ILLYRIA, a name applied to part of the Balkan Peninsula
extending along the eastern shore of the Adriatic from Fiume
to Durazzo, and inland as far as the Danube and the Servian
Morava. This region comprises the modern provinces or states
of Dalmatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Montenegro, with the
southern half of Croatia-Slavonia, part of western Servia, the
sanjak of Novibazar, and the extreme north of Albania. As
the inhabitants of Illyria never attained complete political
unity its landward boundaries were never clearly defined.
Indeed, the very name seems originally to have been an ethnological
rather than a geographical term; the older Greek
historians usually wrote of “the Illyrians” (οἰ Ἰλλυρίοι), while
the names Illyris (Ἰλλυρίς) or less commonly Illyria (Ἰλλυρία)
came subsequently to be used of the indeterminate area inhabited
by the Illyrian tribes, i.e. a region extending eastward from
the Adriatic between Liburnia on the N. and Epirus on the S.,
and gradually shading off into the territories of kindred peoples
towards Thrace. The Latin name Illyricum was not, unless
at a very early period, synonymous with Illyria; it also may
originally have signified the land inhabited by the Illyrians, but
it became a political expression, and was applied to various
divisions of the Roman Empire, the boundaries of which were
frequently changed and often included an area far larger than
Illyria properly so called. Vienna and Athens at different times
formed part of Illyricum, but no geographer would ever have
included these cities in Illyria.
Ethnology.—Little can be learned from written sources of
the origin and character of the Illyrians. The Greek legend
that Cadmus and Harmonia settled in Illyria and became the
parents of Illyrius, the eponymous ancestor of the whole Illyrian
people, has been interpreted as an indication that the Greeks
recognized some affinity between themselves and the Illyrians;
but this inference is based on insufficient data. Herodotus and other Greek
historians represent the Illyrians as a barbarous people, who
resembled the ruder tribes of Thrace. Both are described as
tattooing their persons and offering human sacrifices to their
gods. The women of Illyria seem to have occupied a high position
socially and even to have exercised political power. Queens are
mentioned among their rulers. Fuller and more trustworthy
information can be obtained from archaeological evidence. In
Bosnia the lake-dwellings at Butmir, the cemeteries of Jezerine
and Glasinac and other sites have yielded numerous stone and horn
implements, iron and bronze ornaments, weapons, &c., and objects
of more recent date fashioned in silver, tin, amber and even
glass. These illustrate various stages in the development of
primitive Illyrian civilization, from the neolithic age onward.
The Hallstatt and La Tène cultures are especially well
represented. (See W. Ridgeway, The Early Age of Greece, 1901; R.
Munro, Bosnia-Herzegovina and Dalmatia, Edinburgh, 1900; and W.
Radimský, Die neolithische Station von Butmir, Vienna,
1895–1898.) Similar discoveries have been made in Dalmatia, as
among the tumuli on the Sabbioncello promontory, and in
Croatia-Slavonia. H. Kiepert (“Über den Volkstamm der Leleges,”
in Monatsber. Berl. Akad., 1861, p. 114) sought to prove that the
Illyrians were akin to the Leleges; his theory was supported by
E. Schrader, but is not generally accepted. In Dalmatia there
appears to have been a large Celtic element, and Celtic
place-names are common. The ancient Illyrian languages fall into
two groups, the northern, closely connected with Venetic, and the
southern, perhaps allied to Messapian and now probably
represented by Albanian.
See K. Brugmann, Kurze vergleichende Grammatik der
Indogermanischen Sprachen (Strassburg, 1904); and his larger
Grundriss der vergleichenden Grammatik (2nd ed., Strassburg,
1897), with the authorities there quoted, especially P.
Kretschmer, Einleitung in die Geschichte der Griechischen
Sprachen (Göttingen, 1896): see also Albania.
History.—Greek colonization on the Illyrian seaboard probably began late
in the 7th century B.C. or early in the 6th century. The most
important settlements appear to have been at Epidamnus (Durazzo),
Tragurium (Traù), Rhizon (near Cattaro), Salona (near Spalato),
Epidaurum (Ragusavecchia), Zara and on the islands of Curzola,
Lesina and Lissa. There is a collection of Greek coins from
Illyria in the museum at Agram, and the researches of Professor
F. Bulié and others at Salona (see Spalato) have brought to light
Greek inscriptions, Greek pottery, &c. dating from 600 B.C. But
Greek influence seems never to have penetrated far into the
interior, and even on the coast it was rapidly superseded by
Latin civilization after the 3rd century B.C. Until then the
Illyrian tribes appear to have lived in a state of intermittent
warfare with their neighbours and one another. They are said by
Herodotus (ix. 43) to have attacked the temple of Delphi. Brasidas
with his small army of Spartans was assaulted by them on his
march (424 B.C.) across Thessaly
and Macedonia to attack the Athenian colonies in Thrace.
The earlier history of the Macedonian kings is one constant
struggle against the Illyrian tribes. The migrations of the Celts
at the beginning of the 4th century disturbed the country
between the Danube and the Adriatic. The Scordisci and other
Celtic tribes settled there, and forced the Illyrians towards the
south. The necessities of defence seem to have united the
Illyrians under a chief Bardylis (about 383 B.C.) and his son
Clitus. Bardylis nearly succeeded in destroying the rising
kingdom of Macedonia; King Amyntas II was defeated, and a
few years later Perdiccas was defeated and slain (359). But the
great Philip crushed the Illyrians completely, and annexed part
of their country. During the next century we hear of them as
pirates. Issuing from the secluded harbours of the coast, they
ravaged the shores of Italy and Greece, and preyed on the
commerce of the Adriatic. The Greeks applied to Rome for help.
Teuta, the Illyrian queen, rejected the Roman demands for
redress, and murdered the ambassadors; but the two Illyrian Wars
(229 and 219 B.C.) ended in the submission of the Illyrians, a
considerable part of their territory being annexed by the
conquerors. Illyria, however, remained a powerful kingdom with
its capital at Scodra (Scutari in Albania), until 180 B.C., when
the Dalmatians declared themselves independent of Gentius or
Genthius, the king of Illyria, and founded a republic with its
capital at Delminium (see Dalmatia: History, on the site of
Delminium). In 168 Gentius came into conflict with the Romans,
who conquered and annexed his country. Dalmatia was invaded by a
Roman army under Gaius Marcius Figulus in 156, but Figulus was
driven back to the Roman frontier, and in Dalmatia the Illyrians
were not finally subdued until 165 years afterwards. Publius
Scipio Nasica, who succeeded Figulus, captured Delminium, and in
119 L. Caecilius Metellus overran the country and received a
triumph and the surname Dalmaticus. But in 51 a Dalmatian raid on
Liburnia led to a renewal of hostilities; the Roman armies were
often worsted, and although in 39 Asinius Pollio gained some
successes (see Horace, Odes ii. 1. 15) these appear to have been
exaggerated, and it was not until Octavian took the field in
person that the Dalmatians submitted in 33. (For an account of
the war see Appian, Illyrica, 24-28;
Dio Cassius xlix. 38; Livy, Epit. 131, 132). They again revolted
in 16 and 11, and in A.D. 6–9 joined the rebel Pannonians.
Suetonius (Tiberius, 16) declares that they were the most formidable enemies with whom the Romans had had to contend
since the Punic Wars. In A.D. 9, however, Tiberius entirely
subjugated them, for which he was awarded a triumph in 12
(Dio Cass. lv. 23-29, lvi. 11-17; Vell. Pat. ii. 110–115). Thenceforward
Dalmatia, Iapydia and Liburnia were united as the
province of Illyricum.
Latin civilization spread rapidly, the cultivation of the vine
was introduced, gold-mining was carried on in Bosnia, and
flourishing commercial cities arose along the coast. Illyria
became one of the best recruiting grounds for the Roman legions;
and in troubled times many Illyrian soldiers fought their way up
from the ranks to the imperial purple. Claudius, Aurelian,
Probus, Diocletian and Maximian were all sons of Illyrian
peasants. It is probable, however, that most of the highland
tribes now represented by the Albanians remained almost
unaffected by Roman influence. The importance of Illyricum caused
its name to be extended to many neighbouring districts; in the
2nd century A.D. the Illyricus Limes included Noricum, Pannonia,
Moesia, Dacia and Thrace. In the reorganization of the empire by
Diocletian (285) the diocese of Illyricum was created; it
comprised Pannonia, Noricum and Dalmatia, while Dacia and
Macedonia, together called Eastern Illyricum, were added later.
Either Diocletian or after him Constantine made Illyricum one of
the four prefectures, each governed by a praefectus praetorio,
into which the empire was divided. This prefecture included
Pannonia, Noricum, Crete and the entire Balkan peninsula except
Thrace, which was attached by Constantine to the prefecture of
the East. From the partition of the empire in 285 until 379
Illyricum was included in the Western Empire, but thenceforward
Eastern Illyricum was annexed to the Eastern Empire; its frontier
was almost identical with the line of demarcation between
Latin-speaking and Greek-speaking peoples, and roughly
corresponded to the boundary which now severs Latin from Greek
Christianity in the Balkan peninsula. The whole peninsula except
Thrace was still known as Illyricum, but was subdivided into
Illyris Barbara or Romana and Illyris Graeca (Eastern Illyricum
with Greece and Crete). The Via Egnatia, the great line of road
which connected Rome with Constantinople and the East, led across
Illyricum from Dyrrachium to Thessalonica.
In the 5th century began a series of invasions which profoundly
modified the ethnical character and the civilization of the
Illyrians. In 441 and 447 their country was ravaged by the Huns.
In 481 Dalmatia was added to the Ostrogothic kingdom, which
already included the more northerly parts of Illyricum, i.e. Pannonia and Noricum. Dalmatia was partially reconquered
by Justinian in 536, but after 565 it was devastated by the
Avars, and throughout the century bands of Slavonic invaders
had been gradually establishing themselves in Illyria, where,
unlike the earlier barbarian conquerors, they formed permanent
settlements. Between 600 and 650 the main body of the immigrants
occupied Illyria (see Servia: History; and Slavs).
It consisted of Croats and Serbs, two groups of tribes who spoke
a single language and were so closely related that the origin of
the distinction between them is obscure. The Croats settled
in the western half of Illyria, the Serbs in the eastern; thus the
former came gradually under the influence of Italy and Roman
Catholicism, the latter under the influence of Byzantium and
the Greek Church. Hence the distinction between them became
a marked difference of civilization and creed, which has always
tended to keep the Illyrian Slavs politically disunited.
The Croats and Serbs rapidly absorbed most of the Latinized
Illyrians. But the wealthy and powerful city-states on the
coast were strong enough to maintain their independence and
their distinctively Italian character. Other Roman provincials
took refuge in the mountains of the interior; these Mavrovlachi,
as they were called (see Dalmatia: Population; and Vlachs),
preserved their language and nationality for many centuries.
The Illyrian tribes which had withstood the attraction of Roman
civilization remained unconquered among the mountains of
Albania and were never Slavonized. With these exceptions
Illyria became entirely Serbo-Croatian in population, language
and culture.
The name of Illyria had by this time disappeared from history.
In literature it was preserved, and the scene of Shakespeare’s
comedy, Twelfth Night, is laid in Illyria. Politically the name
was revived in 1809, when the name Illyrian Provinces was given
to Carniola, Dalmatia, Istria, Fiume, Görz and Gradisca, and
Trieste, with parts of Carinthia and Croatia; these territories
were ceded by Austria to Italy at the peace of Schönnbrun
(14th Oct. 1809). The Illyrian Provinces were occupied by
French troops and governed in the interest of Napoleon; the
republic of Ragusa was annexed to them in 1811, but about
the end of 1813 the French occupation ceased to be effective
and the provinces reverted to Austria. The kingdom of Illyria,
which was constituted in 1816 out of the crown-lands of Carinthia,
Carniola, Istria, Görz and Gradisca, and Trieste, formed until
1849 a kingdom of the Austrian crown. For the political propaganda
known as Illyrism, see Croatia-Slavonia: History.
Bibliography.—In addition to the authorities quoted above,
see G. Zippel, Die römische Herrschaft in Illyrien bis auf Augustus
(Leipzig, 1877); P. O. Bahn, Der Ursprung der römischen Provinz
Illyrien (Grimma, 1876); J. Marquardt, Römische Staatsverwaltung,
i. (1881), p. 295; E. A. Freeman, “The Illyrian Emperors and their
Land” (Historical Essays, series 3, 1879); C. Patsch in Pauly-Wissowa’s
Realencyklopädie, iv. pt. 2 (1901); Th. Mommsen, The
Provinces of the Roman Empire (ed. F. Haverfield, 1909).