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This list of African-American inventors and scientists documents many of the African Americans who have invented a multitude of items or made discoveries in the course of their lives. These have ranged from practical everyday devices to applications and scientific discoveries in diverse fields, including physics, biology, math, and medicine.

History[edit]

African Americans have been the victims of oppression, discrimination and persecution throughout American history, with an impact on African-American innovation according to a 2014 study by economist Lisa D. Cook, which linked violence towards African Americans and lack of legal protections over the period from 1870 to 1940 with lowered innovation.^[1] Despite this, many black innovators have been responsible for a large number of major inventions.

Among the earliest was George Washington Carver, whose reputation was based on his research into and promotion of alternative crops to cotton, which aided in nutrition for farm families. He wanted poor farmers to grow alternative crops both as a source of their own food and as a source of other products to improve their way of life. The most popular of his 44 practical bulletins for farmers contained 105 food recipes using peanuts.^[2] He also developed and promoted about 100 products made from peanuts that were useful for the house and farm. He received numerous honors for his work, including the Spingarn Medal of the NAACP.

A later renowned scientist was Percy Lavon Julian, a research chemist and a pioneer in the chemical synthesis of medicinal drugs from plants. He was the first to synthesize the natural product physostigmine, and a pioneer in the industrial large-scale chemical synthesis of the human hormones, steroids, progesterone, and testosterone, from plant sterols such as stigmasterol and sitosterol. His work would lay the foundation for the steroid drug industry's production of cortisone, other corticosteroids, and birth control pills.^[3]

A contemporary example of a modern-day inventor is Lonnie George Johnson, an engineer. Johnson invented the Super Soaker water gun, which was the top-selling toy in the United States from 1991 to 1992. In 1980 Johnson formed his own law firm and licensed the Super Soaker water gun to Larami Corporation. Two years later, the Super Soaker generated over $200 million in retail sales and became the best selling toy in North America. Larami Corporation was eventually purchased by Hasbro, the second largest toy manufacturer in the world. Over the years, Super Soaker sales have totaled close to one billion dollars. Johnson reinvested a majority of his earnings from the Super Soaker into research and development for his energy technology companies – "It's who I am, it's what I do."^[4] As of 2019, Johnson holds over 120 patents, with more pending, and is the author of several publications on spacecraft power systems.^[5]^[6]^[7] https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_African-American_inventors_and_scientists&action=edit&section=1

List[edit]

Name	Years	Occupation(s)	Inventions / accomplishments	References
Adkins, Rodney	1958–	Electrical engineer	First African American to serve as a senior vice president at IBM, helped develop IBM ThinkPad
Alcorn, George Edward Jr.	1940–	Physicist, inventor	Invented a method of fabricating an imaging X-ray spectrometer	^[8]^[9]
Alexander, Archie	1888–1958	Civil engineer	Responsible for the construction of many roads and bridges, including the Whitehurst Freeway, the Tidal Basin Bridge, and an extension to the Baltimore-Washington Parkway.
Ammons, Virgie	December 29, 1908 – July 12, 2000	Inventor	Filed the fireplace throat damper patent on August 6, 1974.	^[10]
Amos, Harold	1918–2003	Microbiologist	First African-American department chair at Harvard Medical School	^[11]
Andrews, James J.	1930–1998	Mathematician	Put forth the Andrews–Curtis conjecture in group theory with Morton L. Curtis, still unsolved	^[12]
Bailey, Leonard C.	1825–1918	Inventor	Collapsible, folding bed (For the cabinet folding bed, forerunner to the "Murphy bed", patented by Sarah E. Goode in 1885, see her entry at Goode, this page.)	^[13]^[14]
Ball, Alice Augusta	1892–1916	Chemist	Developed a technique to make chaulmoogra oil injectable and absorbable, for the first effective treatment of Hansen's disease (leprosy)	^[15]
Banneker, Benjamin	1731–1806	Almanac author; surveyor; farmer	Constructed wooden clock; astronomer; assisted in the survey of the original boundaries of the District of Columbia; authored a series of almanacs and ephemerides; naturalist: recorded observations on emergences of periodical cicadas and on the behavior of honey bees.	^[16]
Banyaga, Augustin	1947–	Mathematician	Work on diffeomorphisms and symplectomorphisms	^[17]
Bashen, Janet	1957–	Inventor, entrepreneur, professional consultant	First African-American woman to receive a patent for a web-based software invention, LinkLine, an Equal Employment Opportunity case management and tracking software	^[18]
Bath, Patricia	1942–2019	Ophthalmologist	First African-American female physician to receive a patent for a medical invention; inventions relate to cataract surgery and include the Laserphaco Probe, which revolutionized the industry in the 1980s, and an ultrasound technique for treatment	^[19]^[20]^[21]
Beard, Andrew	1849–1921	Farmer, carpenter, blacksmith, railroad worker, businessman, inventor	Janney coupler improvements; invented the car device #594,059 dated November 23, 1897; rotary engine patent #478,271 dated July 5, 1892	^[22]
Bell, Earl S.	1977–	Inventor, entrepreneur, architect, industrial designer	Invented chair with sliding skin (2004) and the quantitative display apparatus (2005)	^[23]^[24] ^[25]
Benjamin, Miriam	1861–1947	Inventor, educator	Invented "Gong and Signal Chair for Hotels"; second African-American woman to receive a patent	^[26]
Berry, Leonidas	1902–1995	Gastroenterologist	Gastroscope pioneer	^[27]
Bharucha-Reid, Albert T.	1927–1985	Mathematician, statistician	Probability theory and Markov chain theorist	^[28]
Black, Keith	1957–	Neurosurgeon	Brain tumor surgery and research	^[29]^[30]
Blackwell, David	1919–2010	Mathematician, statistician	First proposed the Blackwell channel model used in coding theory and information theory; one of the eponyms of the Rao–Blackwell theorem, which is a process that significantly improves crude statistical estimators	^[31]
Blair, Henry	1807–1860	Inventor	Second black inventor to issue a patent; invented seed planter and cotton planter.	^[32]^[33]
Boahen, Kwabena	1964–	Bioengineer	Silicon retina able to process images in the same manner as a living retina	^[34]^[35]
Boone, Sarah	1832–1905	Inventor	Ironing board allowing sleeves of women's garments to be ironed more easily	^[36]^[37]^[38]
Bouchet, Edward	1852–1918	Physicist	First African-American to receive a PhD in any subject; received physics doctorate from Yale University in 1876
Bowman, James	1923–2011	Physician	Pathologist and geneticist; Professor Emeritus Pritzker School of Medicine; first tenured African-American professor at the University of Chicago Division of Biological Sciences	^[39]^[40]
Boykin, Otis	1920–1982	Inventor, engineer	Artificial heart pacemaker control unit	^[41]^[42]^[43]
Brady, St. Elmo	1884–1966	Chemist	Published three scholarly abstracts in Science; collaborated on a paper published in the Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry	^[44]
Brannon, Horace Signor	1884–1970	Physician	World War I veteran, military physician who served in the 93rd Infantry Division	^[45]^[46]
Branson, Herman	1914–1995	Physicist, educator	Protein structure research	^[47]^[48]
Brooks, Charles	1865– ?	Inventor	Street sweeper truck and a type of paper punch	^[49]^[50]^[51]
Brown, Henry	1832– ?	Inventor	Invented fire safe	^[52]
Brown, Oscar E.	18xx– ?	Inventor	Received a patent for an improved horseshoe^[53]
Brown, Marie Van Brittan	1922–1999	Inventor	Invented the home security system	^[54]
Burr, John Albert	18xx– ?	Inventor	Rotary-blade lawn mower patent	^[55]
Cannon, Thomas C.	1943–	Inventor	Led a group of engineers who developed the Tactical Optical Fiber Connector (TOFC), the first fiber optic connector deployed under battlefield conditions, and the ST Connector that helped make fiber optic communications affordable.
Cardozo, William Warrick	1905–1962	Pediatrician	Sickle cell anemia studies; in October 1937 he published "Immunologic Studies in Sickle Cell Anemia" in the Archives of Internal Medicine; many of the findings are still valid today
Carson, Ben	1951–	Pediatric neurosurgeon	Pediatric neurosurgery at Johns Hopkins University; first surgeon to successfully separate craniopagus twins	^[56]
Carruthers, George	(1931–2020)	Astrophysicist	Invented ultraviolet camera/spectrograph, which was used by NASA when it launched Apollo 16 in 1972	^[54]
Carver, George Washington	1865–1943	Botanical researcher	Discovered hundreds of uses for previously useless vegetables and fruits, principally the peanut	^[57]^[58]^[59]^[60]
Chandler, Edward Marion Augustus	1887–1973	Chemist	2nd African American to obtain a PhD in chemistry in US and part of the founding faculty of Roosevelt College (now Roosevelt University)	^[61]
Chappelle, Charles W.	1872–1941	Electrician, construction, international businessman, and aviation pioneer	Designed long-distance flight airplane; the only African-American to invent and display the airplane at the 1911 First Industrial Air Show held in conjunction with the Auto Show at Grand Central Palace in Manhattan in New York City; president of the African Union Company, Inc.	^[62]^[63]^[64]
Chappelle, Emmett	1925–2019	Scientist and researcher	Valuable contributions to several fields: medicine, biology, food science, and astrochemistry
Chin, Karen		Paleontologist	Considered one of the world's leading experts in coprolites
Clark, Kenneth B.	1917–1983	Psychologist	First Black president of the American Psychological Association	^[65]
Clark, Mamie Phipps	1914–2005	Psychologist	Conducted 1940s experiments using dolls to study children's attitudes about race
Crosthwait, David Jr.	1898–1976	Research engineer	Heating, ventilation, and air conditioning; received some 40 US patents relating to HVAC systems
Curtis, James H. "Nick"	1935–	Researcher, chemist (electronics/specialty chemicals)	Organic ionogen for aluminum electrolytic capacitors, cationic dialdehyde polysaccharides for wet strength paper and others, US Patent Office US Pat #3609467 US Pat #3547423 and others
Dabiri, John	1980–	Biophysicist	Expert on jellyfish hydrodynamics and designer of a vertical-axis wind farm adapted from schooling fish
Daly, Marie Maynard	1921–2003	Biochemist	First black American woman with a PhD in chemistry
Davis, Chuck	? -2017	Inventor and electrical engineer	Inventor of the pROSHI neurofeedback device.	^[66]^[67]
Dean, Mark	1957–	Computer scientist	Led the team that developed the ISA bus, and led the design team responsible for creating the first one-gigahertz computer processor chip	^[68]^[69]^[70]
Drew, Charles	1904–1950	Medical researcher	Developed improved techniques for blood storage
Easley, Annie	1933–2011^[71]	Computer scientist	Work at the Lewis Research Center of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration and its predecessor, the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics	^[71]^[72]
Ellis, Clarence "Skip"	1943–2014	Computer scientist	First African American with a PhD in computer science; software inventor including OfficeTalk at Xerox PARC	^[73]^[74]
Ezerioha, Bisi	1972–	Automotive engineer	Drag racing engineer and driver
Ferguson, Lloyd Noel	1918–2011	Chemist, educator	Chemistry doctorate, first received (1943, University of California, Berkeley)	^[75]^[76]^[77]
Fox, Brian J.	1959–	Computer scientist, programmer, technologist	Original author of bash, and developer of the first online banking website in the US.	^[78]
Fryer, Roland G. Jr.	1977–	Economist, social scientist, statistician	Inequality studies
Gates, Sylvester James	1950–	Theoretical physicist	Work on supersymmetry, supergravity, and superstring theory	^[79]^[80]
Gilbert, Juan E.	1969–	Computer scientist	Awarded the first Presidential Endowed Chair at Clemson University in honor of his accomplishments
Gipson, Mack	1931–1995	Geologist	First Black man to receive a Ph.D. in Geology
Goode, Sarah E.	1855–1905	Inventor	Folding "cabinet-bed", forerunner of the Murphy bed; first African-American woman to receive a patent in the United States	^[81]^[82]^[83]
Grant, George F.	1846–1910	Dentist, professor	The first African-American professor at Harvard, Boston dentist, and inventor of a wooden golf tee.	^[84]
Graves, Joseph L.	1955–	Evolutionary biologist		^[85]^[86]^[87]
Green, Lisa		Linguist	Specializes in syntax and the study of African American English
Greenaugh, Kevin	1956–2023	Nuclear engineer		^[88]
Griffin, Bessie Blount	1914–2009	Physical therapist, inventor	Amputee self-feeding device	^[89]^[90]
Hall, Lloyd	1894–1971	Chemist
Harewood, Ken R.		Molecular biologist	GlaxoSmithKline Distinguished Professor and Director of the North Carolina Central University (NCCU) Julius L. Chambers Biomedical/Biotechnology Research institute and recognized for his work in the fields of cancer biology and cancer drug discovery.	^[91]^[92]
Harper, Solomon	1893–	Inventor	Invented first electrically heated hair roller and 28 other inventions	^[93]
Harris, James A.	1932–2000	Radiochemist	Co-discovered Rutherfordium (element 104) and Dubnium (element 105) at Lawrence Livermore Laboratory	^[94]
Hawkins, Walter Lincoln	1911–1992	Scientist	Inventor at Bell Laboratories	^[95]
Hodge, John E.	1914–1996	Chemist
Holley, Kerrie	1954–	Computer scientist	IBM's 1st black Distinguished Engineer and 2nd black IBM Fellow. Inventor of several software engineering techniques including system and methods for locating mobile devices using location and presence information	^[96]
Jackson, John W. Jr.	1953–2007	Electrical engineer, inventor, activist	Co-inventor of imaging x-ray spectrometer. NASA engineer. United States of America Army Civilian Engineer.
Jackson, Mary	1921–2005	Mathematician, Aerospace engineer	NASA's first black female engineer
Jackson, Shirley	1946–	Physicist	Distinguished and pioneering scientific career, achieving several "firsts" as a woman and as an African-American^[97]
Jackson, William	1936–	Laser chemist/photochemist, cometary astrochemist at Howard University and UC Davis	Research to unravel the key photochemical sinks of important molecules in planetary atmospheres, in our and other solar systems, around stars, and the interstellar medium.	^[98]
Jarvis, Erich	1965–	Neurobiologist	Duke University neuroscience bird songs studies	^[99]^[100]^[101]
Jefferson, Roland	1923–2020	Botanist	First African-American botanist to work at the United States National Arboretum; played important role in the preservation of Washington, D.C.'s famous flowering cherry trees.	^[102]
Jennings, Thomas L.	1791–1856	Inventor	First African American to be granted a patent (for a dry cleaning process called dry scouring)	^[103]
Johnson, Isaac	18xx– ?	Inventor	Held patent for improvements to the bicycle frame, specifically so it could be taken apart for compact storage	^[104]
Johnson, Katherine	1918–2020	Physicist, mathematician	Made contributions to the United States' aeronautics and space programs with the early application of digital electronic computers at NASA.
Johnson, Lonnie	1949–	Mechanical engineer, nuclear engineer, inventor	Invented Super Soaker while researching thermal energy transfer engines; worked with NASA; holder of over 80 patents	^[7]^[105]^[106]^[107]
Jones, Frederick McKinley	1893–1961	Inventor	Invented refrigerated truck systems	^[108]
Julian, Percy	1899–1975	Chemist	First to synthesize the natural product physostigmine; earned 130 chemical patents; lauded for humanitarian achievements	^[109]^[110]^[111]^[112]
Just, Ernest	1883–1941	Woods Hole Marine Biology Institute biologist	Provided basic and initial descriptions of the structure–function–property relationship of the plasma membrane of biological cells	^[113]^[114]^[115]
Kittles, Rick	1967–	Geneticist	Work in tracing the ancestry of African Americans via DNA testing	^[116]^[117]
Kountz, Samuel L.	1930–1981	Transplant surgeon, researcher	Organ transplantation pioneer, particularly renal transplant research and surgery; author or co-author of 172 articles in scientific publications	^[118]^[119]^[120]^[121]
Land, Adrian		Microbiologist	Researcher on Streptococcus pneumoniae and Staphylococcus aureus	^[122]^[123]^[124]
Latimer, Lewis	1848–1928	Inventor, draftsman, expert witness	Worked as a draftsman for both Alexander Graham Bell and Thomas Edison; invented the more durable filament, which made the incandescent light bulb last long enough to be useful; became a member of Edison's Pioneers and served as an expert witness in many light bulb litigation lawsuits; said to have invented the water closet.	^[125]^[126]^[127]^[128]
Lawson, Jerry	1940–2011	Computer engineer	Designer of Fairchild Channel F, the first programmable ROM cartridge-based video game console	^[129]^[130]
Lee, Raphael Carl	1949–	Surgeon, biomedical engineer	Professor at Pritzker School of Medicine; discovered ways to improve injury repair mechanisms of living cells; holds patents related to scar treatment therapies, tissue engineered ligaments, brain trauma therapies, and protective garments	^[131]^[132]^[133]^[134]^[135]
Lynk, Beebe Steven	1872–1948	Chemist	Teacher at West Tennessee University
Mahoney, Mary	1845–1926	Nurse	First African-American to study and work as a professionally trained nurse in the United States^[136]
Martin, Thomas J.	1842–1872	Inventor	Awarded a patent in 1872 for improvements to the fire extinguisher	^[137]^[138]^[139]^[140]
McBay, Henry	1914–1995	Chemist	His discoveries allowed chemists around the world to create inexpensive peroxide compounds	^[141]^[142]
McCoy, Elijah	1844–1929	Inventor	Invented the automatic lubricator for steam engines, McCoy learned a great deal of his skills from a mechanical apprenticeship when he was age fifteen.	^[143]^[144]
McLurkin, James	1972–	Roboticist		^[145]
McNair, Ronald	1950–1986	Astronaut and Physicist	Specialized in chemical and high-pressure laser physics
McWhorter, John	1965–	Linguist	Specializes in the study of creole language formation
Mensah, Thomas	1950–2024	Inventor
Miles, Alexander	1838–1918	Inventor	Invented electric elevator doors that automatically open and close	^[146]
Montgomery, Benjamin	1819–1877	Inventor	Designed a steam operated propeller to provide propulsion to boats in shallow water
Moore, Willie Hobbs	1934–1994	Physicist	First African-American woman to earn a PhD in physics (University of Michigan Ann Arbor 1972) on vibrational analysis of secondary chlorides	^[147]
Morgan, Garrett	1877–1963	Inventor	Invented an early version of a gas mask called a smoke hood, and created the first traffic light that included a third "warning" position which is standard today. Morgan also developed a chemical that was used in hair products for hair-straightening.	^[148]^[149]
Nriagu, Jerome	1944–	Geochemist	Studies toxic metals in the environment; supporter of the lead poisoning thesis of the decline of the Roman Empire
Parker, Alice H.	1895–1920	Inventor	Furnace for Central Heating
Petters, Arlie	1964–	Physicist	Work on the mathematical physics of gravitational lensing
Poindexter, Hildrus	1901–1987	Bacteriologist, epidemiologist	Work on the epidemiology of tropical diseases, including malaria
Quarterman, Lloyd Albert	1918–1982	Scientist, fluoride chemist	Manhattan Project, worked with Albert Einstein and Enrico Fermi
Renfroe, Earl	1907–2000	Orthodontist		^[150]^[151]
Rillieux, Norbert	1806–1894	Engineer, inventor	Inventor of the multiple-effect evaporator	^[152]
Robinson, Larry	1957–	Environmental chemist	Investigated possible role of arsenic in the death of Zachary Taylor; interim president of Florida A&M University
Ross, Archia	Turn of 20th century	Inventor	A runner for stoops (1896), bag closure device (1898), a wrinkle-preventing trouser stretcher (1899), a garment-hanger (1903), and a holder for brooms and like articles.	^[153]^[154]^[155]^[156]^[157]
Russell, Jesse	1948–	Engineer, inventor	Wireless communications engineer
Ruth, William Chester	1882–1971	Inventor, machinist	Combination baler feeder, self-lifting farm elevator	^[158]
Sammons, Walter	1890–1973	Inventor	Patent for hot comb	^[159]
Snyder, Window	1976–	Computer engineer	Security engineer at Microsoft, Mozilla, and Apple
Sowell, Thomas	1930–	Economist, social scientist	Economist, social theorist and political philosopher	^[160]^[161]^[162]^[163]
Steele, Claude	1946–	Psychologist, social scientist	Stereotype threat studies
Stiff, Lee	1941–	Mathematician	President of the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics from 2000 to 2002	^[164]
Temple, Lewis	1800–1854	Inventor, blacksmith, abolitionist	Inventor of the toggling whaling harpoon head	^[165]
Thomas, Valerie	1943–	Data analyst and inventor	Invented the illusion transmitter	^[166]^[167]
Thomas, Vivien	1910–1985	Surgical technician	Blue baby syndrome treatment in the 1940s	^[168]^[169]^[170]
Turner, Charles Henry	1867–1923	Zoologist	First person to prove that insects can hear and can distinguish pitch, that cockroaches can learn by trial and error, and that honeybees can see color; first African-American to receive a PhD from the University of Chicago	^[171]
Tyree, G. Bernadette	19xx–	Biochemist ^{[citation needed]}	Program Director, Division of Musculoskeletal Diseases, at National Institute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases, National Institutes of Health	^[172]
Tyson, Neil deGrasse	1958–	Astronomer	Researcher and popular educator in astronomy and the sciences	^[173]^[174]^[175]
Valerino, Powtawche	1980–	Engineer	Worked for JPL and NASA at Langley Research Center
Vaughan, Dorothy	1910–2008	Mathematician	Worked for NACA and NASA at Langley Research Center
Walker, Arthur B. C. Jr.	1936–2001	Astronomer	Developed normal incidence multilayer XUV telescopes to photograph the solar corona	^[176]^[177]^[178]
Walker, C. J.	1867–1919	Inventor	Created black cosmetic products	^[179]
Ward, Dawn N.	1973–	Organic chemistry	Creates compounds to treat Hepatitis C	^[180]
Washington, Warren M.	1936–	Atmospheric scientist	Former chair of the National Science Board	^[181]^[182]^[183]^[184]
West, James E.	1931–	Acoustician, inventor	Co-developed the foil electret microphone	^[185]^[186]^[187]
White, Lisa		Paleontologist	Geologist and Director of Education and Outreach at the University of California Museum of Paleontology
Wilkins, J. Ernest Jr.	1923–2011	Mathematician, engineer, nuclear scientist	Entered University of Chicago at age 13; PhD at 19; worked on the Manhattan Project; wrote more than 100 scientific papers; helped recruit minorities into the sciences	^[188]^[189]^[190]
Williams, Daniel	1856–1931	Surgeon	The first black person on record to have successfully performed pericardium (the sac surrounding the heart) surgery to repair a wound.	^[191]
Williams, Marguerite Thomas	1895–1991	Geologist	First Black person to receive a Ph.D. in Geology
Williams, Scott W.	1943–	Mathematician		^[192]
Williams, Walter E.	1936–2020	Economist, social scientist		^[193]^[194]^[195]
Woods, Granville	1856–1910	Inventor	Invented the synchronous multiplex railway telegraph	^[196]
Wright, Jane C.	1919–2013	Cancer research and surgeon	Noted for her contributions to chemotherapy and for pioneering the use of the drug methotrexate to treat breast cancer and skin cancer
Wright, Louis T.	1891–1952	Surgeon	Led team that first used Aureomycin as a treatment on humans	^[197]^[198]^[199]
Yaeger, Ivan	1967–	Inventor	Inventor of the Yaeger Prosthetic Arm
Young, Roger Arliner	1899–1964	Zoologist	First African-American woman to receive a doctorate degree in zoology	^[200]^[201]

References[edit]

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v t e Inventions and discoveries
Lists of inventions or discoveries by country/region	Australia Austria Azerbaijan Bangladesh Brazil Britain England Scotland Wales Canada China inventions discoveries Croatia Czech Republic Egypt France Germany Greece India Indonesia Ireland Israel Italy Jamaica Japan Korea Malaysia Mexico Netherlands Inventions discoveries explorations Pakistan Philippines Poland Portugal inventions discoveries Russia Serbia South Africa Spain Switzerland Taiwan Thailand Vietnam United States inventions before 1890 1890–1945 after 1991 discoveries
by topic	chemistry cosmology multiple discoveries science Historic inventions Byzantine Empire Indus Valley Medieval Islamic Military Native American Lost inventions Spurious inventions
Lists of inventors or discoverers by country/region	Worldwide African American African-American Puerto Rican Armenian Austrian British English Welsh Bulgarian German Italian New Zealand Polish Romanian Russian Serbian Spanish Swedish Swiss

Latest revision as of 19:24, 10 May 2024

History[edit]

List[edit]

See also[edit]

References[edit]

External links[edit]