Nora Papp

Background: Sarma-cooked leaves rolled around a filling made from rice and/or minced meat, possibly vegetables and seasoning plants – represents one of the most widespread feasting dishes of the Middle Eastern and SouthEastern European cuisines. Although cabbage and grape vine sarma is well-known worldwide, the use of alternative plant leaves remains largely unexplored. The aim of this research was to document all of the botanical taxa whose leaves are used for preparing sarma in the folk cuisines of Turkey and the Balkans.

Plants living in different ecological habitats can show significant variability in their histological and phytochemical characters. The main histological features of various populations of three medicinal plants from the Boraginaceae family were studied. Stems, petioles and leaves were investigated by light microscopy in vertical and transverse sections. The outline of the epidermal cells, as well as the shape and cell number of trichomes was studied in leaf surface casts. Differences were measured among the populations of Echium vulgare in the width and height of epidermis cells in the stem, petiole and leaf, as well as in the size of palisade cells in the leaves. Among the populations of Pulmonaria officinalis significant differences were found in the length of trichomes and in the slightly or strongly wavy outline of epidermal radial cell walls. Populations of Symphytum officinale showed variance in the height of epidermal cells in leaves and stems, length of palisade cells and n...

In Homoród-valley in Transylvania, ethnobotanical surveys were conducted in 2010-
2014. From these data, ethnomedicinal uses of Thymus, Mentha and Salvia taxa are presented
in this work.
During the interviews which were performed with 42 informants, the local name
vadcsombor was mentioned as the most commonly used phytonym of wild thyme species,
which live in honcsok (ant-hill or mole-hill). In local ethnomedicine, the aerial part is
frequently used for cough, sore throat and high blood pressure as a tea. The local names of
Mentha taxa were föförminta, borsminta, and vadmenta. Salvia species were most frequently
mentioned as zsája, kerti zsája, vadzsája, dungóvirág. The taxa of Mentha and Salvia genus
were traditionally used for cold, gripes and toothache.
In addition to the knowledge transferred from mouth to mouth, data of other sources
(books, journals, media) were also mentioned in the region. The separation of the traditional
and other data is necessary nowadays. Although the traditional knowledge of elderly people is
disappearing because of the migration of young inhabitants, Thymus, Mentha and Salvia taxa
play a significant role in the ethnomedicine in Homoród-valley. The documentation and
saving of these data are of pivotal importance in our days.

Recently, in the scientific literature, several data are available on the historical, mythological, ethnobotanical, morphological, phytochemical, pharmacological, reproductive and economic role and features of grapevine (Vitis vinifera L.). The plant has been used since the Ancient Times, and its valuable ethnomedicinal and medicinal data provide many new records about the species and its varieties nowadays. In addition to the fresh and dried fruit, as well as to the wine as primary product the leaf, the stem, the sap of the stem and the seed have been also described in the traditional medicine. The wine as a carrier or basic material has been played a significant role in the pharmacopoeias, such as from the 5th edition of the Austrian Pharmacopoeia, and in the first 4 editions of the Hungarian Pharmacopoeia. Several prominent Hungarian pharmacists have been dealt with vine-culture and development of medicinal wines and wine-based products. The multicolored grapevine, its varieties and products wait for further botanical, phytochemical, medicinal, and pharmaceutical discovery and analysis nowadays. Bevezetés Napjainkban a kerti vagy bortermő szőlő (Vitis vinifera L.) és számos ismert fajtája nemcsak a borkultúrában érdemel figyelmet. Az ókor óta ismertek adatok a növény termésének borként

Transylvania, part of Romania, has a long-standing culture of Hungarian ethnomedicinal
practices. The aim of this study was to review the unexplored ethnopharmacological use of
plants, animals and other materials, focusing mainly on the beliefs surrounding them; and
compare them with traditional uses from other countries and with scientific literature. An
ethnobotanical inventory was conducted among Csángó and Székely Hungarians in three
areas of the country between 2007 and 2012. Questionnaires included medical and nonmedical
uses of plants, animals, and other substances with rational and irrational elements.
Altogether 22 plants, twelve animals, and ten other substances had documented uses for
various beliefs. The treatments utilize magical numbers, like 3 and 9, to define peculiar
order, tools, and like-minded aspects. Plants were used for prediction (e.g. Phaseolus vulgaris
L.), protection (e.g. Corylus avellana L.), and as symbols (e.g. Arctium lappa L.). In addition to
the use of animals (e.g. Salamandra salamandra L.) or no longer used elements (use of Lytta
vesicatoria L.), the employment of other substances (e.g. ash, milk) was also documented.
The frequency of the documented uses is in continuous decline due to environmental
and social changes, and the increased prevalence of conventional healthcare. Hence, the
priority of their conservation is of pivotal importance nowadays.

The isolated villages in Transylvania (Romania) have valuable ethnobotanical data nowadays, based on the traditional knowledge of the indigenous people of the settlements. In this work, several plant taxa living at wild habitats were summarized in Homoródkarácsonyfalva, according to their role as food, as beverage or as other special preparation forms. These species are regularly used in the everyday life of the inhabitants, who preserved and inherited the archaic elements connected to the mentioned plant taxa.

This study aimed at systematic and historic collecting of ethnomedicinal plants in 3 villages in Transylvania, part of Romania in 2011-2013, and detecting polyphenol compounds of the selected Ononis arvensis and Rhinanthus serotinus by LC-MS. The aerial part of Ononis arvensis was mentioned for diarrhea, liver and stomach disorders, and Rhinanthus serotinus against stomach diseases. In O. arvensis, nineteen polyphenolic compounds were identified and quantified. The dominant constituent was eriodictiol, and the plant contained large amount of catechin, epicatechin, trans-resveratrol and piceid. In addition, other flavanones, phenolic acids, flavones, flavonols, flavan-3-ols, a dihydrochalcon and stilbenoids compounds were detected in the species. In Rhinanthus serotinus, apigenin was the main component among the detected thirteen other polyphenolic compounds. These preliminary results highlight the necessity of documentation of traditional use of plants in the region, and the need of further analyses of the plants to determine their effect and safety in the future.

Nagybacon and the surroundings settlements are located in Erdély, Erdővidék, in the county Kovaszna
(Transylvania, Covasna, Romania) inhabited by about 4000 inhabitants, mostly (88%) of Hungarian nationality.
Altough the village is provided by permanent medical and veterinary service, as well as by pharmacy, people
use medicinal plants in their everyday life regularly.
In our work, the handmade herbarium of Viola Kékesi Keresztes (1939) prepared between 1997 and 2002
was analysed. 187 species were documented by digital photos completed by data received from the informant
and recorded with dictaphone. Scientific or Hungarian names were summarized, incorrect names were identified
according to Király (2009). In addition, ethnobotanical study was carried out with 9 informants (2010-2013) to
document the local use of plants (local vernacular names, parts used and mode of preparation).
In the herbarium, 167 plants were identified by the informant including 89 correct, 8 fractional, 2 missing
and 68 new botanical identifications. Based on this correction, 2 taxa were summarized as highly protected
and 27 other ones as protected species. Altogether 40 species with 50 vernacular names were used in the local
treatments of human diseases and in veterinary, one as dying plant, one as child food and 5 as ornamental
plants.
In Erdővidék, similarly to the other regions of Transylvania, the old generation recently inherites his
valuable archaic knowledge less efficiently, and often use of various books and media sources. The migration of
young people is another source of (memetic) erosion. Conservation of these documented data and continuation
of field work are of primary importance, accordingly.

Due to their isolation and insufficiency
of official medical care, the inhabitants of several
Transylvanian ‘‘Csa´ngo´’’ farms in Romania have
valuable archaic knowledge of plants. Such ethnobotanical
data reported previously from different regions
of the country are available only in Hungarian. Of the
various ethnic groups constituting the Csa´ngo´s’ culture
the present study was undertaken to survey those
living in the U ´ z-valley (Romania), focusing on the
indigenous human ethnomedicine and ethnoveterinary
practices of Csino´d, a village in the Eastern Carpathian
Mountains. The aim of the study was to summarize the
occurrence and diversity of food, medicinal, ornamental
and fodder plants, as well as herbal home
remedies applied on a daily basis. In the summers of
2007–2009 altogether 85 plant taxa in 13 home
gardens were registered, using free interviews with
local terminology, concentrating on drug parts, use,
origin of knowledge and peculiar magico-mythological
procedures associated with the species concerned.
Due to the obvious decrease in the villagers’ traditional
knowledge the prevention of these data from
disappearing has gained primary importance in an
effort to preserve this heritage as an integral part of the
folk medicinal system in Transylvania.

Jerusalem artichoke (Helianthus tuberosus L.) is valued as fodder and its tuber is also part of human nutrition, being particularly beneficial in the diet of people suffering from diabetes, due to its high inulin content. At the same time wild Jerusalem artichoke has become a dangerous invasive plant in several parts of Europe, which can be attributed at least partially to secondary metabolites of the plant, exerting allelopathic effect.
Our research aimed at clarifying if the extracts of Jerusalem artichoke can also have antimicrobial effect. Plant extracts were prepared from three different plant parts, harvested in five consecutive months, and were tested with the disc diffusion method against three bacterial strains.
Our in vitro studies indicate that wild Jerusalem artichoke may hinder the growth of various bacteria, but the antimicrobial effect is largely influenced by the microorganism, the plant organ used for the extract and the time of harvesting the plant. The most sensitive strain was Bacillus subtilis, the strongest antibacterial activity was detected in the case of leaf extracts, and the extracts prepared from plant parts harvested in October.
These pilot studies may serve as a starting point for large-scale studies directed at the antimicrobial activity of Jerusalem artichoke against several strains of bacteria and fungi.

Összefoglalás: A Coffea (kávé) fajokat az Egyenlítő mentén szinte minden országban termesztik. A nemzetség számos tagja nagy termesztési múlttal rendelkezik, fontos szerepet töltenek be a világpiacon és kutatásokban is egyaránt. A magokat (Coffea semen) sikeresen alkalmazzák magas koffein-és polifenoltartalmuk révén az élelmiszer-, kozmetikai, valamint a gyógyszeriparban. A napjainkban azonosított 128 Coffea taxon közül a három legismertebb az arab kávé (Coffea arabica L.), a robuszta (C. robusta L. Linden) és a libériai kávé (C. liberica Hiern.). Mellettük egyes vadon élő fajok, mint például a bengáli kávé (C. benghalensis Roxb. ex Schult.) számos lehetőséget és kihívást rejtenek a mai fitokémiai és gyógyászati kutatások területén. Összefoglaló munkánkban számos szakirodalmi forrás feldolgozásával adunk áttekintést a nemzetség általános bemutatása mellett elsősorban az arab, a libériai, a robuszta és a bengáli kávé történeti, botanikai, fitokémiai, népgyógyászati, valamint gyógyászati jelentőségéről, amelyet morfológiai és hisztológiai vizsgála-taink adataival egészítünk ki.

Összefoglalás: Az újabban fellendült etnobotanikai kutatások különösen értékes anyagot hoztak a népi empíri-án, vagyis a tapasztalaton alapuló gyógyítás értékeléséhez. A népi növényismeret mindig szerves részét alkotta a magyar nép gyógyító tudásának. E gazdag hagyományanyag részletes feltérképezésére az 1960-as években szá-mos etnobotanikai gyűjtés indult Erdélyben, amelynek eredményei napjainkban is kiemelkedő jelentőségűek. Homoródalmás Erdélyben, Hargita megyében a Kis-Homoród mentén fekszik. Bár a település rendelkezik önálló orvosi ellátással, a gyógyszerek mellett a helyiek gyakran alkalmazzák az előző generációk által örökített tudást és a környéken fellelhető gyógynövényeket egyes betegségek kezelésére. Gyűjtőmunkánk során (2013-2014) 43 adatközlőt kerestünk fel az idősebb generációból, akik népi gyógynövényismereti tudásukat szüleik-től, nagyszüleiktől örökölték. Az interjúk során feljegyeztük az ismertetett gyógynövényfajok helyi elnevezését, élőhelyét, drogként alkalmazott részét, a felhasználás módját és készítménytípusát. Az adatközlők ismereteinek eredetéről a szájhagyomány útján terjedt és az egyéb forrásokból (szakkönyvek, magazinok és médiaelemek) származó adatok szétválasztása céljából érdeklődtünk. Munkánk során 141 vadon termő és termesztett növényfajt jegyeztünk le helyi felhasználási módokkal. Ezek közül dolgozatunkban a leggyakrabban megnevezett 26 vadon termő és 14 termesztett gyógynövényfajt ismer-tetjük, kiegészítve – amennyiben rendelkezésre álltak – a fajok hivatalos alkalmazásával, amelyeket mindenna-pi gyógyító tevékenységeik során használnak. Az idős generáció szájról szájra terjedő, értékes népgyógyászati tudáselemei eltűnőben vannak a csökkenő helyi érdeklődés, az egyre terjedő média, a szakkönyvek használata és a továbbadás hiánya miatt, ezért ezeknek a szájhagyomány útján továbbadott és napjainkig élő ismereteknek a feljegyzése egyre sürgetőbb feladatunk. Megőrzésük az új, kutatásra érdemes fajok felderítése és a mai fitote-rápia fejlődése céljából is kiemelkedő szerepű. Bevezetés Az etnobotanika mint a népi természetismeretet vizsgáló, interdiszciplináris tudomány első-sorban a néprajz és a botanika közös kutatási területeként a növények emberi kultúrában be-töltött szerepével, alkalmazási módjával, a hozzájuk fűződő képzetekkel és szokásokkal foglalkozik (Gub 1994). Az ember és növényvilág közötti ősi, hagyományos kapcsolatok nemcsak biológiai, nyelvi vagy társadalmi szempontból jelentősek, így értelmezésükhöz többoldalú megközelítésre van szükség. Az etnobotanikában, amely végső soron kör-nyezettani, ökológiai segédtudomány is, ez a sokszínűség tükröződik (PÉNtEK és SZAbÓ 1985). A népi orvoslás a népi természetismeret és hitvilág részeként foglalja magába a betegségek eredetére, tüneteire és gyógyítására vonatkozó hagyományokat (Gub 1994).

In Transylvania, part of Romania, fungi are
traditionally used in the human medicine, handicraft,
and several customs for a long time past. This study
aimed at systematic collecting of ethnomycological
and ethnomedicinal data of Fomes fomentarius (L.) Fr.
and Piptoporus betulinus (Bull.) P. Karst. in Corund in
south-eastern Transylvania. In addition, we aimed to
compare our data with earlier ethnomycological and
pharmacological records of the region and other
countries. The fieldwork was carried out in Corund in
2012–2013. The visited ‘‘topla´sz’’ people who work
with tinders were asked with semi-structured interviews
to list the harvesting method and time, storage
and preparations, as well as the ethnomycological and
ethnomedicinal use of the fruit body of tinder fungus
and birch polypore. Literature data were collected from
the major scientific databases. The ethnomycological
use of tinder fungus and birch polypore starts with the
traditional steps of collection, storage, and trimming
and involves the use for ethnomedicinal purposes and
preparation of unique handmade products. These
preparations are still available on national and international
markets nowadays. The ethnobotanical use of
these fungi resulted in a special local occupation in
Corund, which is a unique activity in the world.
Unfortunately, it seems to be a disappearing tradition
nowadays because of the lack of transmission. Therefore,
these living data should be urgently documented
and preserved for the maintenance of this valuable
local tradition and knowledge of Sze´kelys.

The morphology and histology of the cyathial nectary were studied in 8 European leafy spurge (Euphorbia) species, revealing that certain histological traits of the glands are in close correlation to each species' habitat, underlining the importance of morphological evidences in determining relevant ecological tolerance spectra of plants.The structure of the cyathial glands was studied in longitudinal sections with light microscopy, and histological parameters were measured and statistically analyzed by appropriate softwares.The nectaries consist of a cuticle-covered epidermis, formed by palisade cells, under which the glandular tissue and parenchyma are composed of isodiametric and anisodiametric cells in all species. Thickness of cuticle, position of nectary stomata and number of rows comprising the glandular tissue vary to a great extent in plants living in xeric, humid or mesic habitats.Although all the studied anatomical features of the nectaries were expected to be in correspondence with the characteristics of habitat types, we have only found the number of glandular cell rows to be in strong correlation with the Ellenberg's ecological indicator values on soil moisture, which varied with species. The recorded anatomical differences among the studied Euphorbia taxa emphasize the ecological significance of glandular tissue in plant adaptation, which can also be relevant for systematic purposes.

In this article we review the use of tree saps in northern and eastern Europe. Published accounts by travellers, ethnologists and ethnobotanists were searched for historical and contemporary details. Field observations made by the authors have also been used. The presented data shows that the use of tree sap has occurred in most north and eastern European countries. It can be assumed that tree saps were most used where there were extensive stands of birch or maple trees, as these two genera generally produce the largest amount of sap. The taxa most commonly used have been Betula pendula, B. pubescens, and Acer platanoides, but scattered data on the use of several other taxa are presented.

Tree sap was used as a fresh drink, but also as an ingredient in food and beverages. It was also fermented to make light alcoholic products like ale and wine. Other folk uses of tree saps vary from supplementary nutrition in the form of sugar, minerals and vitamins, to cosmetic applications for skin and hair and folk medicinal use.

Russia, Ukraine, Belarus, Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania are the only countries where the gathering and use of sap (mainly birch sap) has remained an important activity until recently, due to the existence of large birch forests, low population density and the incorporation of sap into the former Soviet economic system.

It is evident that gathering sap from birch and other trees was more widespread in earlier times. There are records indicating extensive use of tree saps from Scandinavia, Poland, Slovakia and Romania, but it is primarily of a historical character. The extraction of tree sap in these countries is nowadays viewed as a curiosity carried out only by a few individuals. However, tree saps have been regaining popularity in urban settings through niche trading.

Background: Sarma- cooked leaves rolled around a filling made from rice and/or minced meat, possiblyvegetables and seasoning plants–represents one of the most widespread feasting dishes of the Middle Easternand South-Eastern European cuisines. Although cabbage and grape vine sarma is well-known worldwide, the use of alternative plant leaves remains largely unexplored. The aim of this research was to document all of the botanicaltaxa whose leaves are used for preparing sarma in the folk cuisines of Turkey and the Balkans.
Methods: Field studies were conducted during broader ethnobotanical surveys, as well as during ad-hocinvestigations between the years 2011 and 2014 that included diverse rural communities in Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia, Kosovo, Albania, Macedonia, Bulgaria, Romania, and Turkey. Primary ethnobotanical and folkloric literatures in each country were also considered.
Results: Eighty-seven botanical taxa, mainly wild, belonging to 50 genera and 27 families, were found to representthe bio-cultural heritage of sarma in Turkey and the Balkans. The greatest plant biodiversity in sarma was found in Turkey and, to less extent, in Bulgaria and Romania. The most commonly used leaves for preparing sarma were those of cabbage (both fresh and lacto-fermented),grape vine, beet, dock, sorrel, horseradish, lime tree, bean, and spinach. In a few cases, the leaves of endemicspecies (Centaurea haradjianii, Rumex gracilescens, and R. olympicus in Turkey) were recorded.Other uncommon sarma preparations were based on lightly toxic taxa, such as potato leaves in NE Albania, leaves of Arum, Convolvulus, and Smilax species in Turkey, of Phytolacca americana in Macedonia, and of Tussilago farfara in diverse countries. Moreover, the use of leaves of the introduced species Reynoutria japonica in Romania, Colocasia esculenta in Turkey, and Phytolacca americana in Macedonia shows the dynamic nature of folk cuisines.
Conclusion: The rich ethnobotanical diversity of sarma confirms the urgent need to record folk culinary plantknowledge. The results presented here can be implemented into initiatives aimed at re-evaluating folk cuisines andniche food markets based on local neglected ingredients, and possibly also to foster trajectories of the avant-gardecuisines inspired by ethnobotanical knowledge

Ethnolinguistic studies are important for understanding an ethnic group's ideas on the world, expressed in its language. Comparing corresponding aspects of such knowledge might help clarify problems of origin for certain concepts and words, e.g. whether they form common heritage, have an independent origin, are borrowings, or calques. The current study was conducted on the material in Slavonic, Baltic, Germanic, Romance, Finno-Ugrian, Turkic and Albanian languages. The bear was chosen as being a large, dangerous animal, important in traditional culture, whose name is widely reflected in folk plant names. The phytonyms for comparison were mostly obtained from dictionaries and other publications, and supplemented with data from databases, the co-authors' field data, and archival sources (dialect and folklore materials). More than 1200 phytonym use records (combinations of a local name and a meaning) for 364 plant and fungal taxa were recorded to help find out the reasoning behind bear-nomination in various languages, as well as differences and similarities between the patterns among them. Among the most common taxa with bear-related phytonyms were Arctostaphylos uva-ursi (L.) Spreng., Heracleum sphondylium L., Acanthus mollis L., and Allium ursinum L., with Latin loan translation contributing a high proportion of the phytonyms. Some plants have many and various bear-related phytonyms, while others have only one or two bear names. Features like form and/or surface generated the richest pool of names, while such features as colour seemed to provoke rather few associations with bears. The unevenness of bear phytonyms in the chosen languages was not related to the size of the language nor the present occurence of the Brown Bear in the region. However, this may, at least to certain extent, be related to the amount of the historical ethnolinguistic research done on the selected languages.