness, and finish of the loaf are markedly superior. Condition and accuracy leave nothing to be desired. Excepting the difference of evaporation due to varying heat of Ovens, the accurate results obtained at the Baking Table are maintained condition.
Shop Counter. Inquire and ascertain what this Machine can save you. Houses in the Trade, and comes TO STAY.
at the
BREAD AND BISCUIT OVENS.
It
has been adopted by the best
BREAD AND BISCUIT MACHINERY.
DAVID THOMSON,
Ltd., ENGINEERS,
SLATEFORD ROAD, EDINBURGH. Telephone— No. 1438 CENTRAL.
Telegraphic Address— " BAKERY,
EDINBURGH."
THE BOOK OF BREAD
334
OVENS THE HEAT TRAP OVEN IS THE BEST FOR
BREAD
or
oIbakeryI FITTINGS. DOUGH TROUGH
CONFECTIONERY
MAXIMUM OUTPUT.
MINIMUM CONSUMPTION OF FUEL. These Ovens are bnilt
in the following
Complete
with
forms:
Pinboard and Cover
PORTABLE
6 6
ft.
long,
made
„ „ Legs, 5s. set of i.
For limited spaces, or where "tenant's
ft.
^^^^^
fixtures " are wish-
of Whitewood, 60s. White Deal, 52s. Castors, 7s. set of i.
BREAD RACK
ed for.
as Illustration
With
BRICK-BUILT
7
Lath Trays, mounted on
Ball Bearing Castors,
Large or
For
PRICE
Small Bakeries,
and
to
17s. 6d.
£2,
suit
every class of
ROUND LOAF PANS
trade.
Either
single
1 lb. size, 3s. 6d.
or varying tem2 lb.
„
per dozen
is.
peratures. 6s. 1, 2,
or 3 decks.
OBLONG BREAD TINS Hand-made
DRAWPLATE For
1 lb. tins, 3s.
_
per doz.
2 lb. tins, is.
per doz.
i lb. tins, 6s. per doz.
SPONGE CAKE FRAMES
Bakeries.
Easy Runand have a ning,
Speciality.
Single
or
Ad. size, 10s. 6d. per doz. rows. id. size, lis. 6d. per doz. rows.
Decker.
FIRED FROM BACK, SIDE, OR FRONT.
EXPLOSIONS IMPOSSIBLE. NO COMPLICATION OF FLUES OR DAMPERS. CONTINUOUS. ECONOMICAL. PARTICULARS FREE FROM
COX & SON, Oven
Builders,
22B Brasshouse Passage,
BIRMINGHAM.
DOUGH KNIVES,
8 in. long. Is. 3d. each.
SCRAPERS, wood handle, Is. id. each. PALETTE KNIVES, 8 in. long. Is. 6d. each. BREAD RASPS, 2s. each. ALL UTENSILS SUPPLIED.
vUa &
bUJN, OUTFITTERS,
22B Brasshouse Passage,
BIRMINGHAM.
THE BOOK OF BREAD PAGE
Water
to
Sack
.
.
Weights and Measures
Welsh Bread and
(see
tables)
Wholemeal Bread
.
also .
.
Yeast
.
163, 183
-315-9
illustrations .
.234,
305
138, 175, 252-4, 307-8
42-61
Budding of Manufacture of Starch
in
42 47. 51
49
Yeast
continued
335
33^
THE BOOK OF BREAD
Noted for
Sole Manufacturers:
BRISTOL DISTILLING COMPANY, Ltd., BRISTOL. AGENTS WANTED.
THE BOOK OF BREAD
337
SUBSCRIBERS TO THE EDITION DE LUXE OF
THE BOOK OF BREAD Mr
E. Archibald, Kingston Bakery, Glasgow.
Mr William C. Baines, loi Newland Avenue, Mr G. Bartlett, Manager, Peptine Maltine,
Hull. Ltd.,
58
Richmond Road, Aylestone Park,
Leicester.
Mr John T. Bayley, Malt Extract Maker, 15 Nona St., Seedley, Manchester. Mr T. Bursnall, Bakery Cottage, Cutler Heights, Bradford. Mr Joseph Burton, Model Machine Baker)', 7 Park St., Nottingham. Mr T. BuRDETT, 634 Stockport Road, Longsight, Manchester. Mr C. Baine, Managing Director, Messrs Wilson & Strain, Cromac St., Belfast. Mr Fred. B. Barling, 122 Albert Road, Woodstock, S. Africa. Mr F. W. Buxton, Victoria Steam Bakery, Aylestone Park, Leicester. Messrs Bonthron
Mr H.
Mr
&
Co., 106
Regent
St.,
W.
A. Blyth, British Malt Products Co., 148 Bermondsey
Alexander Currie, 28 Westminster
Terrace, Sauchiehall
Mr W. H. CoLLYER, Baker, Calverton, Notts. Mr Percy T. Chirgwin, Market Place, Penzance. Mr C. Cocks, 14 Kepler Road, Bedford Road, Clapham, Messrs Cornwell
&
Son, 21 South
Messrs Thomas Collins
Mr W.
B.
&
St.,
Manchester
Sq.,
St.,
St.,
S.E.
Glasgow.
S.W.
W.
Co., 106 Victoria St., Bristol.
Cooper, Mariners'
St.,
Lowestoft.
& Son, 22 Brasshouse Passage, Birmingham. Chalmers, W. 67 Cornwall Road, Bayswater, W. W. CowiE, 51 Mortimer Road, Kensal Rise, N.W.
Messrs Cox
Mr Mr
& Sons, i Woodchurch Road, Birkenhead, Liverpool. DoNSON, 81 Bath St., Ilkestone. W. W. Darbyshire, Lancashire Cash Bakery Co., Ltd., Blackpool. 2 u
Messrs Didsbury
Mr Mr
THE BOOK OF BREAD
338
BERMALINE BREAD THE ACME OF PERFECTION. Tell me not In mournful numbers Life is but an empty dream, Indigestion ne'er encumbers
Those who
live
on Bermaline.
Bermaline Bread The
Finest Bread in the World.
The acme "Without a
of perfection. parallel."
It
stands alone inimitable.
The Tempest, Act
Scene
2,
i.
Bermaline Bread Is
partially
pre-digested,
and forms an
ideal
food for the invalid, the young, and
the aged. "
Here
is
everything advantageous to life."â&#x20AC;&#x201D; 7%ÂŤ Tempest, Act
Scene
2,
i.
Bermaline Bread Positively prevents Indigestion, and its continued use will cure chronic Dyspepsia. " Not a resemblance, but a certainty."
Measure for Measure, Act
4,
Scene
i.
i.
Scene
2.
Bermaline Bread Awarded Gold Medal
at Glasgow.
Prize Medal at Edinburgh.
Certificate by Sanitary and Health Institute.
"Of such
possessions and so high esteem."
Taming of the Shrew, Act
Bermaline Bread Becomes more popular all
daily.
Sales
increase
phenomenally.
Rapidly eclipsing
others.
"And
not without desert so well reputed."
Two
Gentlemen of Verona, Act
2,
Scene
i.
Terms and particulars from
MONTGOMERIE &
CO., LTD.,
PARTICK, GLASGOW.
THE BOOK OF BREAD
339
Mr William Dodd, 51 Selwyn Road, Plaistow, Essex. Mr John Daniel, Baker and Confectioner, Aberavon, Glam.
Mr Mr Mr Mr
Wm. Evans, Forth Farm, W. B. Elder, Wellgreen John Eason,
i']
Thomas Earp,
Forth, Glam.
Bakery, Stirling.
Tolbooth Wynd, Leith.
6
Salmon
St.,
Loughborough.
Messrs Edme, Ltd., Mistley, Essex.
Mr Mr
L.
French, 78 Fark Road, West Dulwich, S.E.
S.
Fussell, Cross Keys Brewery, Road,
Mr Mr Mr Mr Mr Mr Mr Mr
Alfred
J.
nr.
Bath.
Gerry, Brunswick Road, Flymouth.
Union St., Coupar-Angus, N.B. D. F. Goodwin, Town Mills, Kidderminster. Frank Gunn, 72 Mytongate, Hull. Arthur E. Gurley, 128 Lichfield Road, Aston, Birmingham. John T. Godley, 515 Mansfield Road, Sherwood, Notts. W. H. Green, Manager, Co-operative Society, Colyton, Devon. T. B. Gray,
T. Gelling, 50 Frescott Road, Fairfield, Liverpool.
Mr Walter Hubbard, 508 Great Western Road, Glasgow. Mr Albert Horrocks, Newton Heath Steam Bakery,
Goodier
Manchester.
Mr John Hillas, Goodinge Road, Holloway, N. Mr W. Bertram Harris, 144 High St., Merthyr
Tydvil, S. Wales.
Messrs Thos. E. & J. Hughes, 88 Lidbury, Worcester. Mr Robert G. Hindle, 70 CreUin St., Barrow-in-Furness. Messrs Hayes Bros., Steam Bakery, Stockton Heath, Warrington. Messrs W. Handley & Son, George St., Salford, Manchester.
Mr W. Jones, Kensington, Liverpool. Mr Edw^ard Jones, 183 Horseley Heath, Tipton, Staffs. Mr A. L. Johnston, 3 Bank Buildings, Wimbledon. Mr John Jennings, Adelaide Terrace, Newcastle-on-Tyne. Mr Mr Mr Mr Mr
Keddie, 74 Woodstock Road, Belfast. R. Knapman, 12 Treherne Road, North Brixton, S.W. Arthur W. Kay, 156 Rochdale Road, Royton, Lanes.
Adam
Wm. Kennaway, Andrew Kiddie,
5
Holburn
Jones
St.,
St.,
Aberdeen.
Kimberley, S. Africa.
St.,
Newton Heath,
THE BOOK OF BREAD
340
Two Triumphs
of Manufacture
FOR BAKERS
& CONFECTIONERS
THE BUTTER SUBSTITUTE
"ELECTOL"
THE BUTTER SUBSTITUTE
EVERY VARIETY OF
CAKE DECORATIONS UTEN5IL5 ALMONDS
ESSENCES ESSENTIAL OILS
CHEMICALS CHERRIES GLACE COLOURS
FRUIT
GELATINE
CREAM POWDER BUTTER SUBSTITUTES PEELS
AND OTHER SUGARS MARGARINE CREAM OF TARTAR ICING
TARTARIC ACID,
Etc.
THE UNITED YEAST COMPANY, Registered Office
:
ii
Dantzic Street, Shudehill,
Ltd, MANCHESTER
LONDON
BRISTOL
LEEDS
2 Sheppy Place, Minories
Temple Street
Blayd's Yard, Briggate
NEWCASTLE=ON=TYNE
SHEFFIELD
Rosemary Lane, Pudding Chare
50 Nursery Street
AND AT NUMEROUS BRANCHES PLEASE WRITE FOR Monthly Price
List of Sundries, also our
comprehensive Illustrated Catalogue of Bakers' Utensils
FREE SAMPLES
THE BOOK OF BREAD
341
Mr W. H. Kenwig, 71 Mt. Vernon St., Liverpool. Mr John Kirkland, Borough Polytechnic, S.E. Messrs G. T.
Lowe &
Co.,
i
Milton
Camden St., Derby. 112 West St., Drogheda,
St., an.d
Mr Peter Lyons, Model Machine Bakery, Mr Edward Luton, 226 North St., Ashton Gate, Bristol. Mr T. Percy Lewis, Cafe Royal, Malvern. Mr W. Lee, National Bakery School, Borough Polytechnic,
Ireland.
S.E.
Mr G. Macalister (John Crawford), 69 Parliamentary Road, Glasgow. Mr C. W. Makin, Chorley, Lanes. Mr H. J. MoGRiDGE, Malt Extract Manufacturer, Loampit Hill, Lewisham, S.E. Mr Chas. Muir, The Castle Bakery, Rothesay, N.B. Mr William Moore, 63 Park Road, Liverpool. Mr Walter Moore, 50 Lawrence Road, Liverpool. Mr H. C. Morris, 228 Hackney Road, N.E. Mr J. H. Morrison, c/o James Blackledge & Sons, Derby Road Mills, Bootle, Liverpool. Messrs Robert
M'Dowell &
Son, Torphichen
St.
Bakery, Edinburgh.
Mr E. M'NicoL, 84 Shepherd's Bush Road, W. Mr James Mackenzie, 197 Morningside Road, Edinburgh. Mr George F. Mundie, 79 High St., Old Aberdeen. W. & F. Marchant, 86 Castle St., Reading. Mr H. V. Morris, 265 Park Road, Liverpool. Mr W. MosELY, Jacob St., Accrington. Mr J. Minson, 5 Bute Street, South Kensington, S.W. Mr John M'Call, Main St., Eskbank, New South Wales. Messrs
Messrs John Montgomerie
&
Co., " Bermaline," Partick, Glasgow.
Messrs Nicholas Bros., Bakers and Confectioners, Wilton Road, Salisbury. Mr W. NoRRis, 55 Abbeville Road, Clapham, S.W.
Mr Robert Oughton, Nith Mount, Dumfries. The Orange River Colony Bakery Co., Hanger
Mr Mr Mr Mr Mr
August Pohl,
St.,
Bloemfontein, O.R.C., S. Africa.
Water Lane, Brixton, S.W. W. M. Felling, Avenue Bakery, Bedford Park, W. George Robert Partridge, High St., Merstham, Surrey. H. T. Page, 3 and 5 Great Western St., Aylesbury. Frederick
87
Pile, 360 Coldharbour Lane, Brixton,
S.W.
Mr John William Read, M.C.A., Baker and Confectioner, Mr J. Redman, Henry St., St John's Wood, N.W.
Grey's Road, Henley-on-Thames.
THE BOOK OF BREAD
342
Looks down witK delight
on the
Best Things
ALL SUNDRIES USED BY BAKERS, CONFECTIONERS AND PASTRY COOKS
Samples and Particulars
Manchester
Compa 1
BRADSHAW STREET. SHUDEHILL
MANCHESTER
THE BOOK OF BREAD Mr James Raymer, Dogs Head St., Ipswich. Mr W. J. Rich, io Cracknore Road, Freemantle, Messrs G. Russell
Mr W.
Mr
&
Son, Broad
Ramsbottom, 139 Broad
St.,
Southampton.
Limerick.
Pendleton, Lanes.
St.,
K. Smith, 4 East Hermitage Place, Leith. Messrs Wm. Skinner & Son, Ltd., 477 Sauchiehall Mr A. H. Smith, Southend. J.
St.,
Glasgow.
Mr J. W. Shaw, Hunter's Bar Bakery, Sheffield. Mr A. Scrivener, 54 Bromsgrove St., Birmingham. Mr Chas. Sanders, Broadclyst, Devon. Mr H. D. SiLLiTO, Church Lane, Goldenhill, Stoke-on-Trent. Mr Gilbert B. Soduy, 51 Seaside Road, Eastbourne. Mr Walter Stephens, 8 Townsend Hill, Plymouth. Mr C. H. Slack, The Electric Model Bakery, Boar Lane, Leeds. Mr A. Schaumloffel, 42 Romford Road, E. Mr Geo. Sutton, Burrow Hill, Chobham, Woking. Messrs
Smith
J.
&
Son, Pitlochry, N.B.
Mr W. J. Stockham, Neath, S. Wales. Mr J. P. Stone, 79 Holdenhurst Road, Bournemouth. Mr F. Stevens, 45 Hope St., Wrexham. Messrs Simmons
&
Gifford, Wharf
Mills,
Winchester.
Mr Owen
Simmons, 360 Coldharbour Lane, S.W.
Messrs
Stevens, Ltd., 136 Queen
Mr
J.
S.
B.
St., Cardiff.
Seddon, 136 Stockport Road, Manchester.
Mr George Taylor, 63 Mid St., Keith, Banffshire. Mr H. J. Thomas, Machine Bakery, Griffithstown, Mon. Mr J. J. Taylor, Crown Steam Bakery, Small Heath, Birmingham. Messrs Turner
Mr
&
Son, Ltd., Nottingham.
T. E. Turner, 13 Richmond Road, Kingston-on-Thames.
Alderman Taylor, New Bond
St.,
Bath.
Mr Walter Whitmore, 3 Station Road, Redhill, Surrey. Mr W. J. Wilding, 9 Victoria St., Crewe. Mr J. J. Williams, 18 High St., Coedpoeth, Wrexham. Mr James Weare, Newbury, Gillingham, Dorset. Messrs J. B. Ward & Sons, New Road, Portsmouth. Mr Reginald Warren, 47 Cambridge St., Hyde Park Sq., W.
Mr Edward
Yates, Woolfold, Bury, Lanes.
THE BOOK OF BREAD
344
WILLIAM COOK & SONS, OVEN BUILDERS, BURNSIDE, PIERSHILL, EDINBURGH. We
can convert your range of common ovens into our system of Steam Pipe Drawplates (by placing the fires at front), without in any way altering the shape of your bakehouse.
The above illustration shows a range of "MATCHLESS" STEAM DRAWPLATE OVENS which were reconstructed from common ovens without encroaching on the bakehouse. We are reconstructing 36 ovens in all in this factory in London. Write for full particulars. We are specialists in Steam Oven building, and make them to fire from Front, Side or Back as
may be found
necessary.
STEAM DRAWPLATE OVENS. STEAM VIENNA OVENS. For Particulars apply
WILLIAM
COOK & SONS,
STEAM PEEL OVENS. STEAM PORTABLE OVENS.
to the Patentees
and Sole Makers
Burnside Works,
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;
Piershill, Edinburgrh.
THE BOOK OF BREAD
345
WILLIAM COOK & SONS, OVEN BUILDERS,
BURNSIDE, PIERSHILL, EDINBURGH.
The above
HOT PLATE and
all
is
an
illustration of
our
PATENT "MATCHLESS" STEAM
baking Scones, Muffins, Crumpets, Pancakes, Oatcakes, Hot Plate goods. The baking heat can be regulated at will to suit for
any class of goods requiring
either a slow or quick heat.
The heat is perfectly uniform all over the baking area, and the saving in fuel when compared with gas plates is in some cases 90%. These are Facts arrived at after independent tests made by some of our customers. These Hot Plates are made in lengths varying from 6 ft. to 18 ft., and are all 2 ft. 6 in. wide. They are strongly and proportionately built, and will last
a
lifetime.
For further
the Patentees
WILLIAM
and Testimonials, apply and Sole Makers
Particulars, Prices
COOK & SONS,
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;
Burnside Works, 2
X
to
Piershill,
Edinburgh.
THE BOOK OF BREAD
346
OVER 300 CUPS. MEDALS. 4 TROPHIES, AWARDED
IN
EIGHT YEARS.
EDME LIMITED have the pleasure of drawing the attention of the readers of
'
'
The Book of Bread
known
'
'
Edme
'
'
'
'
to the merits of their celebrated and well-
Gold Medal Malt Extract and
'
Edme
'
'
'
Yeast.
The Extraordinary successes achieved by users of the above at the
International Bakers Exhibition, London, 1903, and in previous years, justifies them in bringing (Our
trade.
'
'
'
Edme
'
'
products prominently before the
customers having practically secured the whole of the including
bread awards, Medal,''
'
''Champion Challenge Cup,''
''London Gold
''Best Exhibit of Bread,'' etc., etc.)
Edme Limited
'
'
solicit the favour of a trial order for either
their ''Edme'' Gold Medal Malt Extract or ''Edme'' Yeast.
Head Office and Works Depots
:
— 80
:— MISTLEY,
Cedars Road, Stratford,
Hammersmith, W.
E.
,
ESSEX.
and Down Place,
THE BOOK OF BREAD ESTABLISHED
347
1871
ANDREW GILLESPIE & SONS BAKERY ENGINEERS AND OVEN BUILDERS
KINNINQ PARK, GLASGOW
THE CELEBRATED "PREMIER" DOUGH MIXING AND KNEADING MACHINE
Specialities
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;
BREAD AND BISCUIT MACHINERY SCOTCH HAND OVENS DRAWPLATE OVENS TRAVELLING OVENS ILLUSTRATED CATALOGUES ON APPLICATION PLANS AND ESTIMATES PREPARED FOR COMPLETE BAKERIES Telephones:
National, 1666
Corporation, X225
Telegrams
"CONSIDERATE"
THE BOOK OF BREAD
348
THE SUCCESS OF THE NEW CENTURY. STRAIGHT DOUGH RECIPE. 280
lbs.
„
2
Flour
—temperature 60
deg. Fahr.
Yeast.
Malt Extract.
I „
3J „ Salt 16J Gallons of water
—temp, no
System
:
—Place
yeast).
When
and make it
over,
first
is
Extract
it
to stand
in the trough, the salt being
away from the
it
has been done, add Yeast and Malt Extract
this
and allow
a small
in
and allow
can of water (so as to keep
into dough.
and proceed
Malt
Fahr.,
degs.
remainder of water
until all the
put in the
and
the Yeast
quantity of water at 85
degs. Fahr.
it
Proof to proof
hour.
1 i
Knock
hour longer.
down and turn Then scale off,
it
in the usual way.
This method occupies four hours aU through. In making dough for Cottages and Cakes keep back some of the water, about
i
gallon, as this
dough requires to be
tighter
than Tin dough.
PIONEER MALT EXTRACT FOR WHITE AND BROWN BREADS.
.^&^
(
LONDON, 1900—Gold
Medals and Champion Cup.
NEWCASTLE, 1900—7
LOOK AT THE AWARDS
I
Medals.
LONDON, 1901—1 Medals and Diplomas. LIYERPOOL, 1901—1 1 Medals and Championship Cup. NEWCASTLE, 1901— 13 Medals and Championship Cup. LEEDS, 1902—11 Medals and Championship Medal. LIYERPOOL, 1902—17 Medals and Championship Cup. LONDON. 1902—7 Awards and Best Provincial Bread. 1
IN
OPEN COMPETITIONS GAINED BY USERS OF ABOVE
PRACTICAL RECIPE.
(
NEWCASTLE,
— r4 Awards and Champion Cup.
1902
LIYERPOOL, N0T.5, 1902^— i6AwardsandChampionCup.
Price 6d. per
JOHN
T.
lb.
can only be obtained from
BAYLEY,'"''";S^TBr™
THE BOOK OF BREAD
349
RHODES OVENS. THE CASH BAKERY, Cork, Sep.
Mr
S.
Ltd. 30, 1903.
A. Rhodes,
121
Hyde Road,
Afdwick, Manchester,
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;
Dear Sir, We have pleasure in stating that your Steam Drawplate Oven, now in use for over five months, is doing excellent work. We bake on an average daily seven batches in it, the first being A.M. and the last drawn at 7 p.m. The uniformity of the baking and bloom on crust is all that could be desired. Further, the saving in coke consumption is considerable. set at 8
Yours
faithfully,
THE CASH BAKERY, J.
J.
G. F.
LOCKE,
C.
NEWSOM,
Ltd.
Chairman.
Secretary.
STEAM DRAWPLATE OVENS. HOT AIR DRAWPLATE OVENS. (For Coke or Producer Gas Firing.)
STEAM PEEL OVENS. HOT AIR PEEL OVENS. (Single or Decker Type.;
VIENNA OVENS. PORTABLE OVENS. SPECIAL OVENS FOR MIXED TRADES.
Send for Catalogue.
S.
A
RHODES. 121 HYDE ROAD. ARDWICK, MANCHESTER.
THE BOOK OF BREAD
35"^
C/3
D
1 <0
H O E
dJ ^-l
ll
1
z > o
c
Z O a z > > o Z < Z E o
I*
THE BOOK OF BREAD
Sb
35
^afte 7Hanufaeturer(f
Sb
^on/eefionertf
ISAAC'S <^^j:> CREAM
POWDER
Equals the Best 98% Cream of Tartar.
ISAAC'S "LITEEN" A
Carriage Paid.
CREAM
32/.perowt.
pure rising powder, ready blended, requires no other
chemical adding to
ISAAC'S
42/.percwt.
Carriage Paid.
it.
VEGETABLE
BUTTER«^*g/;«»"'^-
Superior to Lard, and more economical.
PaUsi2/-
"
Carriage Paid.
ISAAC'S Made
ISAAC'S
EGG COLOUR
for cake makers
in Three Grades.
5/,
7/6
& 10/- per
BUTTER FLAVOUR
lb.
7/6 per ib.
Imparts to Cakes the rich flavour of Butter. \\ ounces sufficient for 1 cwt. Cake.
ESS. lemon TO A ar"C[ I700I?Mi^I?0 1 0/\/\\-» O tU^^\lx I\V^ li.:^
ESS. VAN ILLA
3/6, 5/6, 5/6 6/-, 7/6,
The above Goods are THE BEST of their kind. There's always a demand for but very few people can supply THE BEST, because they won't incur the expense, or take the care necessary to produce BEST GOODS. I take a delight in doing all that is wanted to produce THE BEST, and I respectfully ask you to give my goods a trial.
BEST GOODS,
SMALL LOTS
supplied as under, Carriage Paid, for Gash with Order.
^
CREAM POWDER, 1 CREAM POWDER, 2 CREAM POWDER,
<^5> No. No.
LITEEN CREAM, VEGETABLE BUTTER,
1 cwt.
per
lb.
9/6 per lb.
35'
THE BOOK OF BREAD
RICHMOND & CHANDLER, MANCHESTER Manufacturers of
Limited
"HODGKINSON'S" PATENT
BREAD=KNEADINQ MACHINERY SPECIAL PRIZE MEDAL Awarded for Bread- Kneading Machine, International Health Exhibition, London.
PRICES No. No. No. No. No. No. No. No.
to mix 14 lbs. K, for Hand, to mix 30 lbs. K, for Power, to mix 30 lbs. 1,
mix 60 lbs. KA, to mix Haif=sack
2, to
.
Hand, to mix 1 sack Power, to mix 1 sack 4, for Power, to mix 2 sacks 3, for
3, for
PULLEYS EXTRA
£5
THE BOOK OF BREAD
^Si
WE MAKE
THE FINEST FLAVOURS AND
THE FINEST COLOURS FOR
THE FINEST CAKES. The
Vegetable Colours and Fruit Essences Co., Ltd.
Confectioners'
OUR SPECIALITY
Vni
l^llUr lULIvllllLi
rOO NN L.UUi I
I
IS
The best Cake Colour Powder.
mil nil
rlVllllll bUIIIUIVi I
10s.
per
lb.
^^^ "Selected" Lemon
is
the
very
finest obtainable, and cannot be surpassed for purity, aroma and strengfth.
COLOURS FOR ICINGS.
ii;ur.\.!tiirtir.
ALL CONFECTIONERS' SUNDRIES. I^u^. Write for Current Price List
to
Manag^er,
Messina Works, Hackney Wick, London, 2
Y
N.E.
THE BOOK OF BREAD
354
BUY DIRECT FROM THE MAKER INTERNATIONAL HEALTH EXHIBITION, 1895— ONLY AWARD FOR BAKERY FITTINGS. AWARDED MEDAL BY THE SANITARY INSTITUTE, 1902. Telephone— 101
Telegrams— tonge, irlams-O'-th'-HEIGHT."
" Good Morning,
Mr TONGE."
"Good Morning, "
I
PENDLETON
Sir."
want another of your double
proving Racks and Setters for
my
drawplate ovens, but
the
fronts
time.
takes
come
to the
Rack, and carry
^^
Necessity
is
the
much
itself
bottom of out of the
way
Mother of Invention/^ and
TONGE SCORES The
too
Can you make me some-
thing to
^
want
Putting
covering.
over
covers
I
shows my Patent Proving Rack
AGAIN.
Spring Covers, which consist of Metal Rollers with Springs inside. They are so arranged as to cover and uncover the fronts of Rack in a moment, and will roll themselves up with the lightest touch clear of everything. Without donbt a revolution in Rack Covers. Can be fitted to existing Racks. These Racks are made for any capacity; also to suit any size of tin. The finest Drawplate Setter known. illustration
fitted with
The leading Manufacturer of the Day of— Moulding Tables, Kneading, Sponging, and Machine Troughs, Trucks, Racks, Patent Double and Single Provers (Portable and Stationary), Patent Proving Racks, Bread Rack and Setter Combined for
Tin and Batch Bread, Improved Rotation Pipmg Stands, Boxwood Rolling Pins, Steel Peels,
Ash and Hickory
PATENT BAIL-BEAEIMG and AMERICAN CASTORS
for
Wood
and
Shafts, etc.
TABLES, TROUGHS, TRUCKS, RACKS,
etc.
NOTE THE ADDRESS:
TOn. TflXFrC lUllUJD, THE .
^^^ \5AKt,Hy Ml IKK, HEIGHT, PENDLETON.
THE BOOK OF BREAD Telegrams: "OVENS,
^55 Telephone: 877, EDINBURGH.
EDINBURGH:
JAMES CRUICKSHANK, ESTABLISHED
OVEN BUILDER,
1868.
TIME REGISTER.
EDINBURGH. QAS BRACKETS FOR OVENS. (Stationary or Jointed
For Timing Batches in Oven.
)
12/6
Each.
PATENT PYROMETER
FURNACE BARS.
with Case
and Tube.
Sizes in inches
Price each
20
i3 1/-
22
2t
24
27
1/2 1/4 1/6 1/7 1/9
FURNACE FENDER for OVENS.
LARD CISTERN.
Cast Iron—
Tin— 14/-
8/6 Each.
Each.
Malleable Iron Built—
Copper— Scotch,
25/- Each.
Drawplate,
Steam and Flued Ovens Erected.
10/-
Each.
HOT WATER AND STEAM APPARATUS FITTED UP, CONNECTED TO OVENS. CHAFFER AND FURNACE OVENS CONVERTED TO COKE OVENS.
NEW IMPROVED PATENT WATER. HOT-PLATES.
Made
in Sizes
from
6 ft.
to 20
ft.
long by
2 ft. 6 in. broad.
6d. per working day for fueL No covers or arches to give way. Perfect cleanliness. One damper regulates the heat, which is equal throughout. All classes of hot=plate goods. baked to perfection.
These plates cost only 3d. to
Prices
No fumes.
and References on application from Sole Maker—
JAME5 CRUICK5HANK, TORPHICHEN
5T.,
EDINBURGH.
THE BOOK OF BREAD
35^
tt
THE ONLY TRUE WEIGH" AVERY " AUTOMATIC FLOUR The *
SCALE yet
(Richardson's Patent)
made
to
successfully
is
the only Machine
weigh
Flour
an
by
automatic process.
yiew
a
in
Belfast
Bakery where
8
"AVERY" Weighers
weigh the flour passing to the VJ rite
Dough Kneaders.
&
T.
Photo.
—
for Illustrated Catalogue to
W.
From a
AVERY,
MAKERS
"" «"'' BIRMINGHAM «°"°
^^°i
For the
CELEBRATED Patent 'Rapid'
Flour Sifter, GARDNER'S PATENT RAPID
Blending - ^ =
„
'^
m
GARDNERS TREBLE FEEDERS AND
Flour Mixer,
MIXER.
Power
Hoists,
SIFTER COMBINED.
Plants,
and Bakery
C 'X »
?
-i**^
Machinery,
re
t! r^
—
»S. re
3 „ = S -" X ~
c' =:
=
**
re
.
'-r-
_. ^ -.
S
Apply
W.
GARDNER & SONS, Engineers, &c.,
BRISTOL ROAD, GLOUCESTER. GARDNER'S SIFTER FITTED UNDER FLOOR FOR HAND USE.
w
GARDNERS PATENT SIFTER AND MIXER FOR SELF-RAISING FLOUR,
&C..&C.
THE BOOK OF BREAD
^otm
351
Iftovelties in Siscuits.
"BONNIE DUNDEE"
A
Marmaladip Sandwich To Sell at 4d. per
"MIKADO"
A sweet
.
Raspberry Jam Cocoanut
biscuit piped with
and covered with
fine
6d.
per
lb.
To Sell at
6d.
per
lb.
To Sell at
6d.
per
lb.
To Sell at
8d.
per
lb.
To Sell at
"CREAMERY"
An Unsweetened Lunch
"COCOANUT ROCKS"
A Rough
"ADELAIDE"
A
ICE WAFERS.
lb.
Biscuit
Drop-Biscuit
Rich Finger-Biscuit
SUGAR WAFERS.
FRUIT WAFERS.
SEND POST CARD FOR FULL PRICE
LIST.
ALFRED HUGHES, BISCUIT MANUFACTURER,
BIRMINGHAM. Patent Drawplate
Steampipe Ovens
Peaton's
and
Modern Bakery Machinery.
Catalogues,
Patent Consultations,
SIow= Estimates and
Combustion Plans free of Furnaces. charge.
HENRY HEATON,
'':^^^;^o^'[TS.''Li^T%':^s^oZ':'-
LONDON,
N.E.
THE BOOK OF BREAD
358
LIVER5IDQE & 50N,
J.
LIMITED YAN, CART, & CARRIAGE BUILDERS Chief Factories 196
OLD STREET,
What
is
E.G.
561
OLD KENT ROAD,
S.E.
the reason of the popularity of
COLLINS' OVENS? because they are the best value for money. They give complete satisfaction wherever erected. In support of this, note the fact that we have received It is
This
REPEAT ORDERS.
OVER
100
in itself is
convincing proof of their superiority.
Write
for
a catalogue and read the opinion of others.
COLLINS & THOMAS STEAM OVEN BUILDERS. 106
CO..
VICTORIA STREET, BRISTOL.
THE BOOK OF BREAD
"THE BOOK
"TEE BOOK IS
THE
COMPANION TO
OF
GflKES." By T. PERCY LEWIS Edition de Luxe, £i,
359
lis.
WORK
OF
BHEM" and A. G.
BROMLEY. Ordinary Edition, i6s.
6d.
Limited to 250 Copies.
THE FINEST BOOK ON CAKES EVER PRODUCED.
The
Illustrations The usual methods of book illustration— woodcut, line, and half-tone—are all good in their way but while they convey an idea of shape and design, they do not indicate the true appearance of the Cake as regards colour. In "THE BOOK OF CAKES" all the fancy and decorated Cakes are shown in Colours. There are ;
48
ranging
HANDSOME COLOURED PLATES ILLUSTRATING NEARLY 450 DESIGNS AND CAKES,
from one penny upwards. To is by one of the leading firms of Lithographers in the Kingdom. ensure accuracy, the Illustrations were prepared from the actual Cakes represented. These Cakes—the best of their kind—were specially made for the purpose by the Authors and other prominent English and Scotch Confectioners. in price
The Lithography
Contents The Recipes
in
"THE BOOK OF CAKES"
are
working: Recipes,
clearly written,
without unnecessary "padding." The Authors have sought to make their working instructions easy to follow, and where twenty words only were necessary to convey to the readers the method of making a Cake, they have not used fifty words to attain their object. It is impossible to give detailed particulars of contents, but the following will give a fair idea of the scope of the work :
WEDDING, BIRTHDAY,
and
CHRISTENING CAKES
(8 Plates).
DECORATED GATEAUX, at various prices. DECORATED SAVOYS. PENNY and TWO-PENNY FANCY and GENOESE GOODS,
including
Decorated
Cream Goods
SHORTBREAD,
(Eclairs, etc.),
Choux
Plain and Decorated.
COUNTER GOODS. MERINGUE GOODS, Shells,
&
Cake Tops,
etc.
Charlotte Russe, etc.
NOUGAT. SPECIMENS OF PIPING,
FILLINGS. Floral,
Monograms,
Letter-
ing, Scrolls, etc.
SIMNELS. FANCY PASTRY. GENERAL CAKES,
FANCY BISCUITS. sueh as Genoas, Sponges, Madeira, Pound, etc.
Fruit, Cherry, Tennis, Luncheon,<Seed,
Built Meringues, etc.
The Book contains 288 pp.
|«flGMl{E|i
TRIFLES,
Sponge and Genoese
Fancies, Sandwiches, Presburgs, Maserenes, Apricotines, Chocolate Goods, Ginger, Viennese, Madelines, etc., etc.
varieties,
PETITS FOURS, Glacg and Sec. MARZI PAN WORK, Fruits and Flowers,
GINGERBREADS. A Chapter on MATERIALS.
(In addition to plates),
SOliS, 37 and 38
same
SHOE
Etc., Etc.
size as "Tlie Booli of
Bread."
LAJlE, IiOJlOOH, E.G.
THE BOOK OF BREAD
360
OOKS FOR
B AKERS.
The
BRITISH
CAKE DECOSATIOM. By E. Schnlbe. 2nd Edition. The most complete and elaborate work on the decoration of
BAKER
cakes, containing beantiful photographic reprodnctions of sides, and ornaments. Price 9s. 4d., post free.
cake tops,
THE BRITISH BAKER'S SELECTED RECIPES. collection of practical
from the writings of leading authorities.
is
unquestionably the
"Times"
2s. 8d.,
of
Illnstrated.
Price
post free.
THE PRINCIPLES OF BREAD-HAKIHG. By
William
Jago, 'F.C.S., F.I.C. Adopted as the standard work by the National Association of Master Bakers and Confectioners. Cloth CoYers, 2s. ; post free, 3d. extra.
the Baking and Confectionery (Flour)
CAKES AND
Trade.
A
and ap-to-date recipes compiled
HOW TO HAKE THEM.
By
Fred. T. Yine
Compton Dene "). Folly Illustrated. 3s. 6d. ; postage, 3d. extra. 2nd Edition now ready. ICES: Plain and Decorated. How to Hake and How to Serye. By F. T. Vine. Contents -.â&#x20AC;&#x201D;Introduction ; tools and utensils necessary; how to make and how. to freeze ; recipes and instructions ; cream ices, water ices, puddings souffles, and fancy ices ; sherbets, punch, and iced drinks ; how to model decorated ices, etc. 20 coloured designs of dished ices. Over 160 proYed recipes. Price 3s. 6d., bound in cloth ("
FIRST IN CIRCULATIOH.
.
FIRST IW INFLUENCE-
post free, 3d. extra.
FIRST IN VALUE.
HINTS ON MODERN CAKE-MAKING. By G. D. Lynm Contains working recipes, faults and flaws in cakes, etc. The best book for Slab and other factory cakes. Price 3s. 9d., post free.
YIENNA AND OTHER FANCY BREADS. By
Upwards
of
8000
Giving
Bakers read
it
and Fancy Breads.
all
Vienna
THE BRITISH BAKER'S GUIDE TO BOOK-KEEPING. By W. Heycock Rippin. The simplest and best methods clearly
regularly.
explained.
simple, and safe system for CYeryone. Contains full explanation of how to change irregular system into double
How to draw out Prodt and Loss Account and Balance Sheet, besides other Yalnable Hints. Second Edition,
entry.
post free, 2s. 8d.
for
SUITABLE GOODS FOR HOT PLATES. By
BAKER5.
The most complete work on other Hot-Plate Goods.
H. Gribbin.
Muffins, Crumpets, Scones,
Price Is. 6d.
;
and
post free. Is. 8d.
SUMMER COOKERY. By S. Hobbs. Being the Summer Section of " The Kitchen Oracle." Dealing with the portion of this successful work on seasonable catering for the period of the year from May to October. Price 2s. lOd., post free.
Annual Subscription,
Book
and Postage,
J. Allison.
A sure,
BAKERS
including Year
Price Is. 9d., post free.
BOOK-KEEPING FOR SMALL TRADERS. By
Written by
Id.
H. Gribbin.
the manufacture of Price 3s. 9d., post free.
full instructions for
6/6
CONFECTIONERY CRITIQUES. By
H. G. Harris.
Being
and Opinions on the Confectionery Competitions of the 10th International Exhibition, Agricultural HaU, 1902. Criticisms
Price 2s. 2d., post free.
Weekly.
Other Trade Works kept in Stock.
MACLAREN
<a
SONS.
TECHNICAL BOOK PUBLISHERS,
37 and 58
SHOE LANE, LONDON,
E.C.
mm^
â&#x20AC;¢
*l