Language Planning and Policy

This paper examines the dynamic interplay between language policy and local stakeholders in the process of dialect planning in the city of Shanghai, in the context of social tensions surrounding the decline of Shanghai dialect in mainland China. A process-oriented Language Management Theory (LMT) model is adopted as the analytical framework to reveal the interactive facet of micro language planning. Drawing on in-depth interviews and document analysis, the paper analyzes and interprets ten key players' perceptions and experiences in relation to the 'saving Shanghai dialect' movement. Qualitative data analysis demonstrates five stages in the dialect planning process and reveals how individuals' agency, when struggling and striving for local language rights, exert bottom-up influence upon language policy-making. The findings also unravel the social political duality between macro structure and individual agency. The paper ends with a discussion on the need to negotiate the individual agency in a more interactive and democratic dialog with predefined policy constraints. This study may have implications for multilingual/multidialectal contexts in other geographical locations where linguistic diversity in the local contexts is encountering shifts in language use and language changes. Besides, this study may also enrich applicability of the LMT framework which reveals the interactive and dynamic process by unbundling individual responses and influences on language planning.

The vast majority of Holocaust victims and survivors were Ashkenazim. Their main language was Yiddish. Yiddish is very close to German, the main difference being that the former is written in Hebrew letters, while the latter in Latin ones. Postwar Europe' s moral foundation is Holocaust remembrance. But this remembrance to be effective, it must be active in the absence of Holocaust survivors. A way to ensure that could be the novel school and university subject of Yiddish for reading purposes. As a result, researchers and interested Europeans would start reading documents and books in Yiddish again. Germany' s premiere cultural organization, Goethe-Institut, is uniquely well-placed and morally obligated to facilitate the relaunch, popularization and cultivation of the skill to read Yiddish-language sources and publications for both the sake of research and for pleasure.

This is a report submitted to UNICEF Myanmar 2016, to assist in developing bilingual education for Myanmar's ethnic groups. It gives a full listing and classification of the 135 officially recognised groups as well as relevant sections of the three post-independence constitutions (1948, 1974 and 2008), the 2014 education law and the 2015 ethnic rights law.

Nell’elaborato viene presentata un’analisi della situazione relativa alla tutela delle lingue minoritarie in Europa e in Italia. Tale analisi si basa sulla nozione di “diritto linguistico”, derivata dal concetto di “diritto umano” e che riguarda la protezione delle minoranze linguistiche. A un’indagine sulla genesi e la definizione di “diritto linguistico” segue l’esame delle politiche linguistiche dell’Unione europea. L’Unione europea non può però agire direttamente sulle politiche linguistiche degli Stati membri, ma solo finanziare la promozione e la tutela delle lingue minoritarie tramite programmi di finanziamento gestiti dalla Commissione europea. L’ultima parte dell’elaborato è dedicata alle politiche linguistiche attuate in Italia nei confronti dell’italiano, delle lingue minoritarie e dei dialetti. L’Italia, infatti, è interessata dalla presenza di numerose lingue minoritarie a cui bisogna riconoscere una particolare serie di tutele per favorirne la promozione e la salvaguardia all’interno del panorama linguistico italiano.

Parole chiave:

Lingue minoritarie, diritti linguistici, politiche linguistiche, Unione europea, lingue minoritarie in Italia, dialetti in Italia, progetti europei.

In this chapter, we problematize language in education policies that consider a multilingual system of education against attitudes to language that can impact on the (non)success of these policies. We argue that without addressing perceptions toward the role/s of different languages across various uses, multilingual policies in education may reinforce the hegemony of the English language rather than raise the status of local languages. This can happen because of a lack of understanding of how languages work and function, particularly with respect to vertical discursiveness (Bernstein, 1996) and notions of how power is inscribed in different uses of language. Furthermore, we argue that any multilingual language policy should consider how English and other languages connect to language allocation and affiliation, which, if not considered, can lead to schooling maintaining power relations in an unequal society (Apple, 2004) rather than changing them. In addition, we consider how multilingual contexts with a strong level of English use lead to variations in language whose place must be considered where schooling is concerned. Finally, we consider these policies in terms of the Principles-Based Approach (Mahboob and Tilakaratna, 2011) to language policy. Without using the PBA as a guide, any language policy may just be created without its stakeholders fully understanding what it means. Language policies in a multilingual society that is dominated by English cannot be so simple as insisting on a multilingual system of education. Rather, various issues must be considered to insure that these policies do help toward changing society instead of just maintaining power relationships that limit the access of various sectors to different social, economic, and semantic resources.

language planning goals, examples of corpus and usage planning, linguistic diversity, diglossia, language shift, globalisation of English, critical approaches to linguistic imperialism, practice of LLP in selected regions and countries: North America, EU, UK, Belgium, Switzerland, Malaysia, Nigeria, Ivory Coast, the Baltic states, Uzbekistan

The present chapter traces the development of language acquisition planning. It begins by considering the work of Robert L. Cooper, who placed language acquisition planning alongside corpus planning and status planning as a fundamental type of language planning. While corpus planning focuses on language form and status planning on language function, acquisition planning focuses on language users and how they acquire the communicative repertoires they need for access to opportunities in society. It is thus central to the management of language teaching and learning in both formal and informal settings. Contemporary issues in language planning and policy across contexts and levels of education are addressed. Language acquisition planning, it is argued, is multifaceted, involving a continuum of issues from the psychological to the societal. Research spanning this continuum is discussed, with attention to conceptual orientations and methodological approachess.

This paper examines the relationship between policy and politics in relation to the development of public- sector primary education through Breton and Gaelic, considering closely the patterns of power through which such provision is delivered. Brittany and Scotland present many similarities as culturally distinctive territories, contained within larger state-nations, which until recently allowed very little scope for minority language education. Initiatives to develop public-sector education through Breton and Gaelic were finally launched in the 1980s and have now became significantly institutionalised, even if they remain small in scale. The dynamics of institutionalisation have been very different in the two territories, however: parallel problems have been tackled in different ways, and issues that have proved fraught in one have presented few complications in the other. Both case studies demonstrate the importance of ‘bottom-up’ dynamics as a source of innovative energy.

L’histoire des langues régionales de la France hexagonale les fait caractériser aujourd’hui non seulement par une fragmentation dialectale plus ou moins ac-centuée, mais aussi par leur emploi surtout oral. À l’exception des auteurs de certaines traditions littéraires et de leur public bien petit, la grande majorité des locuteurs de langue maternelle régionale sont à présent des analphabètes dans leur langue. Cependant, avec le réveil du régionalisme comme mouvement identitaire, notamment au cours de la deuxième moitié du siècle passé, l’enjeu de la langue est souvent considéré comme la marque d’identité par excellence. Par conséquent, il s’agissait de promouvoir sa pertinence en essayant d’élaborer une norme linguistique comme base pour l’enseignement de la lan-gue en question, c’est-à-dire particulièrement pour son usage écrit. Le grand problème qui se posait à une telle entreprise du point de vue linguistique était sans aucun doute l’état réel des langues régionales, dont le morcellement dialec-tal, qui se présente différemment d’une langue à l’autre, s’opposait à la notion traditionnelle d’une norme unique à la française. Il fallait donc trouver des solu-tions taillées sur mesure de la situation particulière dans laquelle se trouvait chacune des langues régionales. Le but de la présente communication est de décrire et de comparer les nor-mes proposées et réalisées à l’échelle de la distance ou l’artificialité qui se ma-nifeste ou non entre les variétés parlées d’une langue régionale et le résultat de l’engagement normatif comme base de son enseignement. Par cette manière de procéder, un continuum s’impose qui va des solutions proches de la réalité dia-topique d’une langue jusqu’à celles qui, en principe, en font abstraction, donc du modèle polynomique corse, jusqu’au batua basque.

Independent India resolved to maximize the deployment of its own languages in public domains where English alone was in use. This paper considers the case of higher education in Bangla, and focuses on the introduction and dissemination of appropriate technical terms. In this context, the paper argues that the development of terminological carriers of modernity needs to be seen not as a spinoff of the general practices of development or modernization, but as central to it. It is argued here that the task of coming up with appropriate technical terms needs to be turned into an opportunity to decolonize our minds and our practices. The phrase ‘decolonize our minds’ in this abstract, of course, invokes later writings. The paper was presented in 1982, without any abstract.

This paper reports findings from an ethnographic case study of multilingual Zhuang university students, many of whom are commencing a personal migration away from the Zhuang language ‘homelands’ in South China. The Zhuang comprise China’s largest official ethnic minority; nevertheless, their language is losing vitality. While out-migration from Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region has been common since the 1980s, the young people who participated in this study are especially mobile because of their education and thus can be considered as vectors of change for the Zhuang language. Combining interviews and ethnographic observation with Zhuang students at seven universities across China, the study finds an association with a Zhuang identity not characterized by Zhuang language practices. Minority language proficiency is increasingly less relevant to inclusion within the Zhuang community, though certain participants’ self-characterization as “fake Zhuang” reveals the shift in mechanisms of inclusion is a point of tension, not yet completely accepted. The participants’ Zhuang language - even when fluent - is often seen as “useless”, it is largely absent from everyday linguistic practices, and rarely written. Most participants had an extensive multilingual repertoire including Putonghua, English, Zhuang, dialects including Guilinhua, and sometimes Thai or Vietnamese language. This repertoire is stratified, however, and their linguistic resources are usually unremarked and undervalued; thus, the students’ linguistic identities are not perceived as “multilingual.” Although the Zhuang have legally-enshrined language freedoms and autonomous provincial government, such State-led mechanisms have done little to counter language practices being jettisoned from Zhuang identity, because these mechanisms do not alter the ‘market’ of resources in which minority languages are of low value. Rather, China’s legal framework plays a significant role by insisting upon minority identities yet detaching those identities from linguistic realities. The decoupling will likely precipitate further decline in the vitality of Zhuang language.

Focusing on developments in research on language education policy, this short paper begins with a sketch of the new problem space emerging at the intersection of intensified transnational mobility, expanding economic neo-liberalisation and the institutionalisation of multilingualism.  It then identifies situated practice, commodification and declining state authority as key perspectives and themes in the study of language policy, and outlines the methods required to address these.  After that, it provides an overview of the articles in which these issues are addressed.

This study aims to explore the feasibility of teaching critical reading—a practice based on critical language awareness—in local English language classes where learners tend to be receptive about the contents, and to describe the pedagogical applications of the theoretical framework of critical reading to English reading classes in the settings where English serves as a lingua franca. Through the action research in my critical reading practices at a Japanese university, critical reading activities could serve as a catalyst to change learners’ passive attitudes towards texts: they did not uncritically accept the contents and value of texts from an anglophone country, but rather willingly expressed their own opinions and values towards the texts. This study concludes that critical reading could be a feasible pedagogy for English language classrooms, although some modifications to fit local settings would be required.

　本発表では、日本における日本語教員養成の教育内容と、他国におけるそれぞれの国の言語を外国語として教える教員養成の教育内容とを比較することによって、日本語教員養成の教育内容とプログラム改善への提言を行うことを目的とする。
　日本では、2000年に文化庁・日本語教員の養成に関する調査研究協力者会議が『日本語教育のための教員養成について』を発表し、国際化・学習者の多様化に対応できるような日本語教員養成のための新たな教育内容を提言した。それによると、新しい教育内容は (1)コミュニケーションを中心とし、(2)「社会・文化」「教育」「言語」にわたる三領域と「社会・文化・地域」「言語と社会」「言語と心理」「言語と教育」「言語」の五区分の相互関係およびその相互関係の中での日本語教育の在り方を唱えている。この新たな教育内容に関してはいろいろな議論が行われているものの（水谷2001, 縫部2002など）、現在、日本語教育能力検定試験はこの教育内容に沿って行われており、高等教育機関の教員養成プログラムもこの教育内容に準拠して編成・改正されている（縫部ら2005）。
　一方、諸外国でもそれぞれの背景や歴史をもとに外国語教育としての自国語教育が行われ、高等教育機関を中心に教師養成が行われている。本研究では、諸外国（スロベニア、フランス、中国、オーストラリアなど）における自国語を外国語として教育するための教員養成の教育内容を『日本語教育のための教員養成について』と比較し、日本の教員養成に特有の特徴とその背景を分析する。さらに、多様化する社会からの要請を受けて変化せざるを得ない日本語教育、また日本国内だけでなく海外における日本語教育や年少者・学習困難を持つ学習者をも視野に入れた教育内容やプログラムのための提言を行う。

The purpose of this presentation is to propose improvements for the Educational Content for Japanese Language Teacher Development, which was issued in 2000 by the Agency for Cultural Affairs, Japan, by researching and comparing the educational contents for language teacher development in teaching that country’s language as a foreign language, as they exist in other countries.
The Educational Content for Japanese Language Teacher Development has been changed from the former policy issued in 1985 in order to correspond to the new movement of internationalization and diversification of Japanese language learners. The features of the new Educational Content include (1) focusing on communication as an aim of language education and (2) placing Japanese language education in relation to the three categories (“society and culture”, “education” and “language”), and five sub-classification (“society”, “culture and region”, “language and society”, “language and psychology”, “language and education” and “language”). At present both the program of language teacher development in higher education and the contents of JEES (the Japanese Language Teaching Competency Test) are based on this new Educational Content (Nuibe and others 2005), though different arguments over its pros and cons have been raised (e.g. Mizutani 2001, Nuibe 2002).
On the other hand, each country has, based on its historical background, its own educational program for teaching language as a foreign language, mostly in higher education. This presentation compares the educational contents of language teacher development in other countries (Slovenia, France, China, Australia and others) against the “the New Educational Content for Japanese Language Teacher Development” in Japan and analyses its specific characteristics and backgrounds. The presentation also makes recommendations for programs and educational contents with regard to the demands for changes in Japanese language education brought about by the diversification of society, as well as considering young learners and learners with learning difficulties not only in Japan but abroad as well.

A survey of the multiple participants involved in linguistic planning of the Berber language, both in North Africa and in the diaspora: speakers, cultural associations, notable individuals, States, universities, institutions (HCA in Algeria, IRCAM in Morocco), schools, parties and movements, opposants, migrants abroad and second generations, foreign institutions (e.g. Inalco, France), foreign States, Berber associations in the world (e.g. CMA), standard-setting organizations (e.g. Unicode).

This paper evaluates the Language Policy and Planning's (LPP) Methodological Rich Points (MRP) in the geographic, ethnic and linguistic composition of Afghanistan. The theoretical construct is taken from the work of Nancy H. Hornberger on MRP in LPP. The paper explores a range of primary and secondary sources, and finds that the presence of inequality, marginalization and oppression in intra-ethnic and intralanguage group relations, sharing of resources and power account for neglect of the MRP in Afghan LPP. The geographic details in conjunction with explanation of historical process of migrations and conquests explains that most of the minority language speakers are concentrated in the difficult to reach areas of Afghanistan for their safety. Further, the limiting factors of Afghan geography explains the preservation of minority languages from the effects of majority languages. The study concludes with the proposal that it would be helpful to avoid the pitfalls of the current L...

En aquests apunts ens concentrarem a explicar algunes característiques de l’alumnat d’origen brasiler a Catalunya i de la seva llengua de referència, el portuguès; a parlar d’algunes accions que grups locals duen a terme per donar a aquesta llengua més visibilitat en el sistema escolar; i a reflexionar sobre el seu encaix amb les polítiques lingüístiques actuals per a les llengües i les cultures d’origen en l'àmbit educatiu.

The Japanese government has made kokusaika, questionably translated as "internationalization," a cornerstone of all aspects of education, though the concept is particularly linked to foreign language study. However, official ideologies are not always directly translated into the ideologies present in classroom practice. In order to examine how the ideologies linked to kokusaika are or aren't enacted in university English classes in Japan, this project examines a large corpus of lesson plans published between 2011 and 2016 in The Language Teacher, the primary journal for the Japan Association for Language Teaching. Using a critical discourse analysis lens along with the tools of corpus linguistics, it was found that even though the issue of internationalization was rarely raised directly, nonetheless the discourse as a whole did perpetuate a number of the attitudes linked to kokusaika policy. In addition, a close analysis of lesson plans where the topic was raised provides insight into how specific linguistic and pedagogical choices on the part of the authors and editors can result in widely differing ideological consequences.

Whether the provision is catering to students who use Gaelic as a home language, or who only begin to learn the language through their schooling, there is ample evidence to suggest that GME is beneficial to pupils’ cognitive development and success in a wide variety of curriculum areas.19 Pan-linguistic evidence tells us that approach to education encapsulated in GME is a powerful tool in developing language users who are bilingual and biliterate in both target languages: Gaelic and English.1 GME can also be important for supporting youngsters’ emotional and psychological wellbeing. With the evidence in support of GME being so persuasive, there is a growing desire to widen accessibility to this form of education. This would bring the benefits of bilingualism to larger numbers of youngsters in Scotland, whilst simultaneously supporting the Language Planning goals articulated by Bòrd na Gàidhlig in their first
National Plan for Gaelic 2007-2012,3 Ginealach Ùr na Gàidhlig5,
and which we expect to appear in the second National Plan for
Gaelic 2012-17.

The University of Aberdeen and the University of Strathclyde, both in partnership with UHI, have traditionally been the key players in Gaelic ITE and CPD. Acknowledging the growth in GME, these universities have previously discussed the possibility of establishing a dedicated national centre for Gaelic teacher education, which would provide both ITE and CPD opportunities to those who would have interest in becoming qualified to teach in a GME setting. However, as awareness of Gaelic and Gaelic education grows, it seems appropriate to extend the discussion to encompass a national partnership, into which a wide variety of stakeholder groups could seek to contribute.

This report seeks to discuss the benefits and opportunities that could be created through a national partnership for the provision of Gaelic Medium ITE and CPD. Key stakeholders have been contacted to help investigate the ways in which a National Partnership could help address some of the needs and goals for Gaelic education and, indeed, for the quality of ITE and CPD for teachers in Scotland more generally.

In order to discuss the feasibility of this proposal and to begin to advise on the most efficient ways to support and develop Gaelic through the future education of GME teachers, this report has involved a wide variety of stakeholders and research methods in developing its recommendations.

The present study discusses about the monolingual and bilingual child language acquisition on theoretical concern and the varied language acquisition processes which reflect in the language competence of both monolingual and bilingual child. It provides a detailed account of the different terminologies exists in literature of child language acquisition, particularizing the notion of Chomsky’s Universal Grammar (UG). It links and differentiates the study of language acquisition of monolingual children from the bilingual in light of four important criteria. Finally, the papers suggest/points out as a concluding note how the study of child bilingualism could make a significant contribution in the area of language acquisition research.
Index Terms
Language Acquisition, Language Development, Bilingual Acquisition, Monolingual Child, Bilingual Child, Universal grammar

This book investigates the sociolinguistic dimension of the internationalisation of higher education, examining the linguistic tensions and ambiguities experienced by universities around the world, particularly in non-anglophone contexts. Joining current debates within discursive and ethnographic approaches to language policy, the authors analyse the narrative emerging from university language policy documents, and then trace the stance-taking processes of different stakeholders at a small university in Catalonia. They pay particular attention to how teachers, administrative staff, and exchange students position themselves in connection to the role of Catalan and its coexistence with other languages at the university. This book will be of interest to language policy scholars and practitioners, as well as graduate students in sociolinguistics and applied linguistics

This volume offers a first survey of projects from around the world that seek to implement Creole languages in education. In contrast to previous works, this volume takes a holistic approach. Chapters discuss the sociolinguistic, educational and ideological context of projects, policy developments and project implementation, development and evaluation. It compares different kinds of educational activities focusing on Creoles and discusses a list of procedures that are necessary for successfully developing, evaluating and reforming educational activities that aim to integrate Creole languages in a viable and sustainable manner into formal education. The chapters are written by practitioners and academics involved in educational projects. They serve as a resource for practitioners, academics and persons wishing to devise or adapt educational initiatives.

The character of this interesting monograph is best captured (or should we say “alluded to”?) by its somewhat catchy subtitle: this is not yet another history of the emergence and character of Canadian English (CanE); there are plenty, high- quality and useful ones, both in article and in book length, for example Avis (1973), Chambers (1975), Bailey (1982), Boberg (2010), and many more. Instead, it showcases the story of the growth of awareness of the variety, its discovery, codi- fication, and acceptance, by pioneers of Canadian linguistics. It is said to offer an “intellectual history [...] [of ] the ‘founders’ of Canadian English” (p. xiii), focus- ing mostly upon the twentieth century. The book is more than that, in fact. It not only adds historiography to history but is based upon thorough, comprehensive and original archival research, and has a distinctive focus on the development of the lexicography of CanE, thus also contributing more generally to the history, methodology and impact of dictionary making in general.

L'article esquisse d'abord le concept de francophonie, en présentant diffé-rentes interprétations du terme ainsi que diverses approches pour déterminer le nombre de locuteurs et catégoriser les pays francophones (1), pour donner ensuite un aperçu de l'expansion du français dans le monde et des différents modes de décoloni-sation (2). C'est à la suite de celle-ci que s'est développée l'Organisation internationale de la Francophonie, dont seront retracées l'histoire et la composition (3). À partir de cette base, seront présentés différents types d'aménagements linguistiques au sein de la francophonie : en ce qui concerne l'aménagement du statut, on donnera des exemples de différenciation fonctionnelle, de territorialité et d'unilinguisme (4) ; quant à l'aménagement du corpus, on exposera le développement de normes explici-tes par les processus de sélection, d'implémentation, de codification et d'élaboration à l'instar du Québec, de la Belgique et de la Suisse, ce que viendront compléter des remarques sur les normes implicites au sein d'autres régions (5).

This book employs an ethnographic approach to explore the reproduction of class, status, and ethnic identities through the schooling process. Legitimising Standard Languages: Perspectives from a School in Banaras focuses on the introduction of official languages in schools. The primary objective of this work is to look at the socioeconomic backgrounds of administrators, teachers, and students and their families vis-à-vis their influence on the languages in their lives, both in and outside school. It examines how the dominant languages are transmitted, transacted and negotiated in modern institutions. The author puts forth the cultural consequences of standardising and legitimising languages in educational institutions in a society where variability and diversity have otherwise been the norm.

On Policy A policy can be defined as a set of principles based on an ideology that guides a pattern of behavior to achieve a goal. It should include an object that is the target of behavior and a domain for the behavior to achieve the specified goal. The object is language and the domain is education in the case of language policy in education. In policy formulated to affect language choice in the domain of education, goals include language-related issues such as language development and enhancement of language status (or the reverse) as well as political concerns such as nation formation, conflict avoidance in a multilingual society, democratic governance of the country, effective communication in society, business and professions, and economic development of individuals and the country. Language policy, as formulated in the Indian Constitution (Article 29(a)) (http://indiacode.nic.in/coiweb/welcome.html), is limited to preservation of one's mother tongue, which does not include the right to use the mother tongue in education. Language use in the domain of education is placed under the obligation of the State (not under the fundamental rights of citizens) with regard to linguistic minorities (Article 350A). The National Policy on Education prescribes three languages to be taught in schools, one of which is the mother tongue of the students or the regional language of the state. The states are expected to implement this policy. In addition to language policy in education formulated by the State through its institutions, language policy is also made by other agents, especially the community and the individual. They too have goals to be realized through language and preferences for language(s) to be learned and used in educational institutions. Nevertheless, the policy formulated by the State alone can attain the status of law. When language policy is made through legislative resolution, it becomes the law of the land. Policy is also made through an executive order of the government. Language law must not be in conflict with any other law of the land and with the provisions of the Constitution. Language order, in other words, should be legally maintainable, as viewed by courts. Language policy of the government takes into cognizance the language policy preferred by the community and the individuals. When they are not in consonance conflict arises. The conflict is resolved either through political action including agitations or through legal recourse. Both modes of conflict resolution have taken place in India. This paper talks about the legal recourse, which forces the courts to examine the legislative or the executive decisions and issue judgments. It must be noted that the considerations of the three agencies involved to arrive at their conclusions may be different. The legislative considerations are largely political, the executive considerations are largely administrative and the judicial considerations are largely legal. Language policy in education basically relates to two issues: language of medium of instruction and languages to be taught as subjects (in addition to the medium language). This paper restricts itself to these two issues as they relate to the school from class one to class ten, i.e. from primary to secondary. It does not include pre-primary and post-secondary levels. There are various streams of education, i.e. schools affiliated to and governed by different Boards of Education. This paper will take up three kinds of schools that are found in most states: public schools funded or aided by the government, private schools run with heavy fee collected from 1 An earlier version of this paper was presented in a Colloquium on Law and Language at Ajit Premji University, Bengaluru in the summer of 2014.