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Candidate (degree)

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Candidatus juris diploma from the University of Oslo

Candidate (Latin candidatus or candidata) is the name of various academic degrees, chiefly in Scandinavia, the Soviet Union, the Netherlands, and Belgium. In Scandinavia, it is a higher professional-level degree usually corresponding to 5–7 years of studies. There are several dozen such degrees in the three Scandinavian countries as well as Iceland and Finland. In the Soviet states, it was a research degree roughly equivalent to a Doctor of Philosophy degree. In the Netherlands and Belgium, it was an undergraduate first-cycle degree roughly comparable with the bachelor's degree.

Etymology and origins

The term is derived from Latin candida, meaning white.[1] In Ancient Rome, men running for political office would typically wear togas chalked and bleached to be bright white at speeches, debates, conventions, and other public functions.[2] The term candidate thus came to mean someone who seeks an office of some sort.[3][4]

Use by region

Scandinavia

In Scandinavia, the term was introduced in the early 18th century and initially referred to the higher degrees in theology, law, and medicine. A candidate's degree in the relevant field (e.g., Candidate of Law) was a requirement for appointment to higher offices in the state administration (embede), including as priests, judges, other state officials, and doctors. In Denmark, Norway, and Sweden the term "candidate" was eventually used for higher professional academic degrees, usually awarded after around 5–7 years of studies. In Norway, only a few candidate's degrees (such as Candidate of Theology, Candidate of Medicine, and Candidate of Psychology) are still awarded, while in Denmark and Sweden, all candidate's degrees are retained.

The Low Countries

In the Netherlands and Belgium the "Candidate's diploma" was an undergraduate first-cycle diploma that the university issued to students who passed their candidate's examination. After obtaining the diploma one was entitled to use the academic title "Candidatus" (prenominal abbreviation Cand.). This was the lowest academic degree that could be achieved in these countries, and is roughly comparable with the bachelor's degree from universities (BA or B.Sc.).[5]

The candidate exam took place after the student completed a substantial and pre-determined part of his university education; in the case of a five-year or longer course typically after completion of the third year. Students in a four-year course received the degree at the end of their second or during their third year, depending on the criteria set by the institution. The candidates degrees were phased out in the Netherlands in 1982, but have been more-or-less replaced by the Bachelor's degree with the introduction of the Bologna Process.

The Soviet Union

In the Soviet Union, candidate degrees were research degrees roughly equivalent to a Doctor of Philosophy.[6]

Degrees

Candidate of the Arts

Candidatus magisterii (male), or candidata magisterii (female), abbreviated as "cand.mag.", is an academic degree currently awarded in Denmark. The degree is officially translated into English as Master of Arts and currently requires 5 years of studies. The degree was historically also awarded in Norway and Iceland, based on the Danish degree. The degree was originally introduced in Denmark in 1883. Today, the degree is awarded only in humanities and requires five years of studies. The degree is officially translated into English as Master of Arts.[7] It is not to be confused with the magister's degree (magister artium or magister scientiarum), a degree requiring 7–8 years of studies with strong emphasis on the scientific thesis, and which is the approximate equivalent of a PhD degree.[8][9]

The degree was also awarded in Norway from 1920 to 2003, based on the Danish degree. For most of its history, the degree usually required between 4 and 5 years of studies.[10] In its later years, the formal minimum requirement was 3.5 years for the faculties of mathematics and natural sciences, and 4–4.5 for the faculties of humanities and social sciences.

Candidate of Arts and Letters

Candidatus philologiae (male) or Candidata philologiae (female), often abbreviated "cand.philol." is an academic degree in Arts and Letters at Danish and Norwegian universities. In Norway, the degree usually required six years of study at the time it was abolished (2007). It is considered an entry-level scientific degree for careers in academia (qualifying for positions as assistant professor or universitetslektor), as doctorates traditionally are awarded at a later stage in the career to senior academics.

Candidate of Economics

Candidatus oeconomices (male) or Candidata oeconomices (female), often abbreviated "cand.oecon." is an academic degree in economics at Danish, Icelandic, and Norwegian universities. It is roughly equivalent to a Master of Economics. It was introduced in Norway in 1905 as supplementary academic degree in economics, conferred by the Faculty of Law, University of Oslo and mostly intended for those already holding a cand.jur. degree. The degree cand.oecon. in itself did not qualify for the higher civil servant positions, unlike the cand.jur. degree. The programme usually lasted two years. In 1934, it became an independent 5-year education in economics. The degree was replaced in Norway by the Bachelor/Master's degree (3+2) system in 2003.

It was established in 1964 at the University of Iceland as a 4-year program in Business Administration at the Faculty of Economics and Business Administration and remained in effect until 1996 when the current three year BS (1996) and two year MS program (1997) took over.

Candidate of Law

Candidate of Law (Latin: candidatus/candidata juris/iuris) is both a graduate law degree awarded to law students in the Nordic region as well as an "academic status" designation for advanced Law School students in German-speaking countries.

Nordics—except Denmark—have changed their law degrees from the candidate to masters due to The Bologna Process that re-formatted educational decrees in Europe in 1999. The Candidate law degree was formerly also existent in Estonia, Finland, Iceland, Norway and Sweden. The exam can only be taken at a university with a diploma privilege granted by the government. The competition for a study right in law at university is very fierce in the Nordic region. There are usually more than ten applicants to each place at law faculties. The admission system, however, varies in every country.

In Denmark

Juridisk kandidateksamen (cand. jur.) is obtained after five years of law studies (180 + 120 ECTS).[11] Undergraduate degree is Bachelor i jura (bac. jur.) which usually take three years to complete (180 ECTS).[12]

In Estonia

Before the Soviet occupation, a post-graduate law degree was "cand.jur." in Estonia. For example, President Konstantin Päts had the "cand. jur." degree from the University of Tartu.[13] The degree derives from history, Estonia has been for centuries under the influence of Nordic countries, e.g. by being a part of the Danish Kingdom.[14] The current post-graduate law degree is Õigusteaduse magister.[15]

In Germany, Austria, and Switzerland

Example of the use of the denomination in the context of a journal publication by an advanced German Law School student (ZJS 2/2010, p. 148)

In Germany, Austria and Switzerland, the term "cand. iur." is a designation used in the academic environment by advanced law students.[16] However, it is not an academic degree. Rather, the designation is used in an internal university context or in the context of publications, for example contributions to journals or anthologies. The designation is usually obtained after successful completion of the intermediate examination (after 4 to 6 semesters) and roughly corresponds to the qualification level of a Bachelor of Laws. Before passing the intermediate examination, law students shall use the designation "stud. iur." (studiosus iuris).

In Germany, law school is completed with passing of the First Law Examination after 4-6 years of study. Subsequently, graduates can be addressed as "Ref. iur." (Rechtsreferendar) or "Jurist Univ."[17] Some law faculties also award the academic degrees "Diplom-Jurist",[18] "Diplom-Jurist (Univ.)"[19] or "Mag. iur."[20].

In Austria, the degree programme ends with a diploma examination, and the academic degree "Mag. iur." is awarded.[21]

In Switzerland, the designation "cand. iur. is no longer common, since the Bologna reform has changed the degree programme to the Bachelor's and Master's system, so that the academic degrees "BLaw" (Bachelor of Law) are awarded after three years and "MLaw" (Master of Law) after further two years of study. The academic degree "lic. iur." was abolished in the course of the Bologna reform. In the undergraduate BLaw programme, students generally use the designation "stud. iur.".

Norway, Iceland, Sweden and Finland

Formerly, Iceland had the Embættispróf í lögfræði (cand. jur.) degree but it has been replaced by the ML í lögfræði (mag. jur.) title.[22][23]

Previously Norway had cand. jur. title which was replaced in 2003 with the Master i Rettsvitenskap degree. Last cand. jur. degree's were awarded in spring 2007. The Master i Rettsvitenskap is obtained after five years of law studies (300 ECTS).[24]

Before 2010 Sweden had Jurist kandidatexamen (jur. kand.) degree. The former degree was replaced by Juristexamen is completed after four and a half years of studying at the normal pace (270 ECTS). Previously graduated jur. kand. diploma holders were are eligible to continue using their title. Both before and after the Bologna process, the academic degree is split into two different diplomas. Previously, the lower degree was Varanotaari, abbreviated VN (Swedish: Vicenotarie), and current lower degree Oikeusnotaari, abbreviated ON (Swedish: Rättsnotarie, RN) is awarded after completing three years of study (180 ECTS).

Before 2005 Finland had Oikeustieteen kandidaatti, abbreviated OTK (Swedish: Juris kandidatexamen, Jur. kand.) degree. It was replaced by Oikeustieteen maisteri, abbreviated OTM (Swedish: Juris magister, JM) which is obtained after five years of law studies (180 + 120 ECTS). Previously graduated OTK diploma holders were eligible to continue using their previous title.

Candidate of Mathematics and the Natural Sciences

Candidatus realium or candidata realium (abbreviated "cand. real.") is a former academic degree used in Norway, and conferred in mathematics and natural sciences. It was abolished in 1985. There was originally no set duration for the completion of this degree, although 7–8 years was normal,[citation needed] and including a dissertation which usually took between 2 and 4 years to complete.[citation needed] As of 1985, the formal requirement amounted to 6 years of studies and dissertation work, although there was a strong tradition for extensive dissertations, leading many students to take longer. The degree is sometimes translated as PhD.[25][dubious – discuss]

Candidate of Medicine

Main article: Candidate of Medicine

Candidate of Medicine (Latin: candidatus medicinae (male), candidata medicinae (female), abbreviated cand. med.) is an academic degree awarded in Denmark, Iceland, and Norway following a six-year medical school education. Medical students in Germany, Austria and Switzerland carry this title during their medical studies before being awarded the degree of Dr. med. (Germany) or Dr. med. univ. (Austria) after defending a doctoral or diploma thesis before a jury. Along with the cand.med.vet., cand.psychol. and cand.theol. it is one of the few Latin titles to survive the Quality Reform in Norway.

Candidate of Politics

Candidatus rerum politicarum (male), Candidata rerum politicarum (female), abbreviated "cand.polit.", is an academic degree in politics in Denmark and formerly an academic degree in all social sciences in Norway, including for example economics, psychology, sociology and political science. After the Quality Reform, it has been replaced by a Master of Philosophy degree, shortening the nominal study time from six to five years. The cand.polit. degree was at the time of its abolition in practice a two-year or a two-and-a-half-year[26] extension to the four-year cand.mag. degree or equivalent qualifications.

In Denmark, cand.polit. refers exclusively to the candidate's degree in politics awarded by the University of Copenhagen. Economics degrees from other Danish universities are known as cand. oecon and cand. merc.

In Norway, the cand.polit. was prior to 2003–2008 awarded in all social sciences by the faculties of social science at the universities, nominally requiring at least six years of study, although many students used somewhat longer time.

Candidate of Psychology

Candidate of Psychology (Latin: candidatus/candidata psychologiae), abbreviated "cand.psych." in Denmark and "cand.psychol." in Norway, is a higher-level professional degree currently awarded in Denmark and Norway in the field of clinical psychology. In scope and length it is equal to a degree somewhere between a masters and a Psy.D.-degree in clinical psychology.

It was introduced at the University of Copenhagen in 1944 and at the University of Oslo in 1948 based on the Danish degree. In Denmark the degree requires five years of studies, while in Norway it required five years of academic studies and a one-year internship as part of the studies. As part of the Bologna Process the degree in Denmark consists of a three-year bachelor's degree in psychology followed by a two-year master's degree in clinical psychology that gives the right to use the title cand.psych.

In Denmark the degree is awarded by the University of Copenhagen, Aarhus University, University of Southern Denmark and Aalborg University. In Norway the degree is awarded by the University of Oslo, the Norwegian University of Science and Technology, the University of Bergen, and the University of Tromsø.[27]

Although completion of the degree qualifies the holder to apply for a license as a clinical psychologist, it does not in itself authorize the holder to practice clinical psychology. In Norway, after the final exam those with a cand.psychol. may apply for and will normally be granted the authorization to practice clinical psychology. In Denmark two years of supervised practice is required before one is granted a full authorization.

Candidate of Science

Candidatus scientiarum (male), or candidata scientiarum (female), abbreviated as "cand.scient.", is an academic degree currently awarded in Denmark and formerly awarded in Norway.

In Denmark, cand.scient. is a higher-level degree awarded as a Kandidat (Candidate) degree by Danish universities to graduate students in the mathematics and natural sciences. The study requires 120 ECTS, and normally requires two years study in addition to a completed bachelor's degree. The title is officially translated to English as Master of Science.[7]

In Norway, cand.scient. was a higher-level degree awarded in the fields of mathematics and natural sciences. It was introduced in 1985, replacing the more rigorous "cand.real." degree.[dubious – discuss] Completion required 1.5–2 years study in addition to a completed cand.mag. degree of 3.5 year.[28] In 2003, the "cand.scient." degree was replaced in Norway by the Master of Science degree as part of the adoption of the Bologna Process.[29]

Candidate of Theology

The Candidatus theologiæ (male), Candidata theologiæ (female), abbreviated "cand. theol." is an academic degree with a long tradition, awarded after completion of a six-year higher education program in theology in Iceland, Denmark, and Norway. In Norway, the title has remained after the "Quality Reform". In Denmark the title is described as equivalent to Master of Theology, while in Norway it ranks higher. The title is protected by law in Denmark and Norway. In Norway, it can only be issued by four institutions, NLA Høgskolen, the University of Oslo, the MF Norwegian School of Theology, Oslo, and the School of Mission and Theology, now VID Specialized University, Stavanger. The latter three are private

Candidate of Veterinary Medicine

Cand.med.vet (Candidatus/candidata (male/female) medicinae veterinariae) is an academic degree awarded in Scandinavian countries following a 5.5 to 6 year veterinary medical school education. It is equivalent with the same kind of degrees given in other countries, like: DVM, VDM, BVSc, BVM&S etc., which also bestows authorization as a veterinarian.[citation needed]

Awarding institutions

In Norway the degree is given by NMBU (former NVH) located in Campus Adamstuen in Oslo, Norway. In Denmark by the University of Copenhagen, and in Sweden by the Swedish University of Agricultural sciences, the only educational institutions in the Scandinavian countries to offer the veterinary degree. In Norway the title is one of few academic titles to remain unchanged during the "Quality reform" changes of 2002-2003, along with cand.med (human medicine), cand.psychol (psychology), cand.theol (religious studies).

See also

References

  1. ^ "Candidate". Merriam-Webster. Retrieved 2012-11-07.
  2. ^ "Candidate". Online Etymology Dictionary. Retrieved 2012-11-07.
  3. ^ Westrin, Th., ed. (1912). "Magistratus". Nordisk familjebok (in Swedish). Vol. 17: Lux–Mekanik. Stockholm. p. 471.{{cite encyclopedia}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  4. ^ Ørsted, Peter (1991). Dagligliv i det romerske imperium (in Danish). Copenhagen: Gyldendal. p. 153. ISBN 87-01-72010-4.
  5. ^ "Welke titel mag ik voeren als ik ben afgestudeerd?". Rijksoverheid (in Dutch). 2011-04-19.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  6. ^ Zemtsov, Ilya (1991). Encyclopedia of Soviet Life. p. 278. ISBN 0887383505.
  7. ^ a b "BEK nr 1520: Bekendtgørelse om bachelor- og kandidatuddannelser ved universiteterne (uddannelsesbekendtgørelsen)". Retsinformation (in Danish). 16 December 2013.
  8. ^ Dommasnes, Liv Helga; Else Johansen Kleppe; Gro Mandt; Jenny-Rita Næss (1998). "Women archeologists in retrospect – the Norwegian case". In Margarita Díaz-Andreu García and Marie Louise Stig Sørensen (ed.). Excavating women: a history of women in European archaeology. London: Routledge. p. 115. ISBN 0-415-15760-9.
  9. ^ Jørgensen, Lise Bender (1998). "The state of Denmark". In Margarita Díaz-Andreu García and Marie Louise Stig Sørensen (ed.). Excavating women: a history of women in European archaeology. London: Routledge. p. 231. ISBN 0-415-15760-9. In recent years, the Anglo-Saxon style degree of PhD has been introduced, and is now replacing the degree of mag. art. At present, both mag. art. and PhD degrees are around. They are not identical, but their position in the educational system as the degree you take at the end of postgraduate studies is the same.
  10. ^ Raaheim, Kjell; Utne, Edmund (1985). Hvilket fag skal jeg velge, hvilken grad kan jeg ta? (in Norwegian). Bergen: Sigma. p. 105. ISBN 9788290373080.
  11. ^ "C 72A". Official Journal of the European Union. 63. 5 March 2020. ISSN 1977-091X. Retrieved 2020-12-17 – via EUR-Lex.
  12. ^ "Bachelor i jura". University of Copenhagen (in Danish). 2011-03-04. Archived from the original on 2012-12-09. Retrieved 2020-05-10.
  13. ^ Päts, Konstantin. "Eesti Vabariigi president (EE-RA - ERA.1278)". Archives Portal Europe. Retrieved 2020-12-17.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  14. ^ Skyum-Nielsen, Niels; Lund, Niels, eds. (1981). Danish Medieval History: New Currents. Museum Tusculanum Press. ISBN 9788788073300.
  15. ^ "Õppeasutuste antavate akadeemiliste kraadide nimetuste loetelu". Riigi Teataja (in Estonian). 23 August 2004. Retrieved 2020-12-17.
  16. ^ "Universitätssprache". Juristischer Gendankensalat (in German).
  17. ^ "Japo: § 17 Prüfungsgesamtnote, Abschlusszeugnis und Bezeichnung". Bayerische Staatskanzlei (in German). 13 October 2003.
  18. ^ "Diplom-Juristin/Diplom-Jurist (Dipl.-Jur.)". Saarland University (in German).{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  19. ^ "Studienordnung". Regensburg University (in German).{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  20. ^ "Magister iuris/Diplom-Jurist". University of Koln (in German). 9 November 2016.
  21. ^ "Rechtswissenschaften (Diplom)". University of Vienna (in German).
  22. ^ "EA Enska". Kjarni Lögmannsstofa (in Icelandic). Retrieved 2020-12-17.
  23. ^ "Lögfræði". University of Iceland (in Icelandic). Retrieved 2020-12-17.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  24. ^ "Rettsvitenskap (jus) (master - 5 år)". Oslo University (in Norwegian). Archived from the original on 2012-07-22. Retrieved 2020-05-10.
  25. ^ "Gustav Gaudernack: CV". Oslo University Hospital. 5 February 2004. Archived from the original on 2012-03-21. Retrieved 2012-05-17.
  26. ^ "The Candidata/Candidatus rerum politicarum (cand. polit.) degree". University of Oslo. 10 July 2001. Archived from the original on 12 November 2008.
  27. ^ "Studieplan for PRPSYK Profesjonsstudiet i psykologi, vår 2016". University of Bergen (in Norwegian). Retrieved 2016-05-15.
  28. ^ "Academic system at the University of Oslo". University of Oslo. Archived from the original on 13 February 2002.
  29. ^ "Candidatus: akademisk grad". Store norske leksikon (in Norwegian). 21 May 2012. Retrieved 10 May 2016.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
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