Animal Experiments in Biomedical Research: A Historical Perspective
<p>“First Stage of Cruelty” by William Hogarth (1750), the first plate from “The Four Stages of Cruelty” series, which describes the escalating violent behavior that follows childhood cruelty to animals to an adulthood of criminal life. In this scene, two boys plunge an arrow into the rectum of a dog, while another boy, most likely the pet’s owner, pleads with them to stop. Meanwhile, some boys are burning the eye of a bird, while others tie bones to a dog’s tail. Also, some boys play “cock-throwing” (a popular sport in eighteenth-century England, consisting of throwing stones or bottles at a cockerel tied to a stake) while others hang fighting cats, and others even throw animals from windows. Source: <sup>©</sup>Victoria and Albert Museum, London.</p> "> Figure 2
<p>“An Experiment on a Bird in an air pump”, by Joseph Wright of Derby (detail) (1768). In this brilliant artwork, the artist captures the multiple reactions elicited by the use of live animals as experimental subjects in eighteenth-century Britain, for which we can find a parallel in present day’s diverse attitudes on this topic, including shock, sadness, appreciation, curiosity and indifference. Currently in <span class="html-italic">The National Gallery</span>, London. Source: <span class="html-italic">Wikimedia Commons</span>.</p> "> Figure 3
<p>“A physiological demonstration with vivisection of a dog,” by Émile-Édouard Mouchy. This 1832 oil painting—the only secular painting known of the artist—illustrates how French scholars valued physiological experimentation in service of scientific progress [<a href="#B90-animals-03-00238" class="html-bibr">90</a>]. Notice how the struggling of the animal does not seem to affect the physiologist or his observers. Currently part of the <span class="html-italic">Wellcome Gallery</span> collection, London. Source: <span class="html-italic">Wellcome Library</span>.</p> "> Figure 4
<p>This full-page illustration of Pasteur in his animal facility was published in <span class="html-italic">Harper’s Weekly</span> in the United States, on 21 June 1884. At this time, there was moderate curiosity on Pasteur’s work in the US, which would intensify after his first successful human trials of a therapeutic vaccine for rabies in 1885. In the article, the reader is reassured that the use of dogs is both humane and justified in the interest of mankind. The use of other species, however, is barely mentioned [<a href="#B5-animals-03-00238" class="html-bibr">5</a>]. Source: <span class="html-italic">Images from the History of Medicine</span>, U.S. National Library of Science.</p> "> Figure 5
<p>Two outbred laboratory rats, of the Lister Hooded (Long–Evans) strain. Rodents are the most commonly used laboratory animals, making up nearly 80% of the total of animals used in the European Union, followed by cold-blooded animals (fish, amphibian and reptiles, making up a total of 9.6%) and birds (6.3%) [<a href="#B159-animals-03-00238" class="html-bibr">159</a>] Photo: Francis Brosseron, reproduced with permission.</p> "> Figure 6
<p>A large advertisement published in the 13 May 1991 edition of <span class="html-italic">The Hour</span> (p. 9), and part of a campaign in defense of animal research, sponsored by the United States Surgical Corporation. While the value of Pasteur’s work is undeniable, there is, however, no scientific grounding for the claim that only by experimenting on dogs would a vaccine for rabies have been developed, or that other animal models or even non-animal methods could not have been used to achieve this in over a century. These dramatic and biased portraits of animal research are now more uncommon, as an increasing number of scientists acknowledge the need to be more candid and open to objective discussion over the possibilities and limitations of animal research, and of the scientific process altogether.</p> "> Figure 7
<p>This schematic illustration (adapted with permission from an original by Professor Bert van Zupthen) attempts to describe trends in the use of animals for scientific purposes in the Western world across time. It depicts the emergence of the first vivisection studies by classical Greek physicians, the absence of animal-based research—along with most medical and scientific research—across the Middle Ages, its resurgence in the Renaissance onwards, and the rapid increase in animal studies following the rise of science-based physiology and medicine in the nineteenth century. The curves represented are nevertheless conjectural, as there are no reliable statistics on animal use for most of the period covered. Even nowadays it is hard to estimate trends in animal research, as data from several developed countries is insufficient (for instance, in the United States, rodents, fish and birds are not accounted for in the statistics). The available data, however, suggest that the number of animals used in research and testing in the Western world peaked in the 1970s, and decreased until the late 1990s, or early 2000s, to about half the number of 30 years earlier, and stabilizing in recent years. While many, if not most, researchers do not foresee an end to animal experiments in biomedicine, the European Commission has nevertheless set full replacement of animal experiments as an ultimate goal [<a href="#B204-animals-03-00238" class="html-bibr">204</a>], and the Humane Society of the United States has the optimistic goal of full replacement by the year 2050 [<a href="#B192-animals-03-00238" class="html-bibr">192</a>].</p> ">
Abstract
:Simple Summary
Abstract
1. Introduction
2. From Antiquity to the Renaissance
3. Seventeenth Century and the Dawn of the Enlightenment
4. Eighteenth Century and the Rise of Moral Consideration for Animals
5. The Nineteenth-Century Medical Revolution and the Upsurge of the Antivivisection Societies
This surgeon’s spring course of experimental physiology commenced in the beginning of April. I seldom fail of “assisting” at his murders. At his first lecture, a basketful of live rabbits, 8 glass receivers full of frogs, two pigeons, an owl, several tortoises and a pup were the victims ready to lay down their lives for the good of science! His discourse was to explain the function of the fifth pair of nerves. The facility was very striking with which the professor could cut the nerve at its origin, by introducing a sharp instrument through the cranium, immediately behind and below the eye. M. Magendie drew the attention of the class to several rabbits in which the fifth pair of nerves had been divided several days before. They were all blind of one eye, a deposition of lymph having taken place in the comes, from inflammation of the eye always following the operation alluded to, although the eye is by this section deprived of all its sensibility. Monsieur M. has not only lost all feeling for the victims he tortures, but he really likes his business. When the animal squeaks a little, the operator grins; when loud screams are uttered, he sometimes laughs outright. The professor has a most mild, gentle and amiable expression of countenance, and is in the habit of smoothing, fondling and patting his victim whilst occupied with preliminary remarks, and the rabbit either looks him in the face or ‘licks the hand just raised to shed his blood. During another lecture, in demonstrating the functions of the motive and sensitive fibers of the spinal nerves, he laid bare the spinal cord in a young pup, and cut one bundle after another of nerves. (…) Living dissection is as effectual a mode of teaching as it is revolting, and in many cases the experiments are unnecessarily cruel and too frequently reiterated; but so long as the thing is going on, I shall not fail to profit by it, although I never wish to see such experiments repeated.cit in Olmsted, 1944 [101]
No hesitation is possible, the science of life can be established only by experiment, and we can save living beings from death only by sacrificing others. Experiments must be made either on man or on animals. Now I think physicians already make too many dangerous experiments on man, before carefully studying them on animals. I do not admit that it is moral to try more or less dangerous or active remedies on patients, without first experimenting with them on dogs; for I shall prove, further on, that results obtained on animals may all be conclusive for man when we know how to experiment properly. If it is immoral, then, to make an experiment on man when it is dangerous to him, even though the result may be useful to others, it is essentially moral to do experiments on an animal, even though painful and dangerous to him, if they may be useful to man.
6. The Twentieth-Century Triumph of Science-Based Medicine
7. Animal Liberation and the Pathway for a More Humane Science
8. Conclusion
Acknowledgments
Conflict of Interest
References and Notes
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Franco, N.H. Animal Experiments in Biomedical Research: A Historical Perspective. Animals 2013, 3, 238-273. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani3010238
Franco NH. Animal Experiments in Biomedical Research: A Historical Perspective. Animals. 2013; 3(1):238-273. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani3010238
Chicago/Turabian StyleFranco, Nuno Henrique. 2013. "Animal Experiments in Biomedical Research: A Historical Perspective" Animals 3, no. 1: 238-273. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani3010238