The Legends Journal of European History Studies ( LJEHS) E-ISSN: 2718-0190 Issue/ Sayı: 3 Year/ Yıl: 2022 Makale Türü/ Article Type: Araştırma Makalesi/ Research Article DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.29228/legends.62608 Atıf / Cite As: Küskü, Elif, “Examination of Scientific Revolution Medicine on the Human Body”, The Legends Journal of European History Studies, S.3, 2022, ss. 27- 45. EXAMINATION OF SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION MEDICINE ON THE HUMAN BODY BİLİMSEL DEVRİM TIBBINI İNSAN BEDENİ ÜZERİNDEN İNCELEMEK Elif KÜSKÜ* ÖZ Rönesans’tan alınan bilgi birikimiyle Avrupa’da özellikle İtalya, İngiltere ve Fransa başta olmak üzere Hollanda, Danimarka gibi ülkelerde gerçekleşen Bilimsel Devrim dönemi yeni bilgilerin kabul gördüğü ve geleneksel bilgilerden kopuş sürecini temsil etmektedir. Bilimsel Devrim, Kopernik’in Güneş merkezli evren teorisini öne sürdüğü “De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium”u yayınlandığı yıl olan 1543’te başlayan sürecin Newton’ın teorileriyle zirve noktaya ulaştığı bir dönemi kapsamaktadır. Bu sebeple çalışmanın zaman aralığı genellikle 17. yüzyıl olmakla birlikte 16. yüzyıldaki örnekleri de kapsamaktadır. Bilimsel Devrim döneminin en önemli gelişmeleri şüphesiz astronomi ve matematik alanlarında sağlanırken, Rönesans’ta artan anatomi çalışmalarının sonucu olarak tıp alanında da bazı ilerlemelerin gerçekleştiği görülmektedir. Dolayısıyla çalışma, Rönesans’tan alınan tıp bilgisiyle Bilimsel Devrim sürecindeki insan bedeni üzerinden açıklamayı hedeflemektedir. Çalışmamızda insan bedenine bakış ve hasta ile sağlıklı insan kavramları üzerinde durulurken, insanları tedavi eden meslek grupları da incelenmeye çalışılmıştır. Bilimsel Devrim sürecinde matematik ve astronomi gibi bilimlerde köklü değişiklikler görülürken tıp alanında ise yeni anlayışlar benimsenmiş olmasına rağmen geçmişteki bilgilerden ve folklorik öğelerden tam manasıyla kopulamamıştır. ABSTRACT The Scientific Revolution period, which took place in Europe, especially in Italy, England and France with the knowledge gained from the Renaissance, represents the process of breaking away from traditional knowledge, in which new knowledge is accepted. The Scientific Revolution covers a period in which the process that started in 1543, the year when Copernicus's "De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium" was published, in which Copernicus proposed the heliocentric theory of the universe, reached its peak with Newton's theories. While the most important developments of the Scientific Revolution period were undoubtedly provided in the fields of astronomy and mathematics, it is seen that some advances were made in the field of medicine as a result of the increased anatomy studies in the Renaissance. Therefore, the study aims to explain the human body in the process of the Scientific Revolution with the medical knowledge taken from the Renaissance. In our study, while focusing on the view of the human body and the concepts of sick and healthy people, the occupational groups that treat people have also been tried to be examined. While radical changes were seen in sciences such as mathematics and astronomy during the Scientific Revolution, new understandings were adopted in the field of medicine, but it could not be completely disconnected from the past knowledge and folkloric elements. Anahtar Kelimeler Bilimsel Devrim, Erken Modern Dönem Avrupa Tıbbı, Berber Cerrahlar, Askeri Cerrahlar, Ebeler. Keywords The Scientific Revolution, Early Modern Europe Medicine, Barber-Surgeons, Military Surgeons, Midwives. Yüksek Lisans Öğrencisi, İstanbul Teknik Üniversitesi, elifaslankusku@gmail.com, ORCID: 0000-0001-8391-5879. Geliş Tarihi/ Received:24/05/2022 Kabul Tarihi/ Accepted::02/08/2022 Yayın Tarihi/ Published:27/09/2022 * 27 Examination of Scientific Revolution Medicine on the Human Body| Elif KÜSKÜ Introduction While personal observations that increased with the Renaissance revealed new ideas against traditional knowledge, these new ideas are important in terms of supporting them with evidence during the Scientific Revolution.1 On the other hand, the interest of natural philosophers in astronomy caused a relationship between astronomy and the human body, thus the macrocosmos-microcosmos relationship, which is thought to be based on the ancient Babylonians, started to become popular again.2 In this framework, the parts of the body were associated with the signs, together with the newly recognized planets in the universe.3 Physicians, who made interpretations of temperaments through the planets by including the four theories of Hippocrates in the association, intervened in the patient at the right times when the planets were in a favorable position.4 Harvey also joined this view, which continued to exist in the 17th century, by defining the heart; According to him, the heart was "the sun of the microcosmos"5 and "it is the source and foundation from which all power rests in the living body, from which all power emerges."6 In 1628, when his book was published, we see that the new astronomy affected on the body, as the Heliocentric Theory of the Universe was now accepted and it was likened to the Sun, whose heart is at the center of the universe. Two important inventions in the microcosm-macrocosm relationship are also important in terms of being in the 17th century; While the telescope was actively developed and used for astronomy, the microscope also made microlevel creatures, especially the human body, visible.7 Another view that showed its influence in the 17th century is that the universe is seen as a mechanically functioning machine, whose artist is believed to be God. The human body was also included in this view, and the body began to be perceived as a production machine. Descartes, one of the most important advocates of mechanical philosophy, while working on a series of similarities between mechanical clocks and the movements of all natural beings, sees the human body as a part of this process.8 While Descartes adopted the idea that the human body is a machine made of earth, he saw the soul and mind as separate substances from the body.9 The perception of the body as a machine attracted the attention of anatomists and surgeons as well as natural philosophers. While Fabrici d'Acquapendente (1533-1619) explained the operation of heart valves in 1603 by basing them on images such as mills, dams, warehouses10; Harvey thought that the heart worked like a pump that sucked in and sprayed fluid.11 Harvey's theory was an important contribution to the new mechanical philosophy. In fact, the treatment of living organisms and their parts as mechanical systems started especially with Leonardo da Vinci.12 Leonardo thought that the human anatomy had mechanical functions, so he drew wires instead of muscles in his drawings. In his drawings, the joints worked like hinges, while the arm and leg movements worked in line with the principles of leverage. 13 Although new ideas about having a healthy body emerged during the scientific revolution, the "Humoral Pathology Theory" from Ancient Greece remained valid until the beginning of the 17th century. According to this view, which was systematized together with Hippocrates, having a healthy body meant that the four galls (blood, yellow bile, black bile, phlegm) in the body were balanced with each other. In other words, the diseases were caused by an imbalance of body fluids. For this reason, while applying diet lists and various treatments to patients; improvements were made to the theory 1 Steven Shapin, The Scientific Revolution, The University of Chicago Press, London 1998, p.5. Bedenin Tarihi 1 Rönesanstan Aydınlanmaya, (Translator Saadet Özen), Alfa Publication, İstanbul 2021, p.453-454. 3 Princeton University, “Zodiac Man”, https://www.princeton.edu/~his291/Zodiac_Dude.html Date of Access: 23.01.2022. 4 Patricia Fara, Bilim Dört Bin Yıllık Bir Tarih, (Translator Aysun Babacan), Metis Publications, İstanbul 2021, p.119-121. 5 Alain Corbin, Jean- Jacques Courtine, Georges Vigarello, Bedenin Tarihi 1 Rönesanstan Aydınlanmaya, p.453. 6 Stephen F. Mason, Bilimler Tarihi, (Translator Umur Daybelge), Türk Tarih Kurumu, Ankara 2019, p. 199. 7 Richard S. Westfall, Modern Bilimin Oluşumu, (Translator İsmail Hakkı Duru), Alfa Publications, İstanbul 2015, p.113. 8 Steven Shapin, The Scientific Revolution, p.33-34. 9 René Descartes, Felsefenin İlkeleri, (Translator Mesut Akın), Say Publications, İstanbul 2017, p. 72. 10 Alain Corbin, Jean- Jacques Courtine, Georges Vigarello, Bedenin Tarihi 1 Rönesanstan Aydınlanmaya, p.451. 11 George Basalla, “William Harvey and the Heart As a Pump” Bulletin of the History of Medicine, September-October, 1962, Vol. 36, No.5, p. 467-470. 12 Stephen F. Mason, Bilimler Tarihi, p. 203. 13 George Sarton, Leonardo Da Vinci, (Translator Yavuz Unat), Muhayyel Publications, İstanbul 2019, p. 22. 2 Alain Corbin, Jean- Jacques Courtine, Georges Vigarello, 28 Issue/ Sayı: 3, Year/Yıl:2022 The Legends Journal of European History Studies that temperaments14 may vary due to the ratio of body fluids in individuals.15 In the 17th century, coffee and tobacco, which became widespread in Europe, were included in the theory of hilt and it was recommended that individuals be consumed according to their temperament. For example, because coffee is seen as an extremely drying and mind-opening substance, it was recommended for phlegmatic individuals to dry phlegm. Thus, it was believed that the lethargy in the individual would disappear. Tobacco, on the other hand, was not a problem for people with choleric to drink, as it had a calming feature, unlike the mind-opening feature of coffee. It also causes the removal of excess fluid from the body, such as coffee.16 It is possible to talk about two more theories developed as alternatives to the theory of liquids. The first of these is that Paracelsus (d. 1541) mentioned the importance of chemical components in the human body. According to him, the human body was mainly composed of mercury, sulfur and salt. He also drew attention to the balance of these chemicals in the body, similar to the four-hilt theory.17 John Baptist van Helmont (1580-1644) argued that the basic substance of the body should be water.18 Although it is a common view from the past to the 17th century that what is necessary for a healthy body is the theory of fluids in the body, the existence of disease-causing external substances has started to be talked about gradually. 1. Getting Sick19 During the Scientific Revolution While the view that one will be healthy with balanced body fluids, Paracelsus and van Helmont brought new views to the concept of disease. According to the Hippocratic and Galenian views, the disease is caused by the imbalance and incompatibility of the body fluids, while according to Paracelsus, a disease can be considered as "Archeus20". Archeus damage the body they invade. Paracelsus also argued that diseases are transmitted from person to person through contact or through the air. Similarly, van Helmont defined the disease as an external substance. Both thought that chemical drugs should be used in diseases.21 In Hippocrates' view, illness is the body's struggle with the agents of illness, and the main thing is the nature of the patient. With Paracelsus, diseases rather than the patient came to the fore and more thought began on the causative agents of diseases with names such as Thomas Sydenham and van Helmont. Those who agreed that disease-causing things came from outside, argued that every disease should have its own medicine.22 The most important epidemic disease of this period is the plague, as in the past. Between 1347 and 1722, there were frequent plague epidemics in Europe by caravans from Asia. One of them caused the death of an estimated 280 thousand people in Italy between 1629 and 1631; In the epidemic in 1665-1666 England (Great London Epidemic), at least 70 thousand of the population of 450 thousand people in the city of London died during the epidemic.23 Newton was one of those who suffered from the great plague epidemic. Due to the epidemic that broke out while he was graduating and preparing for his master's degree, the authorities closed Cambridge University and Newton had to return to his village. Newton later wrote of the plague years: “I was at the most suitable age for exploration, and I was more engaged in mathematics and philosophy (i.e. science) than at any other time in my life.”24 The years in which he found several methods in mathematics, carried out his related studies in the 14 Sanguine (warm and friendly), Phlegmatic (slow-moving, lethargic), Melancholic (sad, calm), Choleric (excitable). Colin A. Ronan, Bilim Tarihi Dünya Kültürlerinde Bilimin Tarihi ve Gelişimi, (Translator Ekmeleddin İhsanoğlu and Feza Günergun), Tübitak Publications, Ankara 2003, p.95-96. 16 Wolfgang Schivelbusch, Keyif Verici Maddelerin Tarihi Cennet, Tat ve Mantık, (Translator Zehra Aksu Yılmazer), Kırmızı Kedi Publications, İstanbul 2020, p.51-52, 107-111. 17 Zeki Tez, Bilimde ve Sanayide Kimya Tarihi, Nobel Akademik Publications, Ankara 2020, p.153. 18 Stephen F. Mason, Bilimler Tarihi, p. 212-213. 19 The word disease was used for this article to describe people who need treatment and surgical interventions. 20 He used this term for the power that produces growth, and this definition applies to disease as well. 21 Stephen F. Mason, Bilimler Tarihi, p. 207-217. 22 Encyclopædia Britannica, “Thomas Sydenham”, https://www.britannica.com/biography/Thomas-Sydenham, Date of Access: 25.01.2022; Roy Porter, Kan Revan İçinde Tıbbın Kısa Tarihi, (Translator Gürol Koca), Metis Publications, İstanbul 2016, p.108. 23 Irwin W. Sherman, Dünyamızı Değiştiren On İki Hastalık, (Transalator Emel Tümbay and Mine Anğ Küçüker), Türkiye İş Bankası Kültür Publications, İstanbul 2017, p.103-104. 24 Richard S. Westfall, Newton: Isaac Newton’ın Biyografisi, (Translator Orhan Düz), Alfa Publications, İstanbul 2018, p.156-158. 15 29 Examination of Scientific Revolution Medicine on the Human Body| Elif KÜSKÜ field of optics, thought about gravity, and what would later be called the "annus mirabilis (year of miracles)" coincided with the plague epidemic.25 The most common type of plague, bubonic plague, which kills the masses, is transmitted by fleas that suck the blood of an infected rodent.26 Girolamo Fracastoro (1478-1533) thought that the causative agent of the plague, which was understood to be contagious in the first epidemics, was "infectious seeds". Until the 17th century, when the Scientific Revolution took place, and even the 19th century, when modern medicine was developed, no treatment method was applied to epidemic diseases.27 When the plague broke out in the 14th century, leprosy homes became the first plague hospitals.28 For this reason, we see that measures are taken to reduce the contagion situation rather than treatment. Already in the 17th century, hospitals were generally institutions where the lowest part of the population such as the poor, mentally ill, prostitutes and orphans went and basic medical interventions were made.29 In addition to epidemics such as the plague, the situations in which people are most damaged or killed are wars, as in the past. For this reason, I have devoted the subject of the next chapter to the people who were wounded in the war. 2. Be Wounded in Battle War periods appear as the periods in which technologies, scientific and practical knowledge are transferred the fastest, and developments manifest themselves in every field.30 In the Renaissance, the Scientific Revolution or the Age of Enlightenment, while scientific developments increased incomparably compared to the past, European people continued to fight as in every period. Especially in the three-hundred-year period from 1500 to 1800, the rise in the West is a result of the military revolution, as well as the processes such as geographical discoveries, the Renaissance, and the Scientific Revolution. In the 16th and 17th centuries, when larger armies fought, military logistics meant logistics not only of soldiers, ammunition and supplies but also of wounded soldiers.31 In order to prevent further loss of life from war wounds and to intervene quickly, the wounded soldiers were transferred to military hospitals and treated.32 Well-organized health services aim to minimize the loss of life on the battlefields. Thanks to private entrepreneurs33, gunpowder emerged as a technology that is used more frequently in wars and determines the course of the war, but types of wounds have also changed with explosive weapons. In addition to the injuries such as cuts and stabs in the body caused by non-firearms such as swords and arrows, burns and fragments caused by firearms on the body were added, necessitating more serious operations in soldiers, thus causing the development of surgery. Military surgical instruments seem to have changed little between the 16th and 19th centuries. The most used of these tools are the saw required for amputation and the many long, sharp and thin tools.34 The distinction between surgeons and doctors who would use these instruments had existed sharply since Ancient Greece, but surgeons were not respected as physicians. Because the important thing in medicine, which is seen as a sacred profession and art, is to treat the patient without harming the body.35 Colin A. Ronan, Bilim Tarihi Dünya Kültürlerinde Bilimin Tarihi ve Gelişimi, p.387-388. Irwin W. Sherman, Dünyamızı Değiştiren On İki Hastalık, p.104. 27 Meral Erdoğan, 18. Yüzyılın Sonu 19. Yüzyılın Başlarında Osmanlı Devleti’nde Veba Yılları (İzmir Örneği), Eskişehir Osmangazi University Social Sciences Institute, Master Thesis, Eskişehir 2017, p.34. 28 Özlem Dikeçligil, Osmanlı İmparatorluğu’nda Miskinler Üsküdar Miskinler Tekkesi’nin Sosyal ve İktisadi Etkileri, Kitabevi Publications, İstanbul 2017, p.39-41. 29 Roy Porter, Kan Revan İçinde Tıbbın Kısa Tarihi, p.140-141. 30 It is possible to give an example of the Crimean War as an important war in which technology developed. In the war that took place between 1853-1856, it pioneered many developments from railways to telegraph networks, from photographic technology to ship technology; In terms of medical history, progress has been made in the institutionalization of nursing and the fight against epidemic diseases. 31 Mehmet Çetin, Recep Kök, “Askeri Devrim Bağlamında Batı Savaş Lojistiğinin Tarihsel Gelişimi”, Siyaset, Ekonomi ve Yönetim Araştırmaları Journal, 2015, Year. 3, Vol. 3, No. 4, p. 7. 32 Geoffrey Parker, Askeri Devrim Batı’nın Yükselişinde Askeri Yenilikler 1500-1800, (Translator Tuncay Zorlu), Küre Publications, İstanbul 2018, p. 155. 33 Philip T. Hoffman, Avrupa Neden Dünyayı Fethetti?, (Translator Mihriban Doğan), Say Publications, İstanbul 2019, p. 173-179. 34 Geoffrey Parker, Askeri Devrim Batı’nın Yükselişinde Askeri Yenilikler 1500-1800, p. 156. 35 Ali Haydar Bayat, Tıp Tarihi, Merkezefendi Geleneksel Tıp Derneği, İstanbul 2010, p. 111-117. 25 26 30 Issue/ Sayı: 3, Year/Yıl:2022 The Legends Journal of European History Studies Hippocrates knew that the intricacies of surgery can be learned in battle. Starting from the 16th century, surgery began to develop more systematically and treatment methods changed. 36 Thanks to the contributions of Ambroise Paré (1510-1590), who is called the father of modern surgery, in the systematization of surgery, the profession of surgery began to be among the professions considered important. Paré worked as a military surgeon in the French army for a long time, contributing to the improvement of the technique on wounds. Paré's first trip to war was soon after the first use of firearms. Since bullet wounds were different from the wounds they had treated before, senior surgeons, who saw this type of wound they encountered for the first time as poisonous, preferred to cauterize the area by pouring hot oil to treat it and remove the poison from the skin. Paré, who found himself among the wounded during the siege of Metz, did not apply hot oil treatment to some of the wounded because there was not enough hot oil, but he attached importance to dressing. Soldiers who were cauterized with hot oil a few days later still suffer and their wounds do not heal; however, he noticed that wounds that were not treated with boiling oil began to heal. He abandoned the old ways of treatment and began to seek new healing methods. He considered tying the severed arteries with double cords instead of cauterizing them with a hot iron, the method that inflicted even more pain on a soldier who was badly wounded in the leg by a cannonball during another war. This discovery broke new ground in surgery.37 Painful methods were gradually abandoned, and amputations, which used to be very difficult, have become a simple surgical procedure performed even on ships.38 The developments that led to the development of surgery and its importance, started in the 16th century and continued in the 17th century with the application of new techniques learned. In this development, in which military surgeons played an important role, in the 17th century, even the drugs taken on warships became medical materials controlled by surgeons. 39 While military surgeons undertake the treatment of soldiers, barber-surgeons usually come to the fore in the treatment of civilians. The main theme of Chapter 3 is about people who treat civilians. 3. Barber Surgeons and the Others Until the 18th century, the people who treated the public were mostly not those who taught and gave education in medical faculties; In the 17th century, they were not included in the increasingly scientific environment, such as bathers, midwives and healers, especially barbersurgeons. There may be many reasons why this is so, but one of the most important reasons is that most barber-surgeons usually travel on a mobile basis and the procedures are relatively inexpensive.40 In addition, physicians teaching at universities in the 17th century still saw themselves as observers and consultants, not as active players in the healing process. 41 Dexterity in the medical profession was seen as being able to treat the patient without the need for surgical intervention in the patient's body. Therefore, for many centuries, especially in Northern Europe, surgery was not regarded as a respected profession among university physicians, as it was practiced together with barbering. However, it did not separate surgery and surgery from medicine in the Salerno Medical School, which was an important medical school of the Middle Ages in Southern Europe, especially in Italy. Barber-surgeons emerged as the assistants of "Bathrooms", the first examples of which were seen in Ancient Greece. The removal of excess fluid from the body through sweating in the bath and the acceleration of blood circulation was seen as an activity that were good for body health. To balance the body fluids, the bathers performed procedures such as enema, blood collection and cupping by emptying the intestines, while shaving their customers, pulling teeth and selling Roy Porter, Kan Revan İçinde Tıbbın Kısa Tarihi, p.119. Francis Dickie, “Ambroise Pare: A Barber's Apprentice Who Became the Greatest Surgeon of His Time”, The American Journal of Nursing, October 1931, Vol. 31, No. 10, p. 1145. 38 Roy Porter, Kan Revan İçinde Tıbbın Kısa Tarihi, p.120. 39 Feza Günergun, “Osmanlı Donanma Gemilerinin İlaç Sandıkları: Ondokuzuncu Yüzyıl Başına Ait Bir Araştırma”, Osmanlı Bilimi Araştırmaları Dergisi, (2009-10), Vol. 11, No. 1-2, p.236- 237. 40 Erwin H. Ackerknecht, “From Barber-Surgeon To Modern Doctor”, Bulletin of the History of Medicine, Winter 1984, Vol. 58, No. 4, p. 546. 41 Roderick E. McGrew (Ed.), “Barber-Surgeons”, Encyclopedia of Medical History, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York 1985, p.30-31. 36 37 31 Examination of Scientific Revolution Medicine on the Human Body| Elif KÜSKÜ ointments.42 Not long after, the barber-surgeons, who left the assistantship of the bathers, were first introduced to M.S. It was recognized in monasteries around 1000 BC. But later, when monks were forbidden to perform surgery, barbers began to perform all surgical procedures. For this reason, barber-surgeons gathered around the guild in very early times, formed guilds with a religious character.43 Founded in London in 1376, the Union of Barbers is the first example seen among guilds. Beginning to gain prominence in the thirteenth century, barber-surgeons were known as long-robed surgeons at the College of St. Côme, founded in 1210 in Paris. While those in long robes are those who perform surgery, those in short robes are physicians who perform special examinations. The barber-surgeons, who rebelled against this discrimination, asked for cadavers to do anatomy at the Paris Medical Faculty.44 The establishment of guilds by barber-surgeons in France in the 14th century is a reaction to the discrimination they see in universities. Barber-surgeon communities, which have emerged as more complex structures over the years, have tried to become a respected profession like medicine by separating themselves from barbering over the years. Since the 16th century, the Vienna Medical Faculty has directed barber-surgeons to employment in the medical service by conducting examinations.45 In the 17th century, we can define barber-surgeons as people who act more systematically in their work and are more educated and take courses in universities. Barber-surgeons, who maintained their dominance until the 18th century, were more numerous than university doctors in most European cities.46 The barber-surgeons, whom we have seen organized since the 13th century, were King IV. They acquired legal personality in Edwardian London and became a city company. There was also an ancient, few and poor, "Surgeons' Guild" called the "Fraternity" and consisted mostly of military surgeons. The surgeons merged into the Company of Barbers in 1540 and remained members of a combined company for two hundred years until they finally separated in 1745, forming the Company of Surgeons, a movement accompanied by much controversy. From this institution developed the current College of Surgeons, which was founded on March 22, 1800 and celebrated its centennial year last year.47 Like their counterparts at other uniforms companies, elite officials of the Barber-Surgeons' Company in London (the city's largest and most civilly active group of medical practitioners) sought to defend the legitimacy of their profession by enforcing regulations, ensuring fraternal behavior, and controlling trade borders.48 So what were the barber-surgeons who took an active role in European medicine until the 18th century? Barber-surgeons are a rather complicated community, who, in addition to the profession of barbering, treat the public by performing surgical operations, and are divided according to the type of surgical procedures. Barber-surgeons, who had practical knowledge to meet the basic medical needs of the people rather than theoretical knowledge, were performing surgical operations that physicians did not like to do, such as tooth extraction, bladder stone removal (lithotomy), insanity stone removal, draining pus from swelling in the body. The activities of barber-surgeons may also differ in various regions of Europe.49 In this article, a general barber-surgeon profile is tried to be created and their treatments are discussed. For this reason, discussions about barber-surgeons were not mentioned. We must not forget, however, that in the early modern period there were no rigid boundaries between medical duties and occupations. Therefore, the procedures were performed by many medical groups.50 42 Zeki Tez, Meslekler Tarihi Eskiçağdan Günümüze Zanaatsal ve Sanatsal Uğraşlar, İnkılâp Publications, İstanbul 2016, p.100- 101. 43 Sidney Young, The Annals of The Barber-Surgeons of London, Blades, East & Blades, London 1890, p.21. Roderick E. McGrew (Ed.), “Barber-Surgeons”, Encyclopedia of Medical History, p.31. 45 Zeki Tez, Meslekler Tarihi Eskiçağdan Günümüze Zanaatsal ve Sanatsal Uğraşlar, p.104. 46 Erwin H. Ackerknecht, “From Barber-Surgeon To Modern Doctor”, p.546. 47 Sir William MacCormac, “The Company of Barber and the Royal College of Surgeons of England”, The British Medical Journal, Mar. 30, 1901, Vol. 1, No. 2100, p.781. 48 Celeste Chamberland, “Honor, Brotherhood, and the Corporate Ethos of London’s Barber-Surgeons’ Company, 1570-1640”, Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences, July 2009, Vol. 64, No. 3, p.303-304. 49 For more detailed information: Margaret Pelling, The Common Lot: Sickness, Medical Occupations and the Urban Poor in Early Modern England, Longman, London and New York 1998, pp.203-229. 50 Alun Withey, Concerning Beards: Facial Hair, Health and Practice in England, 1650-1900, Bloomsbury, London 2021, p.82. 44 32 Issue/ Sayı: 3, Year/Yıl:2022 The Legends Journal of European History Studies One of the methods they apply is trepanation, which is very common among the people. The idea that psychological disorders, headaches, epilepsy and migraine are due to the presence of a stone in the brain that is thought to drive people crazy has been known since the ancient world. For example, epilepsy, which has long been associated with supernatural powers and therefore included in church treatment, was not welcomed in society because it caused a sudden change in mood in the patient.51 For this reason, the relatives of the patients, who believed that they had a madness stone in their brains, needed skilled barber-surgeons who could remove this stone, and they had this procedure performed widely. Although the increasing belief in science and rational thought increased in the 17th century, it is known that this process is common.52 In the treatment of syphilis, barber-surgeons used to obtain an ointment by mixing mercury with sulfur, pork meat, butter and naphtha oil. Barber-surgeons, who tried to treat the ointment they had obtained by applying it to the deep wounds (chankr) caused by syphilis, placed the patients they had bandaged in a sweaty place. The patient, who underwent sweating to remove the disease from the body, seemed to be recovering from syphilis, but they were probably suffering from mercury poisoning. Later, they started to use guayak tree instead of mercury in the treatment.53 As it can be clearly seen, barber-surgeons, who have served as surgeons as well as barbering profession for many centuries, have been the primary protectors of public health, thanks to their dexterity in using sharp tools such as razors, which are indispensable tools of their profession. Differences between them and university physicians in terms of method and treatment, and their practice-based learning style have led barbers to develop considerably in the profession of surgery.54 Their desire to receive education in the 17th century caused them to deal with more surgeons within the university. Therefore, by combining the practical knowledge they gained from the past with education, they tried to get rid of the profession of barbering and bring surgery to the fore. Thanks to these efforts, the Royal Society of Surgeons was established in England. Another group that facilitates the treatment of the people in the presence of mobile surgeons who do their work in more specific areas that can be partially separated from barber-surgeons and travel from city to city. Mobile dentists, spotters who perform cataract surgery, stoners who remove bladder stones, hernia masters who fix hernias...55 It should not be forgotten that all surgical operations (no matter small or large) in these centuries, where anesthesia was not mentioned, were dangerous and painful minutes for the patient. It is known that opium was used frequently as a pain reliever in these centuries.56 Although opium is used after the operation, itinerant surgeons, who are quick in their hands and thought to be light, have made quite a reputation in their circles. Jacques Beaulieu (1651-1719), famous as Frére Jacques, was an itinerant surgeon specializing in breaking up bladder stones. Simple lithotomy operations were performed in many societies in the past, including ancient societies.57 The Hippocratic Oath58, on the other hand, limited the lithotomy operation, causing lithotomists to become a separate profession. One of these lithotomists, Frére Jacques, learned the trade by apprenticing with the Italian traveler Paulomi for 6 years. Jacques, who saw the patients a few days before performing the surgery at first, then operated on all the patients within 1 day and started to leave the city. One of the innovations he brought to the lithotomy operation is a portable lithotomy table he developed to make the operation easier. Because the "perineal lithotomy", common in 17th-century France, was very difficult to access for large bladder stones, Jacques discovered a new approach to the bladder floor and was among the first to perform lateral lithotomy, which allowed wider access to the bladder neck and facilitated the removal of bladder Mazhar Osman Uzman, Psychiatria, Kader Publications, İstanbul 1947, p.253-254. Roy Porter, Madness: A Brief History, Oxford University Press, New York 2002, p.60. 53 Zeki Tez, Meslekler Tarihi Eskiçağdan Günümüze Zanaatsal ve Sanatsal Uğraşlar, p.104. 54 Andrew Wear, Knowledge and Practice in English Medicine, 1550-1680, Cambridge University Press, 2000, p.26. 55 Roy Porter, Kan Revan İçinde Tıbbın Kısa Tarihi, p.119. 56 Kudret Emiroğlu, Gündelik Hayatımızın Tarihi, Türkiye İş Bankası Kültür Publications, İstanbul 2020, p.357. 57 Ali Haydar Bayat, Tıp Tarihi, p. 121. 58 Encyclopædia Britannica, “Hippocratic Oath”, https://www-britannica-com.translate.goog/topic/Hippocratic-oath, Date of Accsess: 27.01.2022; “I will not cut, indeed not even sufferers from stone, and I will keep apart from men engaging in this practice.” 51 52 33 Examination of Scientific Revolution Medicine on the Human Body| Elif KÜSKÜ stones. His reputation in the public was because while a normal lithotomy operation takes around 2030 minutes, Jacques can perform this procedure in 1-2 minutes at most. In addition to these, Jacques, who has a religious personality, received a small amount from the patients in exchange for the operation. So there was no reason why he should not gain fame among the 17th century lithotomists. In this period, when antiseptics are not yet used, it is also important to disinfect their tools and hands with rose oil. It is known that Frére Jacques performed about 5000 lithotomies in 30 years.59 In the 17th century, it is seen that new instruments were used in surgical treatment methods and that they were open to innovations. This innovation showed itself in obstetrics as well. In past cultures, childbirth was an event that women had traditionally had. Therefore, male midwives were not very common in history. In the 17th century, we see educated male midwives taking part in births alongside female midwives. Male midwives gave birth with their equipment for more risky births that could not be done by female midwives, especially those who could use technical tools. One of the things that caught my attention is that the tool called forceps60 was used for the first time in the 17th century in the European History of Science and Medicine books.61 But forceps were already used for various operations in Indian civilization and the medieval Islamic world. 62 However, it is important in terms of its first use and development in Europe, as it is very close to the form used today.63 In ancient civilizations, the process of taking a baby from the womb of a dead mother was frequently applied, while the taking of a baby from a living body took place for the first time in the 16th and 17th centuries. Jacob Nufer, who gained his skill in using a knife by castrating farm animals to make a living, performed the first cesarean section in a live mother in about 1500 years. 64 In the 17th century (1610), one of the first cesarean sections recorded in the history of medicine was performed.65 As can be seen, in this century, when new instruments were used in obstetrics, traditional methods were abandoned, and male midwives were encountered, baby care has gradually transformed. On the one hand, I have said that while new scientific developments are taking place both in other sciences and in the field of medicine, the profile of the person who treats varies. While there are people who treat from barber-surgeons to male midwives in this "new" scientific environment, on the other hand, we see a 17th century image that has not completely gotten rid of superstitions. The idea that patients miraculously healed through contact, thanks to the "healers" who treat them—even with support from some Royal Society members—has also remained steadfast. One of these healers, Valentine Greatrakes (1628-1683), was an Irish faith healer who claimed to heal people by rubbing their hands on sick areas. It was astonishing that Greatrakes treated ailments such as eczema, asthma, headaches and rheumatism. His most famous supporter was Robert Boyle, who said he believed in the miracles of Greatrakes and contributed greatly to the development of the field of chemistry in the Scientific Revolution. However, some physicians tried to explain the miracles of Greatrakes scientifically arguing that partial healings could occur because it accelerated blood circulation.66 4. Treatment with Scientific Revolution Sciences As I mentioned in the previous sections, the medicine of the Scientific Revolution period was influenced by the newly developing sciences as well as being blended with the knowledge of the past. The handling of the human body as a mechanical entity, which I discussed in the introduction, is related to the "iatro-physics" movement. The aim of this idea, which reached its zenith with Giorgio 59 Jacques P. Ganem and Culley C. Carson, “Frére Jacques Beaulıeu: From Rogue Lithotomist To Nursery Rhyme Character”, The Journal of Urology, Vol. 161, April 1999, p.1067-1069. 60 Forceps: A tong-like instrument used to pull the baby out during a difficult delivery. 61 Roy Porter, Kan Revan İçinde Tıbbın Kısa Tarihi, p.124; Clifford D. Conner, Halkın Bilim Tarihi Madenciler, Ebeler ve Basit Tamirciler, (Translator Zeynep Çiftçi Kanburoğlu), Tübitak Publications, Ankara 2013, p.381. 62 Ali Haydar Bayat, Tıp Tarihi, p. 98, 223. 63 Steve Parker, Tıp, (Translator Feride Nilgün Aras), Tübitak Popüler Bilim Kitapları, Ankara 2008, p.26-27. 64 Clifford D. Conner, Halkın Bilim Tarihi Madenciler, Ebeler ve Basit Tamirciler, p.325. 65 Kudret Emiroğlu, Gündelik Hayatımızın Tarihi, p.301. 66 Allison P. Coudert, Religion, Magic, and Science in Early Modern Europe and America, Praeger Publications, California 2011, p.49-53. 34 Issue/ Sayı: 3, Year/Yıl:2022 The Legends Journal of European History Studies Baglivi's (1668-1707) De praxi medica (1696), was to explain the functions of the human body by basing it on the laws of physics.67 The use of physics on the human body was tried to be used in various treatments at the end of the 17th century and in the 18th century, thanks to the storage of electricity. While the idea that electricity is purified from harmful body fluids because it dilutes the blood by increasing blood circulation, it has become widespread among physicians who think that they can heal a tooth aching or deaf person by giving electricity. It was also thought that electricity would help with labor pains and kidney pains.68 Just as physics was used to explain and treat the functioning of the human body, chemistry had the same ability to explain and treat the human body. Especially with Paracelsus, a current called "iatrochemistry", combining medicine with alchemy, emerged in the treatment of diseases. In the view of iatrochemistry, the human body is basically composed of chemical substances, and therefore, the effect of chemical drugs prepared "specifically for the disease" in the treatment of diseases is emphasized.69 In fact, in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries there was no new development in the idea of making medicine from metals and minerals. Since ancient times, herbal and animal extracts were used in the treatment of diseases. Especially on this subject, Dioscorides's Materia Medica has been used as a reference work for many centuries in terms of the herbal, animal and mineral drugs it contains.70 Likewise, medieval Islamic physicians also applied to many chemical drugs during the treatment process.71 The main development in this regard in early modern Europe is the philosophical background in the use of chemicals.72 Advocates of iatrochemistry, Paracelsus being the pioneer, opposed the ancient drugs that healed everything and consisted of innumerable components, and suggested drugs consisting of one substance.73 Van Helmont, who thought that the components of the drugs should be prepared in the right proportion, prepared special prescriptions containing mercury. Iatrochemistry became very popular in aristocratic and courtly circles, gaining more ground in university medical curricula, and chemistry began to be taught by doctors. Chemistry physicians made the first attempts to gain a respectable place in society and to become an autonomous community in England in the 17th century.74 It should not be wrong to say that physicians who advocate iatrochemistry played a role in the increasing importance of chemistry (in the 19th century, it will be used extensively in industry and new elements will be discovered one after another). Conclusion The Scientific Revolution process is a period in which developments that are generally associated with astronomy and mathematics, and which undoubtedly changed the whole world, were experienced in these sciences. For this reason, in general science history books, we usually do not come across much about other sciences in this period. The subject of the paper is how medical progress took place during the scientific revolution and how it was affected. Therefore, the science of medicine, which I have tried to convey mostly through the human body, has shown that it adheres to the traditional knowledge from the past as much as it was influenced by other sciences developed in its period. In this respect, Zodiac man diagrams, which were popular in the Middle Ages and lost their popularity later, came to the fore again with the development of astronomy. Medical science, which is quite intertwined with other developing sciences, has also remained in mutual interaction with physics and chemistry. The mechanical philosophy, which had a significant impact on the period, Alain Corbin, Jean- Jacques Courtine, Georges Vigarello, Bedenin Tarihi 1 Rönesanstan Aydınlanmaya, p.476-477. Zeki Tez, Fiziğin Kültürel Tarihi, Doruk Publications, İstanbul 2008, p. 153-163. 69 Zeki Tez, Bilimde ve Sanayide Kimya Tarihi, Nobel Akademik Publications, Ankara 2020, p.153. 70 R. Vedat Yıldırım, Dioskorides’in Materia Medica’sı ve Türk-İslâm Tabâbeti, İstanbul University Health Sciences Institute, Master Thesis, İstanbul 2002, p. 31. 71 Ali Haydar Bayat, Tıp Tarihi, p.222. 72 Bruce T. Moran, “A Survey of Chemical Medicine in the 17th Century: Spanning Court, Classroom, and Cultures”, Pharmacy in History, 1996, Vol. 38, No. 3, p.121. 73 Stephen F. Mason, Bilimler Tarihi, p. 207. 74 In London, they advocated the use of chemical drugs, pioneered by continental physicians such as the Society of Chemical Physicians (1665-1666) Paracelsus (1493-1541) and Jan Baptista van Helmont (1580-1644). 67 68 35 Examination of Scientific Revolution Medicine on the Human Body| Elif KÜSKÜ was also applied on the human body and supported by many philosophers and physicians. Chemistry and physics have been used for treatments as well as to explain the workings of the body. There were no definite results for the treatment of the epidemic diseases of the period, but they tried to prevent the spread of contagion by applying quarantine for diseases such as plague, which are known to be contagious. Swellings in patients with bubonic plague were usually drained by barber-surgeons and the patient was relieved, albeit for a short time. Newton, who coincided with one of these epidemics, is also important in terms of being in quarantine and conducive to writing the most important works of his life. In this period, it can be mentioned that there were various occupational groups that performed treatments. At the top of these are the barber surgeons, who later tried to prove their existence in universities. The 17th century both enabled this profession from the past to reach its peak and witnessed surgeons trying to get rid of barbering towards the end of the century. Barber-surgeons, who tried to show the prestige of their surgical operations, one of them is Frére Jacques, whom I mentioned in the paper, have led to the development of surgery by combining their practical knowledge with the new techniques they have developed. In addition to barber-surgeons, ordinary people were able to receive treatment thanks to healers, specialists in more specific fields, which we can call itinerant surgeons, and midwives. Just as new sciences and understandings such as mathematics, physics and astronomy were not accepted in universities, new methods in the field of medicine were not accepted in universities. Physicians' training as a medical client with traditional methods and avoidance of operations prevented the emergence and teaching of new understandings in medical faculties. For this reason, some professional groups related to medicine, such as barbersurgeons and physicians using iatrochemistry, a new view of the period, needed to establish associations outside of universities. This is similar to the fact that natural philosophers organized outside the university have established institutions such as the Accademia Del Cimento, the Royal Society, and the Académie des sciences, since modern sciences cannot find a place in universities and new knowledge cannot be discussed. It would not be wrong to say that the knowledge of anatomy from the Renaissance continued during the Scientific Revolution, and that this knowledge of anatomy was transferred to the Age of Enlightenment, and that it is a medical science that could not get rid of superstitions, spells and miracles. In this respect, it is possible to say that it would be wrong to talk about a completely scientific medical science, since new knowledge and traditional understanding are intertwined. However, barber-surgeons, military surgeons, and other professions are seen as low-level professions of medicine, who are seen as uneducated and ignorant, should be seen as part of the scientific revolution process as they seek to advance surgery. Çıkar Çatışması / Conflicts of Interest: Çalışma kapsamında herhangi bir kurum veya kişi ile çıkar çatışması bulunmamaktadır. / There is no conflict of interest with any institution or person within the scope of the study. 36 Issue/ Sayı: 3, Year/Yıl:2022 The Legends Journal of European History Studies Bibliography ACKERKNECHT, Erwin H., “From Barber-Surgeon To Modern Doctor”, Bulletin of the History of Medicine, Winter 1984, Vol. 58, No. 4, pp. 545-553. BASALLA, George, “William Harvey and the Heart As a Pump” Bulletin of the History of Medicine, September-October, 1962, Vol. 36, No.5, pp. 467-470. BAYAT, Ali Haydar, Tıp Tarihi, Merkezefendi Geleneksel Tıp Derneği, İstanbul 2010. 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WESTFALL, Richard S., Newton: Isaac Newton’ın Biyografisi, (Translator Orhan Düz), Alfa Publications, İstanbul 2018. WITHEY, Alun, Concerning Beards: Facial Hair, Health and Practice in England, 1650-1900, Bloomsbury, London 2021. YILDIRIM, R. Vedat, Dioskorides’in Materia Medica’sı ve Türk-İslâm Tabâbeti, İstanbul University Health Sciences Institute, Master Thesis, İstanbul 2002. YOUNG, Sidney, The Annals of The Barber-Surgeons of London, Blades, East & Blades, London 1890. Web Sites Princeton University, “Zodiac Man”, https://www.princeton.edu/~his291/Zodiac_Dude.html Date of Access: 23.01.2022. Encyclopædia Britannica, “Thomas Sydenham”, https://www.britannica.com/biography/Thomas-Sydenham, Date of Access: 25.01.2022. Encyclopædia Britannica, “Hippocratic Oath”, https://www-britannica-com.translate.goog/topic/Hippocraticoath, Date of Accsess: 27.01.2022. 38 Issue/ Sayı: 3, Year/Yıl:2022 The Legends Journal of European History Studies Additional Image I. Zodiac Man Diagram 39 Examination of Scientific Revolution Medicine on the Human Body| Elif KÜSKÜ Image II. Painter Jan Steen – Quack Doctor (1651) 40 Issue/ Sayı: 3, Year/Yıl:2022 The Legends Journal of European History Studies Image III. A barber-surgeon in the 17th century. 41 Examination of Scientific Revolution Medicine on the Human Body| Elif KÜSKÜ Image IV. Image representing the transition from female midwives to male midwives. It is possible to see the tool called forceps mentioned in the article on the upper left of the male midwife. 42 Issue/ Sayı: 3, Year/Yıl:2022 The Legends Journal of European History Studies Image V. A drawing showing the state of the great plague epidemic (1665-1666) in England. 43 Examination of Scientific Revolution Medicine on the Human Body| Elif KÜSKÜ Image VI. A madness stone removal operation in the 17th century. Painter Jan Steen – Cure of the Folly (1679) 44 Issue/ Sayı: 3, Year/Yıl:2022 The Legends Journal of European History Studies Image VII. A madness stone removal operation in the 17th century. Painter Pieter Jansz Quast – Die Stein Operation (1630) VIII. Amputation procedure performed by a military surgeon on the battlefield. 45