(PDF) The Art & Architecture of THE GOLDEN TEMPLE COMPLEX, AMRITSAR

Indian temple is considered to be a synonym for Indian architecture worldwide. Most of the authors describe temples only with the physical form of the temple. During the 18th & 19th C, there was literature published to evaluate the architecture of these temples. The interpretation is very superficial; restricting the explanations only to the visible structure excluding any consideration of the philosophy/ science behind the construction of the temples. This method to describe and analyze the temples continues to be followed by the majority of scholars widely. The ignorance about the philosophies mentioned in the oriental literature is evident. This paper aims to establish a need to have an “Indian” viewpoint to appreciate the temples holistically.

Local traditions govern temple architectural typologies; often, structural styles and building methods were progressively blended depending on congregation of experts and promotion of construction activity. While the texts enumerate many nuances in temple architectural styles, only about twenty-odd types dominate the landscape. Early natural caves and frescoed caverns, inspired by Buddhist prayer halls, evolved to rock-cut caves, which progressively incorporated iconographic objects and sculptures. The form evolved from simple, functional structures to imposing, magnificent buildings, which indicate progression of elaboration of and opulence in rituals― it reflects complexities in symbolism too. Local materials and influences determined regional preferences for designs, which evidence mutual inductance and overlapping of styles. This paper documents the diverse and numerous Hindu temple architecture styles based on not only the designs and traditions that are more recurrently featured in ancient texts, but also the exemplars and archetypes that are most commonly observed in ancient temple structures.

The basic form of the Hindu temples The basic form of the Hindu temple comprises the following: i. A cave-like sanctum (garbhagriha literally 'womb-house'), which, in the early temples, was a small cubicle with a single entrance and grew into a larger chamber in time.The garbhagriha is made to house the main icon which is itself the focus of much ritual attention. ii. The entrance to the temple which may be a portico or colonnaded hall that incorporates space for a large number of worshippers and is known as a mandapa. iii. From the fifth century CE onwards, freestanding temples tend to have a mountain like spire, which can take the shape of a curving shikhar in North India and a pyramidal tower, called a vimana, in South India. iv. The vahan, i.e., the mount or vehicle of the temple's main deity along with a standard pillar or dhvaj is placed axially before the sanctum. Two broad orders of temples in the country are known-Nagara in the north and Dravida in the south. At times, the Vesar style of temples as an independent style created through the selective mixing of the Nagara and Dravida orders is mentioned by some scholars. Sculpture, Iconography and Ornamentation  The study of images of deities falls within a branch of art history called 'iconography', which consists of identification of images based on certain symbols and mythologies associated with them.  Every region and period produced its own distinct style of images with its regional variations in iconography.  The temple is covered with elaborate sculpture and ornament that form a fundamental part of its conception.  The placement of an image in a temple is carefully planned: for instance, river goddesses (Ganga and Yamuna) are usually found at the entrance of a garbhagriha in a Nagara temple.  Dvarapalas (doorkeepers) are usually found on the gateways or gopurams of Dravida temples.

DITHE SABHE THANV NAHI TUTH JEHEYA (I have seen all places but there is none other like this) The Art & Architecture of THE GOLDEN TEMPLE COMPLEX, AMRITSAR Collection of Essays Dr Uday Dokras Architect Srishti Dokras Introductrion by CA Joginder Singh Uberoi 1 Sahib The Art & Architecture of THE GOLDEN TEMPLE COMPLEX, AMRITSAR Collection of Essays Dr Uday Dokras Architect Srishti Dokras Introductrion by CA Joginder Singh Uberoi 2 The Art & Architecture of THE GOLDEN TEMPLE COMPLEX, AMRITSAR Collection of Essays Dr Uday Dokras Architect Srishti Dokras With an Introduction by CA Joginder Singh Uberoi First Edition 2021 ISBN applied for Copyright 2021 Uday Dokras. All Rights Reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, transmitted in any form or by means of electronic, mechanical, photocopy, micro-film, recording or otherwise, without prior permission of the copyright holder. ISBN No. applied for. 3 Cost US $150. I N R 1500/- Euro 120 CONTENTS Chapter I- INTRODUCTION-History of The Golden Temple, also known as Harmandir Sahib. Joginder Singh Uberoi,Chartered Accountant,Nagpur Part I 20 Chapter II The Making of Amritsar 22 Golden Temple With A Golden Story 33 Ghanta Ghar 36 Chapter III-History of Sri Harmandir Sahib 55 CHAPTER IV GURU RAM DAS 72 CHAPTER V ROLE OF AKAL TAKHT IN SIKH HISTORY, 86 PART II Sikh Architecture at its very best 95 CHAPTER VI Sikh Architecture at its very best THE GOLDEN TEMPLE COMPLEX 96 CHAPTER VII Sikh Architecture 108 SRI AKAL TAKHAT, AMRITSAR 114 CHAPTER VIII Ramgarhia Bunga: Amritsar’s Hidden Marvel 136 Ter IXOrigins-Who built the lost palace? 157 ANNEXURE Ath Sath Tirath, Golden Temple Complex 161 ANNEXURE SIKHISM 170 4 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION History of The Golden Temple, also known as Harmandir Sahib The Golden Temple, also known as Harmandir Sahib, meaning "abode of Godr Darbār Sahib, meaning "exalted court" is a gurdwara located in the city of Amritsar, Punjab, India. It is the preeminent spiritual site of Sikhism. The Harmandar Sahib is also spelled as Harimandar, Harimandir, or Harmandir Sahib. It is also called the Darbār Sahib which means "sacred audience", as well as the Golden Temple for its gold foil covered sanctum center. The word "Harmandir" is composed of two words, "Hari" which scholars variously translate as "God",and "mandir" which means house. The Sikh tradition has several Gurdwaras named "Harmandir Sahib" such as those in Kiratpur and Patna. Of these, the one in Amritsar is most revered. Harmandir Sahib, Harmandir also spelled Harimandir, also called Darbar Sahib (Punjabi: “Sacred Audience”) or Golden Temple, the chief gurdwara, or house of worship, of Sikhism and the Sikhs’ most important pilgrimage site. It is located in the city of Amritsar, Punjab state, northwestern India. 5 Harmandir Sahib (Golden Temple),The Harmandir Sahib, or Golden Temple, in Amritsar, Punjab, northwestern India.Dmitry Rukhlenko—iStock/Thinkstock( ABOVE) (historic) c. 1870s.© John Edward Sache The first Harmandir Sahib was built in 1604 by Arjan, the fifth Sikh Guru, who symbolically had it placed on a lower level so that even the humblest had to step down to enter it. He also included entrances on all four sides, signifying that it was open to worshippers of all castes and creeds. The foundation stone was laid by Mian Mīr, a Muslim divine of Lahore (now in Pakistan). The temple was destroyed several times by Afghan invaders and was finally rebuilt in marble and copper overlaid with gold foil during the reign (1801–39) of Maharaja Ranjit Singh. The structure thus became known as the Golden Temple. The Harmandir Sahib is the focus of a complex of buildings that form the heart of Sikhism. The temple itself occupies a small island in the centre of the tank, or pool, called the Amrita Saras (“Pool of Nectar”)—the source of the city’s name—and is connected to land on its west side by a marble causeway running across the water of the pool. Situated facing the entrance to the causeway is the Akal Takht, the chief centre of authority of Sikhism and the headquarters of 6 the Shiromani Akali Dal (Supreme Akali Party), the main political party of the Sikhs in Punjab. On the north side of the tank is the main entrance to the complex and the Teja Singh Samudri Hall (Clock Tower), which houses the main offices of the Shiromani Gurdwara Parbandhak Committee (Supreme Committee of Temple Management), which oversees the main Sikh gurdwaras. Among several buildings on the east side of the tank are the Assembly Hall and the Guru Ram Das Langur, the latter a large dining hall that serves meals to thousands of pilgrims and other visitors each day. The gurdwara is built around a man-made pool (sarovar) that was completed by the fourth Sikh Guru, Guru Ram Das in 1577. Guru Arjan, the fifth Guru of Sikhism, requested Sai Mir Mian Mohammed, a Muslim Pir of Lahore, to lay its foundation stone in 1589. In 1604, Guru Arjan placed a copy of the Adi Granth in Harmandir Sahib. The Gurdwara was repeatedly rebuilt by the Sikhs after it became a target of persecution and was destroyed several times by the Mughal and invading Afghan armies. Maharaja Ranjit Singh after founding the Sikh Empire, rebuilt it in marble and copper in 1809, overlaid the sanctum with gold foil in 1830. This has led to the name the Golden Temple. It is an open house of worship for all men and women, from all walks of life and faith.[2] It has a square plan with four entrances, has a circumambulation path around the pool. The complex is a collection of buildings around the sanctum and the pool. One of these is Akal Takht, the chief center of religious authority of Sikhism. Additional buildings include a clock tower, the offices of Gurdwara Committee, a Museum and a langar – a free Sikh community run kitchen that serves a simple vegetarian meal to all visitors without discrimination. Over 100,000 people visit the holy shrine daily for worship. The Gurdwara complex has been nominated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site, and its application is pending on the tentative list of UNESCO. Interior of Darbar Sahib with gold encrusted walls featuring a golden chandelier According to the Sikh historical records, the land that became Amritsar and houses the Harimandar Sahib was chosen by Guru Amar Das – the third Guru of the Sikh tradition. It was then called Guru Da Chakk, after he had asked his disciple Ram Das to find land to start a new town with a man-made pool as its central point. After Guru Ram Das succeeded Guru Amar Das in 1574, and given the hostile opposition he faced from the sons of Guru Amar Das,[20] Guru 7 Ram Das founded the town that came to be known as "Ramdaspur". He started by completing the pool with the help of Baba Buddha (not to be confused with the Buddha of Buddhism). Guru Ram Das built his new official centre and home next to it. He invited merchants and artisans from other parts of India to settle into the new town with him. Ramdaspur town expanded during the time of Guru Arjan financed by donations and constructed by voluntary work. The town grew to become the city of Amritsar, and the area grew into the temple complex). The construction activity between 1574 and 1604 is described in Mahima Prakash Vartak, a semi-historical Sikh hagiography text likely composed in 1741, and the earliest known document dealing with the lives of all the ten Gurus. Guru Arjan installed the scripture of Sikhism inside the new gurdwara in 1604. Continuing the efforts of Guru Ram Das, Guru Arjan established Amritsar as a primary Sikh pilgrimage destination. He wrote a voluminous amount of Sikh scripture including the popular Sukhmani Sahib. Construction Maharaja Ranjit Singh listening to Guru Granth Sahib being recited near the Akal Takht and Golden Temple, Amritsar, Punjab, India. Guru Ram Das acquired the land for the site. Two versions of stories exist on how he acquired this land. In one, based on a Gazetteer record, the land was purchased with Sikh donations of 700 rupees from the owners of the village of Tung. In another version, Emperor Akbar is stated to have donated the land to the wife of Guru Ram Das. In 1581, Guru Arjan initiated the construction of the Gurdwara. During the construction the pool was kept empty and dry. It took 8 years to complete the first version of the Harmandir Sahib. Guru Arjan planned a gurdwara at a level lower than the city to emphasise humility and the need to efface one's ego before entering the premises to meet the Guru. He also demanded that the gurdwara compound be open on all sides to emphasise that it was open to all. The sanctum inside 8 the pool where his Guru seat was had only one bridge to emphasise that the end goal was one, states Arvind-Pal Singh Mandair. In 1589, the gurdwara made with bricks was complete. Guru Arjan is believed by some later sources to have invited the Sufi saint Mian Mir of Lahore to lay its foundation stone, signalling pluralism and that the Sikh tradition welcomed all. This belief is however unsubstantiated. According to Sikh traditional sources such as Sri Gur Suraj Parkash Granth it was laid by Guru Arjan himself. After the inauguration, the pool was filled with water. On 16 August 1604, Guru Arjan completed expanding and compiling the first version of the Sikh scripture and placed a copy of the Adi Granth in the gurdwara. He appointed Baba Buddha as the first Granthi. Ath Sath Tirath, which means "shrine of 68 pilgrimages", is a raised canopy on the parkarma (circumambulation marble path around the pool). The name, as stated by W. Owen Cole and other scholars, reflects the belief that visiting this temple is equivalent to 68 Hindu pilgrimage sites in the Indian subcontinent, or that a Tirath to the Golden Temple has the efficacy of all 68 Tiraths combined. The completion of the first version of the Golden Temple was a major milestone for Sikhism, states Arvind-Pal Singh Mandair, because it provided a central pilgrimage place and a rallying point for the Sikh community, set within a hub of trade and activity. The Golden Temple at night Mughal Empire era destruction and rebuilding The growing influence and success of Guru Arjan drew the attention of the Mughal Empire. Guru Arjan was arrested under the orders of the Mughal Emperor Jahangir and asked to convert to Islam. He refused, was tortured and executed in 1606 CE. Guru Arjan's son and successor Guru Hargobind left Amritsar and moved into the Shivalik Hills to avoid persecution and to save the Sikh panth. For about a century after Guru Arjan's martyrdom, state Louis E. Fenech and W. H. McLeod, the Golden Temple was not occupied by the actual Sikh Gurus and it remained in hostile sectarian hands.] In the 18th century, Guru Gobind Singh and his newly founded Khalsa Sikhs came back and fought to liberate it. The Golden Temple was viewed by the Mughal rulers and Afghan Sultans as the center of Sikh faith and it remained the main target of persecution. The Golden Temple was the center of historic events in Sikh history:  In 1709, the governor of Lahore sent in his army to suppress and prevent the Sikhs from gathering for their festivals of Vaisakhi and Divali. But the Sikhs defied by gathering in the Golden Temple. In 1716, Banda Singh and numerous Sikhs were arrested and executed. 9     In 1737, the Mughal governor ordered the capture of the custodian of the Golden Temple named Mani Singh and executed him. He appointed Masse Khan as the police commissioner who then occupied the Temple and converted it into his entertainment center with dancing girls. He befouled the pool. Sikhs avenged the sacrilege of the Golden Temple by assassinating Masse Khan inside the Temple in August 1740. In 1746, another Lahore official Diwan Lahpet Rai working for Yahiya Khan, and seeking revenge for the death of his brother, filled the pool with sand. In 1749, Sikhs restored the pool when Muin ul-Mulk slackened Mughal operations against Sikhs and sought their help during his operations in Multan. In 1757, the Afghan ruler Ahmad Shah Durrani, also known as Ahmad Shah Abdali, attacked Amritsar and desecrated the Golden Temple. He had waste poured into the pool along with entrails of slaughtered cows, before departing for Afghanistan. The Sikhs restored it again. In 1762, Ahmad Shah Durrani returned and had the Golden Temple blown up with gunpowder. Sikhs returned and celebrated Divali in its premises. In 1764, Baba Jassa Singh Ahluwalia collected donations to rebuild the Golden Temple. A new main gateway (Darshan Deorhi), causeway and sanctum were completed in 1776, while the floor around the pool was completed in 1784. The Sikhs also completed a canal to bring in fresh water from Ravi River for the pool. The Sri Harmandir Sahib – popularly known as the Golden Temple – is the holiest shrine of Sikhism and its history runs parallel with the history of the Sikhs, the city of Amritsar and much of the Punjab itself. About 1.5 lakh devotees visit the shrine daily, but few know of its great history of struggle and sacrifice. It is mentioned that Guru Nanak Dev ji (1469-1539 CE), the first of the 10 Sikh Gurus, founded Sikhism in the early 15th century. His teachings of equality, fraternal love, goodness and virtue drew hordes of followers in Punjab. Upon his demise, he was succeeded by Guru Angad Dev ji (1504-1552), then Guru Amar Das ji (1479-1574). These first three Sikh Gurus founded new settlements in the regions namely Kartarpur Sahib (now in Pakistan), Khadur Sahib and Goindwal Sahib (in India), respectively, settlements that were meant to propagate the faith. 10 A miniature painting, dated 1890, depicting an ‘imaginary portrait’ of the ten Gurus and others|Wikimedia Commons The establishment of the Sikh faith coincided with the beginning of the Mughal Empire (15261857 CE). While the early Mughal emperors Babur and Humayun looked upon the followers of Sikhism with great suspicion, relations between the Sikhs and the Mughals improved substantially under the liberal and tolerant Emperor Akbar (r. 1556 – 1605). It is even believed that Akbar visited his contemporary, the third Sikh Guru Amar Das ji, at his spiritual centre in Goindwal Sahib and donated 700 Akbari rupees to his daughter, Bibi Bhani. Later, Guru ji arranged a marriage between Bibi Bhani and a devoted disciple named Bhai Jetha and ordered the latter to establish a new city as the headquarters of the faith. Bhai Jetha used the Akbari rupees that had been given to his wife, and devotees’ donations, to buy the plot of land that now sits at the heart of the Sikh faith. 11 The Golden Temple and sacred tank at Amritsar, photo taken by George Craddock in the 1880s|British Library Founding the City of Amritsar In the 16th century, the land where Amritsar now stands had just trees and dhabs (ponds) located in it. Bhai Jetha purchased a large parcel of land here from the local zamindars or landlords of Tung and other nearby villages in 1564 CE, and a large sarovar or tank was constructed at its centre. The new township was called Guru da Chakk or Chakk Ramdas (the Guru’s Village). In 1574 CE, following the demise of Guru Amar Das ji, Bhai Jetha became the Fourth Sikh Guru, known as Guru Ram Das ji. In keeping with tradition, and his predecessor’s wishes, he shifted the spiritual centre of Sikhism, from Goindwal Sahib to Guru Da Chakk, which became known as Ramdaspur. The tank at its centre came to be called Amrit Kund (Pond of Nectar) and later Amritsar (Lake of Nectar). Over time, both the tank and the township came to be known as Amritsar. 12 Entrance to the temple, photo by William Henry Baker|British Library The Establishment of Harmandir Sahib Guru Ram Das ji, upon his death in 1581, was succeeded by his son, Guru Arjan Dev ji. The new Guru wanted to establish a space where people could come and learn the Sikh faith’s messages of equality and love. And so he began construction of the Sri Harmandir Sahib, in the centre of the sacred tank or sarovar of the city. Most traditional texts hold that Guru Arjan Dev ji invited the Sufi saint Hazrat Sain Mian Mir ji from Lahore to lay the foundation stone of the shrine, to promote and reflect tolerance among faiths. But few in the Sikh community dispute this and claim that Guru Arjan Dev ji himself laid the foundation stone. Either way, by 1589 CE, the original brick building of the Sri Harmandir Sahib was complete. Some Sikh scholars even argue that along with the shrine a small mosque was also built in the city for the Muslim devotes, but it couldn’t survive in the reconstruction of the city in 19th century. The completion of the awe-inspiring structure would also be a turning point in Sikh religious history, because it was here that Guru Arjan Dev ji, moving beyond the oral teachings of earlier Gurus, began compiling an official Sikh scripture. It was known as the Adi Granth, which would 13 later evolve into the Guru Granth Sahib. It was placed in the sanctum in 1604, with Baba Buddha, a respected and learned Sikh, as its first Granthi or scripture reader. Ornate Ceiling of the Golden Temple in gold and precious stones|Wikimedia Commons Struggles With the Mughals After the death of the Mughal Emperor Akbar in 1605, the relationship between the Sikhs and the Mughals deteriorated. The growing power and influence of the Sikh Gurus, and the huge congregations that gathered at the Sri Harmandir Sahib, alarmed the Mughal establishment. In 1606 CE, Guru Arjan Dev ji was captured and executed by the Mughal Emperor Jahangir, on charges of supporting the failed revolt of the Emperor’s eldest son, Prince Khusrau. Guru Arjan Dev ji was succeeded by his 11-year-old son, Guru Hargobind ji (1595-1644). To ensure that the Sikhs did not rebel against Mughal authority, Guru Hargobind ji was imprisoned at Gwalior Fort in 1609 CE, where he remained in captivity for two years, from the ages of 14 to 16. However various accounts claim different tenure if his imprisonment. Following his release, Guru Hargobind ji returned to Amritsar, where he began the early militarisation of the Sikhs, with the aim of resisting further Mughal aggression. He built the Akal Takht or Akal Bunga (literally, the throne of the timeless one) in front of the Sri Harmandir Sahib, to represent the highest seat of earthly authority of the Sikhs. 14 Akal Takht in the Golden Temple complex|Wikimedia Commons But during the reign of Shah Jahan (r. 1628-1658), Sikh-Mughal relations deteriorated again, resulting in the Battle of Amritsar (1634). Though the Sikhs won, the heavy losses they suffered forced them to retreat to a more secure location, Kiratpur in the Shivalik Hills of Punjab, about 214 km east of Amritsar. Guru Hargobind ji would never return to Amritsar.’ Following his departure to Kiratpur, the Sri Harmandir Sahib came under the control of Baba Prithi Chand, Guru Arjan Dev ji’s elder brother who had conflicts with him. Baba Prithi Chand had been overlooked for succession to Guruship in favour of his younger brother and, in revolt, had created his own unorthodox sect of Sikhism, known as the Miharvans. The Miharvans, whom mainstream Sikhs condemned as minas or scoundrels, would control the Sri Harmandir Sahib for several decades. 15 Plan of the Golden Temple|Wikimedia Commons After Prithi Chand’s death in 1618, his descendants feuded over control of the shrine, and by 1696 CE, administration of the Sri Harmandir Sahib had begun to fall apart. Sikh devotees sent emissaries to Anandpur Sahib, the new centre of the Sikhs established on the edge of the Shivalik Hills, requesting the 10th Sikh Guru, Guru Gobind Singh ji, to take control. In 1699, Guru Gobind Singh ji sent Sikh scholar Bhai Mani Singh to take control of the shrine in Amritsar as the custodian, and normalcy was restored to it. Following the death of the last Sikh Guru, Guru Gobind Singh ji, in exile in Nanded, Maharashtra, in 1708 CE, the situation in Amritsar deteriorated. In 1737, the shrine’s custodian 16 Bhai Mani Singh was executed by the Mughal governor of Lahore, for failing to pay a tribute of Rs 5,000 in exchange for permission to celebrate Diwali. A ruthless persecution of the Sikhs followed. For example, in 1746, the Mughal diwan (officer) Lakhpat Rai filled the holy sarovar with sand; in 1749, even taking a dip in its waters was prohibited, by the new Mughal controller of Amritsar, Salamat Khan. During these years of political chaos, the Sri Harmandir Sahib came under the control of the Udasi sect under Bhai Gopal Das. This was a syncretic Hindu-Sikh sect of ascetics or sadhus, founded by Sri Chand, the son of the first Sikh Guru, Guru Nanak Dev. The Mahants or heads of the Udasi sect would control the Sri Harmandir Sahib until 1921. The Golden Temple|https://pixabay.com/ The Making of the ‘Golden Temple’ The collapse of central Mughal authority in Punjab led to the invasions of Afghan ruler Ahmad Shah Abdali, who viewed the region as a rich source of plunder. During one of his invasions, in 1757, the Sri Harmandir Sahib was attacked and damaged; the sarovar was filled with the entrails and blood of slaughtered cows, and debris. But in the following year, the Sikhs, under their leader Baba Jassa Singh Ahluwalia, recaptured Amritsar and the soldiers responsible for desecrating the holy place were made to clean it. It didn’t end there, though. In 1762, Abdali returned to Amritsar. This time he filled the complex with gunpowder and the entire structure was blown to smithereens. For two years, the Sri Harmandir Sahib technically did not exist, which was a source of great sorrow to the Sikhs. By this time, a number of Sikh principalities known as misls had emerged. In 1764, Baba Jassa Singh Ahluwalia collected donations from them all and rebuilt the Sri 17 Harmandir Sahib. A new main gateway to the sanctum, named the Darshani Deorhi, was constructed; work on the parikrama or causeway and the sanctum was completed in 1776; the floor around the sarovar was completed in 1784. Later, Udasi Mahant Bhai Gopal Das was given retirement and the mainstream Sikh leader Bhai Chanchal Singh was made the new custodian. Around the shrine complex, different misls built bungas or mansion-barracks where soldiers could be stationed to protect the shrine. The bungas were also used to station the pilgrims and there Langar was also cooked. Maharaja Ranjit Singh listening to Guru Granth Sahib being recited near the Akal Takht and Golden Temple, painting by Ágoston Schoefft |Wikimedia Commons By the beginning of the 19th century, Maharaja Ranjit Singh had emerged as the Lion of Punjab, united all the misls, and established a Sikh Empire. In 1802, he captured Amritsar from the Bhangi Misl and took control of the shrine. He formed a committee of Udasi Mahants to look after it and put that committee in charge of administering the now-bustling city that had grown up around it.It was Maharaja Ranjit Singh who ordered, in 1805, that gold sheets be laid on the exterior of the shrine. By 1834, the entire exterior of the sanctum was covered in gold, while the interiors were embellished with silver work, marble work and traditional paintings. To visitors and travellers, the Sri Harmandir Sahib became the Golden Temple. 18 The gothic clock tower seen in the background of the Golden Temple|Wikimedia Commons Under the British Raj After the fall of the Sikh Empire in the Second Anglo-Sikh War in 1849, the British Empire annexed Punjab, and with it Amritsar and the Sri Harmandir Sahib. To mark their presence in that city, they demolished the Bunga Sarkar (barracks) constructed by Maharaja Ranjit Singh in the parikrama and constructed a red-brick Gothic clock tower in its place. Despite vehement protests by locals, the clock tower was completed in 1877. Operationally, the shrine again came under the control of the Udasi Mahants, who had earlier served as the custodians of the shrine, and had regular conflicts with mainstream Sikhs over the collection of donations and the administration of the shrine. In the 1920s, a group of Sikhs launched the Akali or Gurdwara Reform Movement and finally took control of the Sri Harmandir Sahib from the Mahants and brought it under the control of the Shiromani Gurdwara Parbandhak Committee (SGPC), which controls its administration even today. In 1943, bowing to the Sikhs’ demands to extend the parikrama around the shrine, the British administration ordered the demolition of the clock tower and all the historic bungas around the shrine. Only one, the Ramgarhia Bunga, survived. Joginder Singh Uberoi Chartered Accountant Nagpur 19 PART I  In one, based on a Gazetteer record, the land was purchased with Sikh donations of 700 rupees from the owners of the village of Tung. In another version, Emperor Akbar is stated to have donated the land to the wife of Guru Ram Das. In 1581, Guru Arjan initiated the construction of the Gurdwara.  The temple - which is also known as Darbar Sahib - is in the city of Amritsar which was founded in 1577 by the fourth Sikh guru, Guru Ram Das with the fifth, Guru Arjan designing the temple. The temple started to be built in 1581 with the first version of the temple taking eight years.  Golden Temple, the holiest shrine of the Sikhs, is set to shine brighter with 160-kg gold worth Rs 50 crore being plated on the domes of its four deodis (entrances). 20 CHAPTER II The Making of Amritsar The Bhagwan Valmiki Tirath Sthal situated at Amritsar is believed to be the Ashram site of Maharishi Valmiki, the writer of Ramayana. As per the Ramayana, Sita gave birth to Lava and Kusha, sons of lord Rama at Ramtirth ashram. Large number of people visit Ramtirth Temple at annual fair. Nearby cities to Amritsar, Lahore and Kasur were said to be founded by Lava and Kusha, respectively. During Ashvamedha Yagna by Lord Rama, Lava and Kush caught the ritual horse and tied Lord Hanuman to a tree near to today's Durgiana Temple. Founding of Amritsar City Guru Ram Das, the fourth Sikh guru is credited with founding the holy city of Amritsar in the Sikh tradition. Two versions of stories exist regarding the land where Ram Das settled. In one 21 based on a Gazetteer record, the land was purchased with Sikh donations, for 700 rupees from the owners of the village of Tung. According to the Sikh historical records, the site was chosen by Guru Amar Das and called Guru Da Chakk, after he had asked Ram Das to find land to start a new town with a man-made pool as its central point. After his coronation in 1574, and the hostile opposition he faced from the sons of Amar Das, Ram Das founded the town named after him as "Ramdaspur". He started by completing the pool, and building his new official Guru centre and home next to it. He invited merchants and artisans from other parts of India to settle into the new town with him. The town expanded during the time of Arjan financed by donations and constructed by voluntary work. The town grew to become the city of Amritsar, and the pool area grew into a temple complex after his son built the gurdwara Harmandir Sahib, and installed the scripture of Sikhism inside the new temple in 1604. The construction activity between 1574 and 1604 is described in Mahima Prakash Vartak, a semi-historical Sikh hagiography text likely composed in 1741, and the earliest known document dealing with the lives of all the ten Gurus. Maharaja Ranjit Singh listening to Guru Granth Sahib being recited near the Akal Takht and Golden Temple, Amritsar, Punjab, India. Destruction: In 1766, Ahmad Shah invaded the Sikh Confederacy, besieged Amritsar, massacred the populace and destroyed the city. Old walled city During Sikh Empire in 1822 Maharaja Ranjit Singh fortified the city starting from a wall at Katra Maha Singh area. Later, Sher Singh continued with the construction of the wall with twelve gates (Lahori Darwaza, Khazana, Hakeema, Rangar Nangalia, Gilwali, Ramgarhia, Doburji, Ahluwalia, Deori Kalan, Rambagh Deori, Shahzada and Lohgarh) in it and a fort named Dhoor Kot that had fortification 25 yards broad and 7 yards high. The circumference of the walled city was around five miles. When in 1849, British annexed Punjab, Amritsar was a walled city and they build thirteenth gate to it known as Hall Gate. 22 As mentioned earlier, Amritsar was founded by Sri Guru Ramdass ji, the fourth guru of the Sikhs in about 1574 A.D but before the city was founded, the area was covered with thick forests and had several lakes. To start the city the Guru invited 52 traders from different sectors belongings to nearby places like Patti and Kasur to settle here. These families started the first 32 shops in the city which still stand in the street called Batisi Hatta (32 shops). The Guru himself shifted to live among them in the city which came to be called Ramdaspur and has been eulogised in the Guru Granth Sahib. The construction of Amrit Sarovar from which the city gets its present name was also stared by Sri Guru Ramdass. His successor, Sri Guru Arjan Dev, completed the project and located the Harmandir Sahib in its midst. Later, when Guru Arjan Dev completed the writing of Holy Granth sahib, a copy of Guru Granth Sahib was ceremonially installed in Harmandir Sahib. Baba Buddha Sahib was appointed the First Granthi. After the last Guru Sri Guru Gobind Singh Baba Banda Bahadur a Sikh from Nanded came to the Punjab and inflicted several crushing defeats on the imperial Mughal forces. This led to the rise of Sikh power and the rise of several “jathas or bands” called Misls. 12 Misls of the Sikh confederacy controlled Punjab and from time to time attempted to expand their territory and resources. 4 of these Misl, namely; the Ahulwalia Misl, Ramgarhia Misl, Kanhiya Misl and Bhangi Misl controlled Amritsar from time to time. Each of them contributed to the city of Amritsar. Before Maharaja Ranjit Singh, outer Amritsar was controlled by the Bhangi misl who built the Gobindgarh Fort. They were crushed by Maharaja Ranjit Singh, early in his career. Part of Amritsar was controlled by The Khanhiya Misl with whom Maharaja Ranjit Singh formed a matrimonial alliance by marrying Jai Singh infant granddaughter Mahtab Kaur when he was six year old himself. The Ahluwalia Misl Controlled a large part of the city. Jassa Singh Ahluwalia was its most prominent leader. He defeated the Afgan Ahmad Shah Abdali in the battle of Amritsar in 1765 . He was at one time the richest and the most powerful misaldars. The Misl built a fort in the city and had full control, till Maharaja Ranjit Singh forces to accept his leadership. Ahmad Shah Durrani was returning home after sacking Delhi in January 1757, but on the way his army was attacked by Baba Deep Singh. Shah sent his son Timur Shah Durrani to chastise the Sikhs.[11] A battle was fought at the village Gohawar where a small number of Sikhs drove off Afghans. Baba Deep Singh, the leader of the Sikhs, was martyred. The Ramgaria Misl controlled the rest of Amritsar and was the most powerful misls. Jassa Singh Ramgarhia was the first to fortify the Amritsar, He surrounded the place with the Huge mud wall calling it Ram Navami or fort of God. It was attacked by the imperial Mughal forces but it was rebuilt by Jassa Singh who renamed the place as Ramgarh from which his misl took its name Ramgarhia. He was the ferocious military leader and even accepted red fort in New Delhi and made away with four guns and the endowment slab on which the Mughals were crowned and placed it within the Golden Temple Complex. During the Misal period Barracks, Bungas, Forts and Havelis were constructed as required around the Golden Temple for use of the Sikh Army. Maharaja Ranjit Singh brought all the Misls under his control and took over full control of Amritsar by 1802 A.D. It was who fortified the Gobind Garh Fort on the modern lines. He also built the Ram bag Palace and the garden of Mughal Lines and covered the Harmandir Sahib in 23 Gold and made it look as we see it today. Maharaja Ranjit Singh also built a huge wall with 12 gates around the city of Amritsar. Only one gate “The Ram Bagh Gate” stands till day. The British took over Amritsar in 1840 A.D. The years under the British rule saw the demolition of the outer walls of the city and rebuilding of gates, the construction of Town Hall from where they administered the city of Amritsar. The British also renamed the Ram Bagh Garden as Company Bagh. Current building of the Railway Station, the post office and the Saragarhi Gurdwara Memorial were all erected during the British era. The best example of Indo-British architecture however, is the Khalsa College, designed by the famous architect Ram Singh, a resident of Cheel Mandi, Amritsar. His works include the Darbar Hall of Queen Victoria at Osborne House, UK the Darbar Hall of Mysore and Kapurthala, Chiefs College at Lahore and several other outstanding examples of Indo-British Architecture. He was the pioneer in taking the exquisite Pinjara Wood work and wooden carvings of Amritsar and making them popular all over the world. The Heritage Walk show cases some exquisite wood work and traditional architecture. The city is the cultural capital of Punjab today. The Battle of Amritsar was fought between Durrani Empire and Sikh Misls of Dal Khalsa in 1757.Ahmad Shah Durrani was returning home after sacking Delhi in January 1757, but on the way his army was attacked by Baba Deep Singh. Shah sent his son Timur Shah Durrani to chastise the Sikhs. A battle was fought at the village Gohawar where a small number of Sikhs drove off Afghans. Baba Deep Singh, the leader of the Sikhs, was martyred. The Sikh occupation of Lahore took place in 1761 when the Sikhs besieged Lahore and captured it after facing no opposition from Durrani forces.After victory in the Third Battle of Panipat, Ahmad Shah Durrani sent General Nuruddin with 12,000 soldiers to chastite Sikhs. Charat Singh Sukerchakia attacked Nuruddin's army at Sialkot. Nuruddin escaped and the Sikhs won a great victory in the 1761 Battle of Sialkot. Afghan General Khwaja Obed Khan was also sent to punish Sikhs. Khwaja obed wanted to attack Charat Singh at Gujranwala but before he could, he was attacked by Sikhs led by Jassa Singh Ahluwalia, Hari Singh Dhillon, and Jai Singh Kanheya. The Afghan forces were surrounded and Khwaja fled the battlefield. Sikhs once again defeated the Afghans in the 1761 Battle of Gujranwala. The Sikhs gained enough confidence to capture Lahore after back to back victories. They met at Amritsar on 27 October 1761, the day of Diwali, and decided to capture Lahore. The Sikhs besieged Lahore, Khawaja obed did not oppose the Sikh attack, Sikhs entered the Lahore city, plundered the city, captured the Royal mint and struck coins bearing "Sikka Zad dar Jahan Bafazat-i-Akal, mulk-i-Ahmad garift Jassa Kalal," which means 'the coin struck by Grace of God in the country of Ahmad captured by Jassa Kalal. The Battle: Ahmad Shah Durrani raided India in 1761 and defeated the Marathas in the Third Battle of Panipat in 1761, then he returned to Kabul and appointed Khwaja Abed Khan the Afghan Governor of Lahore. He wished to defeat the Sikhs in order to secure Afghan positions in the entire Punjab region but was defeated by Sikh army under Charat Singh in the Battle of Sialkot (1761). 24 As soon as Nur-ud-din arrived on the banks of the Chenab, hecame into conflict with Sardar Charat Singh of the Sukerchakia Misl. Charat Singh, anticipating the trouble, had ready moved from his headquarters at Gujranwala to arrest the further progress of the Afghan general. He was assisted by the other Misldars who had made a common cause with him. Thus assuming the defensive with his army of trained men, Charat Singh awaited the onslaught of the Afghans whom after a battle of considerable duration he repulsed. He followed up his victory by maintaining a vigorous pursuit of the fugitives. The Afghans, about 12,000 in number, fleeing pellmell, took refuge in the stronghold of Sialkot. The town was immediately besieged and the strictness of the watch was such as supplies gave out and the garrison was brought to the verge of starvation. Nur-ud-din, finding his men demoralized and starving, abandoned them to their fate and disguised as a beggar sought refuge in flight. The garrison immediately surrendered, and were allowed to depart in peace. This victory over the well-trained troops of the greatest soldier of the day placed Charat Singh in the front rank of the Sikh leaders, while the booty of Sialkot brought him a quantity of artillery and baggage. When all was over Charat Singh made a triumphal entry into his capital, Gujranwala Jai Singh Kanhaiya (1712–1793) was the founder and leader of the Kanhaiya Misl until his death. His daughter-in-law, Sada Kaur succeeded him in the leadership of the misl. Jai Singh was born in the village of Kahna, 21 km southwest of Lahore. His father, Khushal Singh, was a farmer and also sold wood and hay in Lahore and his family had humble origins. He was initiated into the Khalsa by Nawab Kapur Singh and joined the jatha of Amar Singh Kingra. In 1759, his wife Desan Kaur (who was the widow of Jhanda Singh) gave birth to his only son and heir Gurbaksh Singh. Jai Singh took control of a part of Riarki comprising the district of Gurdaspur and upper portions of Amritsar. His headquarters shifted from his wife's village at Sohian, 15 km from Amritsar to Batala to Mukerian. He had territories on both sides of the rivers Beas and Ravi. Qazi Nur Muhammad, a historian, wrote in 1765 that Jai Singh Kanheya had extended his territory up to Parol, which was 70 km southeast of Jammu and that he was allied with Jassa Singh Ramgarhia because they shared the territory of Batala. The hill chiefs of Nurpur, Datarpur and Siba became his tributaries. In 1774, Jai Singh and Haqiqat Singh built a bazaar in Amritsar called the Katra Kanheyan. In October 1778 he collaborated with Mahan Singh Sukerchakia and Jassa Singh Ahluwalia to defeat Jassa Singh Ramgarhia and exiled him to the desert regions of Hansi and Hissar. In 1781, he led an expedition into Jammu with Haqiqat Singh and received a tribute from Brij Raj Dev, the ruler of Jammu. Maharaja Hari Singh Dhillon (died 1764), was a Dhillon Jat and a royal Sikh warriors of the 18th century, who succeeded the Bhangi Misl from Bhuma Singh Dhillon. He was known as Maharaja Hari Singh bhangi due to addiction of bhang of his ancestors and they were called bhangi sardars. He belonged to village Panjwar. He started building qila bhangian in Amritsar which is now known as Gobindgarh Fort. He also built a market in Amristar which is known as katra Hari Singh. The Kanhaiya Misl was founded by the Sandhu Jats, it was first led by Sardar Jai Singh Kanhaiya. It had a strength of 5,000 regular horsemen. The Kanhaiya Misl was founded by Sardar Jai Singh (1712-1793), a Sandhu Jatt of the village of Kahna, 21 km south-west of Lahore with his cousin Baghel Singh Sandhu from village Julke in the Majha region of Punjab. His father Bhai Khushhal Singh sold hay at Lahore. Jai Singh received the vows of the 25 Khalsa at the hands of Nawab Kapur Singh and joined the derah or jatha of Sardar Amar Singh Kirigra. It is commonly believed that the name of the Misl, Kanhaiya, was derived from the name of Jai Singh's village, Kahna, although another explanation connects it with the Sardar's own handsome appearance which earned him the epithet (Kahn) Kanhaiya, an endearing title also used for Lord Krishna a Hindu deity. The Kanhaiya Misl under Jai Singh became the dominant power in the Punjab. He seized a part of Riarki comprising the district of Gurdaspur and the upper portions of Amritsar. He first made his wife's village, Sohiari, in Amritsar district, his headquarters from where he shifted to Batala and thence to Mukerian. His territories lay on both sides of the Beas River and Ravi River. Jai Singh extended his territory up to Parol, about 70 km south-east of Jammu, and the hill chiefs of Kangra, Nurpur, Datarpur became his tributaries. In 1778 with the help of Mahan Singh Sukkarchakkia and Jassa Singh Ahluwalia, he banished Jassa Singh Ramgarhia to the desert region of Hansi and Hissar (Haryana Region). In 1781, Jai Singh and his brother Haqiqat Singh led an expedition to Jammu and received a sum of 3,00,000 rupees as tribute from its new ruler, Brij Raj Dev. On Jai Singh's death in 1793, at the age of 81, control of the Kanhaiya clan passed into the hands of his daughter-in-law Sada Kaur, as his son Gurbakhsh Singh had died before him. Sada Kaur whose daughter Mehtab Kaur was married to Ranjit Singh was instrumental in the Sukkarchakkia chief's rise to political power in the Punjab. The Kanhaya Misl of Batala United with The Sukerchakia Misl in 1796. Maharaja Hari Singh Dhillon was Maharaja of Amritsar, Lahore and large areas of central and western Panjab. He was the nephew of Bhuma Singh Dhillon, a Sikh soldier. He military defended Amritsar. Such was the respect and admiration of the Sikh community for Hari Singh, that at the formation of the Dal Khalsa in 1748, he was made leader of the Taruna Dal founded in (1734) at Amritsar which is considered to be one of the greatest honours given, in the 18th century, to any Sikh. Afghan War: He fought against the Afghans with the help of his friends Sardar Charhat Singh Sukerchakia (died 1770) (the grandfather of Maharaja Ranjit Singh) and Baron Jassa Singh Ahluwalia, during Ahmed Shah Abdali's sixth invasion of Punjab.[citation needed] He was an intelligent leader, a progressive soldier and a wise statesman.[citation needed] The author of Tarikh-ePunjab writes that "Hari Singh was clever, powerful and a man of shining abilities." Sultan Jassa Singh Ahluwalia (3 May 1718 – 22 October 1783) was a prominent Sikh leader during the period of the Sikh Confederacy, being the Supreme Leader of the Dal Khalsa. He was also Misldar of the Ahluwalia Misl. This period was an interlude, lasting roughly from the time of the death of Banda Bahadur in 1716 to the founding of the Sikh Empire in 1801. He founded the Kapurthala State in 1772. Jassa Singh Ahluwalia was born at a village called Ahlu in the Lahore District of Punjab (modern day Pakistan). Formation of the Dal Khalsa and the Misls: In 1733, Zakariya Khan Bahadur attempted to negotiate a peace with the Sikhs by offering them a jagir, the title Nawab to their leader, and unimpeded access to the Harmandir Sahib. After discussion at a Sarbat Khalsa, Kapur Singh was 26 elected leader of the Sikhs and took the title of Nawab. He combined the various Sikh militias into two groups; the Taruna Dal and the Budda Dal, which would collectively be known as the Dal Khalsa. Sikh militias over 40 years of age would be part of the Budda Dal and Sikh militas under 40 years were part of the Taruna Dal.[13] The Taruna Dal was further divided in five jathas, each with 1300 to 2000 men and a separate drum and banner. The area of operations of each Dal, or army, was Hari ke Pattan, where the Sutlej river and Beas River meet; the Taruna Dal would control the area east of Hari ke Pattan while the Budha Dal would control the area west of it. The purpose of the Budda Dal, the veteran group, was to protect Gurdwaras and train the Taruna Dal, while the Taruna Dal would act as combat troops. However, in 1735, the agreement between Zakariya Khan and Nawab Kapur Singh broke down and the Dal Khalsa retreated to the Sivalik Hills to regroup. Later the command of Dal Khalsa was taken by Jassa Singh Ahluwalia who was an able and powerful administrator, even brought India (Red Fort) under Khalsa flag. He made the foundation of Khalsa firm for future generations to lead. In 1739, Nadir Shah, the Turkic ruler of Persia, invaded much of Northern India, including Punjab, defeating the Mughals at the Battle of Karnal in 1739, he plundered the city of Delhi (Shahjahanabad) robbing it of treasures like the Peacock throne, the Kohinoor diamond and the Darya-i-Noor diamond. Meanwhile, all the Khalsa bands got together and passed a resolution that Nadir shah had plundered the city of Delhi and now he is taking Indian women as slaves to his country. Sikhs made a plan to free all the slaves. Jassa Singh Ahluwalia was 21 years old at that time, he planned raids to free all slaves. He along with other Sikh bands attacked Nadir shah forces, freed all slaves and sent those slaves back to their families safely. Ahluwalia participated in many battles as well where he proved himself to be a natural leader. In a 1748 meeting of the Sarbat Khalsa, Nawab Kapur Singh appointed him as his successor. His followers awarded him the title Sultan-ul-Qaum (King of the Nation). In 1758, he circulated coins with the inscription "coined by the grace of Khalsa in the country of Ahmed, conquered by Jassa, the Kalal" Ahmad Shah Durrani, Nader Shah's seniormost general, succeeded to the throne of Afghanistan, when Shah was murdered in June, 1747. He established his own dynasty, the Sadozai, which was the name of the Pashtun khel to which he belonged to. Starting from December, 1747 till 1769, Abdali made a total of nine incursions into the north India. His repeated invasions weakened the Mughal administration of North India. At the Third Battle of Panipat, he along with Nawab of Oudh and Rohillas, defeated the Marathas, who after treaty signed in 1752 became the protector of the Mughal throne at Delhi and were controlling much of North India, and Kashmir. However they were never able to subdue the Sikhs in the Punjab. Help of Sikhs to Jats of Bharatpur Suraj Mal ( 1707-63) was founder of Jat State of Bharatpur. He was killed on 25 dec. 1763 near Delhi by Najibabad ul Daulah ,the Ruhilaa chief who had been appointed Mir Bakshi and Regent at Delhi by Ahmed Shah Durrani.Suraj Mal’s son Jawahar Singh sought help from Sikhs who responded with a Sikh force of 40000 under overall command of Sardar Jassa Singh Ahluwalia.Sikhs crossed Yamuna on 20th Feb 1764 and plundered country around it. Najibabad ul Daulah rushed back to Delhi and pressure on Bharatpur was released. Najib Ul Daulah suffered another defeat at hand of Sikhs under Ahluwalia Sardar after a fight of 20 days In trans Yamuna area at Barari Ghat 20 km north of Delhi, who retired to Red Fort on 9 January 27 1765.within a month further Sikhs defeated Najibabad ul Daulah again in Nakhas or horse market and in Sabzi Mandi . Jawahar Singh also engaged 25000 Sikh forces under command of S. Jassa Singh against Rajput Raja of Jaipur in Battle of Maonda and Mandholi and the Battle of Kama.But Rajput ruler made peace with Sikh General. Fights of Jawahar Singh with Rajputs continued many a times with help of sikhs like in Battle of Kama, till about 1768 when Madho Singh Rajput Raja retired without giving a fight. During this course Jaipur mints were forced to issue a Sikh coin under the name of Guru Gobind Singh as reported in Hans,Herrli’s book “The Coins of the Sikhs”. In early 1762, news had reached to Ahmad Shah Abdali in Afghanistan of the defeat of his general, Nur-ud-Din Bamezai, at the hands of the Sikhs who were fast spreading themselves out over the Punjab and had declared their leader, Misldar Jassa Singh Ahluwalia, King of Lahore.[22] To rid his Indian dominion of them once and for all, he set out from Kandahar. The Battle of Kup was fought on 5 February 1762 between the Afghan forces of Ahmad Shah Abdali (40,000 soldiers) and civilian Sikhs.[23] The Aghans launched a surprise attack on a civilian Sikh camp, consisting mainly of women, children and elders. The Sikh Camp only had around 5000-7000 Sikh warriors. These warriors formed a human shield around the Sikh civilians, and fought the Afghans bravely, killing thousands of Afghan soldiers. However, Abdali was able to break the ring and carried a full scale massacre. Ahmad Shah's forces killed several thousand Sikh civilians. In a fresh Afghan invasion of the upper Punjab, Ahmad Shah Durrani with his 100,000 Soldiers reached Malerkotla, west of Sirhind, then attacked a 20,000 Sikh army escorting 40,000 women and children, along with the elderly. In one of their worst defeats—known as Vadda Ghalughara—the Sikhs lost perhaps 5–10,000+ soldiers and had 20,000 civilians massacred. The Afghan forces of Ahmad Shah Durrani came out victorious with the night ambush on the large convoy. Despite the Ghalughara disaster, by the month of May, the Sikhs were up in arms again. Under Jassa Singh, they defeated the Afghan faujdar of Sirhind in the Battle of Harnaulgarh. By autumn, the Sikhs had regained enough confidence to foregather in large numbers at Amritsar to celebrate Diwali. Abdali made a mild effort to win over them and sent an envoy with proposals for a treaty of peace. The Sikhs were in no mood for peace and insulted the emissary. Abdali did not waste any time and turned up at the outskirts of Amritsar. The Battle of Amritsar (1762) was fought in the grey light of a sun in total eclipse. It ended when the sunless day was blacked out by a moonless night with the adversaries retiring from the field: The Sikhs to the fastness of the jungles of the Lakhi (the forests of a hundred thousand trees located in Central Punjab) and Abdali behind the walled safety of Lahore. The Sikhs under Baghel Singh had been raiding Delhi since 1764 but without success. On 11 March 1783 the combined Sikh army of Baghel Singh, Jassa Singh Ahluwalia and Jassa Singh Ramgarhia defeated the Mughal army and captured Delhi. 28 Legacy: "He [Jassa Singh Ahluwalia] had the great privilege of conquering Lahore and issuing his own coin ... [and] sitting on the throne of the Mughal Emperors in the Red Fort at Delhi [after conquering it]. He fought a number of times face to face with Ahmad Shah Durrani, the greatest Asian general of his days. The invader tried to win him over in vain. The Maharajas of Patiala and Jind stood before him in all reverence and humility. The Rajas of Nalagarh, Bilaspur, Kangra Hills and Jammu touched his knees. The Nawabs of Malerkotla and Kunjpura paid him homage. And yet he remained a humble and docile disciple of Guru Gobind Singh. In the person of Jassa Singh Ahluwalia, the Guru actually made a sparrow kill hawks. Jassa Singh was a great warrior, mighty general and eminent organiser. He bore thirty-two scars of sword cuts and bullet marks on the front part of his body and none on his back. He was a giant in body. ... Qazi Nur Muhammad who saw him fighting against Ahmad Shah Durrani called him a mountain." Hari Ram Gupta “He was a great warrior, mighty general and eminent organiser. He bore thirty-two scars of sword cuts and bullet marks on the front of his body and none on his back. He was a giant in body. His breakfast consisted of one kilogram of flour, one half kilogram of butter, one quarter kilogram of crystalline sugar slabs ( misri ), and one bucketful of butter-milk (lassi). One he-goat sufficed him for two meals…. These were the days of physical prowess, and only men possessed of indomitable will power could compete with ferocious Afghans on better footing. He was wheatish in colour, tall, fat, with a broad forehead, wide chest, loud and sonorous voice which could be clearly heard by an assemblage of 50,000 men….. The horses under him must have been the size of an elephant. This is why he could be clearly be seen by Qazi Nur Muhammad in a body of fifty or sixty thousand men. His long arms came down to his knees. This enabled him to strike his sword right and left with equal valour.” - Hari Ram Gupta. Nawab Jassa Singh Ahluwalia Government College (NJSA Government College) in Kapurthala, established in 1856 by Raja Randhir Singh of Kaputhala is named after him. A commemorative postage stamp on Jassa Singh Ahluwalia was issued by Government of India on 4 April 1985. 29 Lahore and Amritsar: Lahore had been a bustling city, particularly during the late sixteenth through eighteenth centuries when Mughal emperors attracted commerce and residents to the city by making it an imperial and provincial capital. During the eighteenth century, however, when Mughal attention turned farther south to address threats from the Deccan, Lahore suﬀered heavily from successive destructive raids as a series of lesser Mughal governors struggled unsuccessfully to keep it within the Mughal realm. By the end of the eighteenth century, Sikh ruler Ranjit Singh con solidated his dominion over the province and ﬁxed his court in Lahore’s Mughal-era citadel. At no time during Ranjit Singh’s nearly forty years of rule (1799 to 1839), however, did Lahore regain the population and wealth it had once had. Doing so would have been diﬃcult indeed: At the turn of the nineteenth century, most of Lahore’s residents huddled together for safety inside the city’s walls. Outside those walls, the architectural rubble of more pros perous pasts ringed the city like deposits from a slowly retreating glacier. After a brief half century of Sikh rule, Lahore was once again transformed by imperial circumstances. This time, however, it was the British Empire that caused the transformation. Following a series of intrigues, and later hard-fought wars (in 1846–47 and 1848– 49), between the British East India Company and the Sikhs, the British annexed Ranjit Singh’s former kingdom in 1849. With the transfer of power from the East India Company to Crown rule in 1858, Lahore became the capital city of Punjab Province in British India. Twelve Sikh misls joined into one to form a new empire and sovereign Sikh State ruled by Maharaja Ranjit Singh.[24] Ranjit Singh was crowned on 12 April 1801 at Lahore. The 1740s were years of chaos, and the city had nine different governors between 1745 and 1756. Invasions and chaos in local government allowed bands of warring Sikhs to occupy some areas. In 1799, all Sikh Misls (warring bands) joined into one to form a sovereign Sikh state ruled by Maharaja Ranjit Singh from the royal capital, Lahore. During the 1740s, frequent invasions by Afghans led by Ahmad Shah Abdali and has created chaos in local government had made life very uncomfortable for the citizens of Lahore. Bhangi Misl was the first Sikh band to invade and plunder the Mughal Lahore. Later Ranjit Singh was able to make gains in this chaos. He defeated the grandson of Abdali, Zaman Shah in a battle between Lahore and Amritsar. Out of the chaos of Afghan and Sikh conflicts Ranjit Singh who was able to unify the Sikh factions and capture Lahore where he was crowned Emperor. Many visitors to Lahore during this era noted that much of the city was in disrepair and many of its Muslim monuments and Mosques were pillaged and desecrated by the Sikhs. The land, palaces and houses of Muslim nobility were confiscated by the Sikhs Sardars. 30 The Samadhi of Emperor Ranjit Singh in Lahore, Pakistan. While much of Lahore's Mughal era fabric lay in ruins by the end of eighteenth century due to the destruction and plunder by the Sikh Bhangi Misl. Ranjit Singh's death on 27 June 1839 ultimately ended his reign, while the Sikh rule continued until the British gained control of the empire in 1849. On 7 July 1799, the Sikh militia of the Sukerchakia chief, Ranjit Singh, occupied Lahore.[25] Ranjit Singh used the Hazuri Bagh, the enclosed garden next to the Mosque as his 31 official royal court of audience.[26] In 1762 A.D., the Bhangi Sikh Sardar army conquered Lahore and occupied the Shaheed Ganj Mosque, together with the courtyard. Shaheed Ganj area being named after Sikhs who had been scalped and killed there during the Mughal empire. The Muslims were prohibited from entering and praying at the Mosque.] The Sikhs built a Gurdwara, Sikh temple, in the courtyard and used the Shaheed Ganj Mosque building to house Sikh priests.The Sikhs built a Gurdwara, Sikh temple, in the courtyard and used the mosque building to house Sikh priests. Syed Ahmad Barelvi a Muslim nationalist received desperate pleas of help from the persecuted Muslims of the Punjab region. The Muslims were prohibited to call Azan and lands belonging to the waqf endowments which provided financial support to Muslim institutions were confiscated by the Sikhs. Syed Ahmad Barelvi in 1821 with many supporters and spent two years organizing popular and material support for his Punjab campaign. He carefully developed a network of people through the length and breadth of India to collect funds and encourage volunteers, traveling widely throughout India attracting a following among pious Muslims. In December 1826 Sayyid Ahmad and his followers clashed with Sikh troops at Okara but with no decisive result. In a major battle near the town of Balakot in 1831, Sayyid Ahmad and Shah Ismail Shaheed with volunteer Muslims were defeated and martyred by the professional Sikh Army. In 1841, during the Sikh civil war, Ranjit Singh's son, Sher Singh, used the Badshahi Mosque's large minarets for placement of zamburahs or light guns, which were placed atop the minarets of Badshahi Mosque to bombard the supporters of the Sikh Maharani Chand Kaur taking refuge in the besieged Lahore Fort, inflicting great damage to the Fort itself. In one of these bombardments, the Fort's Diwan-e-Aam (Hall of Public Audience) was destroyed (it was subsequently rebuilt by the British but never regained its original architectural splendour).[27] During this time, Henri De la Rouche, a French cavalry officer employed in the army of Sher Singh, used a tunnel connecting the Badshahi Mosque to the Lahore Fort to temporarily store gunpowder. The Golden Temple With A Golden Story 32 India has many places of significant religious importance, which over a period of time have turned into popular tourist destinations. One example is the Harmandir Sahib, fondly known as ‘ In the year 1570, the third Guru Sahib launched the plans of excavating a holy tank (the name Amritsar was derived from this) and building a town settlement in the area. The fifth Guru Sahib of Sikhs conceptualized a central place of worship; he designed the structure and initiated the construction in 1588. The architecture and layout are symbolic of the openness and accessibility to every individual irrespective of their religion, caste or gender. Over the next few decades, the temple was attacked a few times and suffered damage, which was fixed eventually. The temple complex was further developed by the sixth Guru Sahib, under whose supervision the Akal Takht was constructed. Maharaja Ranjit Singh was the person who took the initiative of bedecking the gurudwara. With his generous contribution and support, the gold plating was completed in the year 1830. The white main gate, community kitchen on the left and the magnificent golden temple in center of the holy tank © Darshita Thakker Structure The temple complex is located in the heart of the city, surrounded by narrow lanes and a busy market area. Unlike most temples, the Sri Darbar Sahib has four entrances in each direction, a sign of welcoming anyone who wants to visit. Along the main gate is the peripheral building, which runs along the entire complex, and houses various dormitories, dining halls and administration offices. In the middle of the external structure is an artificial body of water known as the Sarovar. The water is believed to have sacred healing powers; stories of how people are healed from their ailments are etched in the walls around the tank. In the center of this body of water is the ravishing gurudwara, connected by a causeway, which works as the waiting area for people waiting in the queue to enter the main temple. 33 The inside of the three-story house of God is heavily ornamented with a large quantity of gold and precious stones. The Guru Granth Sahib, sacred scriptures of Sikhism, is placed here and read throughout the day along with other hymns and musical instruments. The marble flooring has intricate inlay work and carvings, whereas the walls and the ceiling are completely studded with precious metal and stones. The Akal Takht was built and used to deal with temporal issues and is considered the highest designation of earthly authority. Guru Ka Langar (the community kitchen) is one of the biggest of its kind in the world. Hundreds of volunteers cook meals, which are served to close to 100,000 pilgrims daily. The kitchen has an enormous dining area attached where pilgrims sit in multiple rows and eat together without being discriminated on any grounds. There are also several spots depicting important historical events. A couple of trees, which date back to the 18th century, are preserved along the parikrama. One of the four main gates and the peripheral structure © Darshita Thakker Rituals and Practices The Golden Temple acts like a self-governing body retaining a management committee, priests, supervisors, volunteers, etc. There is a strict observance of a series of rituals followed on a daily basis. The temple is open to visitors round the clock except for four hours at night, which is the time used for cleaning the shrine. Large scale cooking in progress at the community kitchen © Darshita Thakker 34 Every day around 10:30 pm, the scripture is carried out in a golden palanquin from the gurudwara to the Akal Takht (which is the resting place). Before the break of dawn, the holy book is carried back by the Sikh Gurus and pilgrims and reinstalled inside the Harmandir Sahib. Thousands of people gather to witness the recital of the first thought of the day, also known as the ‘hukamnama.’ As the day goes by, the rituals and recitals continue in an orderly manner, and the holy offering, ‘Karah Prashad,’ is distributed among the devotees. Devotees volunteer at the community kitchen as a form of worship © Darshita Thakker The Langar (community kitchen) is functional round the clock where hundreds of volunteers prepare and serve wholesome meals which are free of cost. In exchange, people make donations or offer to help around the kitchen or the temple, all of it being completely optional. If not the kitchen, devotees come forward to help with the cleaning work or at the shoe counters at the entrance. RIGHT PIC An automated roti machine which rolls out over 100,000 rotis a day © Darshita Thakker Visiting the Temple 35 The Harmandir Sahib is open to everyone regardless of caste, gender, social status, nationality or any other biases. However, there are a few rules that have to be followed while visiting the temple. The approaching roads to the area are closed for vehicles, so you will have to walk through the busy market area for a few minutes. On reaching the main gate, footwear and large pieces of luggage have to be deposited at the counters in exchange for a token. Everyone needs to be dressed decently, cover their head and wash their feet as a sign of respect to God before entering the complex. Scarves and bandanas are provided at the gate or available for purchase at the nearby stores. On entering the complex, the melodious hymns and devotional songs can be heard while visitors take time to walk around the holy tank. Pilgrims take a dip in the divine body of water that is believed to have nectar with healing powers. There are facilities to shower or change after the dip. Resting areas and lodges are available if your visit extends for a longer period. Drinking water and meals are served round the clock for free. A person visiting for the first time must take out enough time to visit the temple during different times of the day. It is an enriching experience to witness the morning ceremonies before sunrise or to see the temple shine in the full glory of the blazing afternoon sun or to see it all lit up and decorated like a beautiful bride once it is dark. Do not miss the opportunity to walk around the community kitchen to gawk at the scale of operations or even offer a helping hand, and make sure to enjoy a meal along with thousands of other visitors. Photography is allowed in and around the complex but not in the main temple. https://theculturetrip.com/asia/india/articles/harmandir-sahib-the-golden-temple-with-a-goldenstory/Clock Tower of Amritsar: Casting a Long Shadow/Aashish Kochhar GHANTA GHAR or CLOCK TOWERS When is a clock tower not really a clock tower? For the answer to this one, time travel to Amritsar of the mid-19th century, to the end of the Sikh Empire and its annexation by the British. Although the colonial administration built impressive structures and monuments across India as a mark of cultural imperialism, the clock tower in Amritsar served a much more sinister purpose. Or so it was believed. Now turn the hands of this ghanta ghar back by another century, and that’s where this story really begins. By the second half of the 18th century, the Sikhs had defeated both the Afghans and the Mughals, and the territories they won were divided among the sovereign Sikh principalities or misls. The misls were created to keep the peace and to protect the Harmandir Sahib, their holiest of holy shrines. The chiefs of these misls as well as other powerful clans constructed large bungas or mansions around the parikrama (circumambulatory path) of the Harmandir Sahib, where their armies were stationed to counter any attack on the temple. 36 Painting of Bunga Sarkar by William Carpenter, Feb 1854, paint on paper|V&A Museum Sikh scholar Giani Kirpal Singh mentions in his book Sri Harmandir Sahib Ji Da Sunehri Itihas that the Sukerchakia Misl under its leader Maha Singh constructed a bunga known as ‘Bunga Sukerchakia Sardaran Da’. Built in 1781 CE, it was located behind the present-day site of the Ber Baba Budha Sahib, a sacred tree in the parikrama of the Harmandir Sahib. After his death in 1792 CE, Maha Singh was succeeded by his 12-year-old son Ranjit Singh, who was destined to become the ‘Maharaja of Punjab’. It wasn’t very long before a young Ranjit Singh united all the misls and established the Sikh Empire (1799 - 1849) in Punjab. Ranjit Singh’s ancestral bunga was enlarged and it became a massive, three-storey mansion, arguably the most beautiful among all the bungas. Popularly called ‘Bunga Sarkar,’ it was a definitely palace fit for a Maharaja. After the fall of the Sikh Empire in the Second Anglo-Sikh War in 1849, the British seized power and either demolished or converted the Sikh Empire’s royal structures into colonial buildings to symbolically assert their authority over the people and the region. In keeping with this strategy, they allotted the Bunga Sarkar to the Christian Missionary’s Mission School of Amritsar, as a temporary measure. Soon after, the first Deputy Commissioner of Amritsar, L Saunders took over the building and converted it into a police station (Chowki Ghanta Ghar). A few prisoner cells and a court were accommodated in the structure till they were transferred to other locations. The British were not done flexing their muscle in Amritsar, the holy city of the Sikhs. Almost a decade into their rule, the colonial government demolished Ranjit Singh’s Bunga Sarkar and replaced it with something truly pedestrian – a clock tower. 37 An 1860s photo of Harmandir Sahib during the colonial British era with the under-construction Gothic clock tower on extreme right-side | But this was no ordinary monument; it was a powerful political statement, one that might even be viewed as an act of aggression. Not only had the British demolished Ranjit Singh’s palace, they also razed the adjacent Bunga Nau Nihal Singh and Bunga Ladowalia, to clear a large area around the new clock tower. Local residents suspected that it was to accommodate a church, which would be located right behind the Harmandir Sahib. Thankfully, that did not happen and the area was left as a large, open courtyard. This was a time when the colonial establishment was building clock towers in cities across India. But, unlike the others, the one in Amritsar wasn’t located at a railway station, at an important crossroads or an important public place. It was built near the parikrama of the Harmandir Sahib, an act that drew loud public protests. In fact, it was so close to the Harmandir Sahib that devotees would enter the shrine complex using the steps of the clock tower’s platform. People sitting in pathway with Harmandir Sahib and Clock Tower in background|v v/endor sitting at the platform of the clock tower| 38 Sikh devotees were opposed to a large Gothic-style clock tower in the vicinity of the Harmandir Sahib as they suspected it was a ploy to increase the influence of the British over the shrine and to keep an eye on the Sikhs. But the government built the clock tower there anyway. Construction started in 1862 and was completed in 1874, at a cost of Rs 50,000. The Clock Tower was designed by John Gordon, Executive Chief Engineer in the Department of Public Works of the Municipal Committee of Amritsar, and the project was executed by a local contractor. When the clock tower was completed, the intentions of the British were very clear. While the Fifth Sikh Guru, Arjan Dev ji, had built the Harmandir Sahib on the lowest elevation in the city in 1589 as a mark of Sikh humility, the clock tower stood on a platform 10 feet above the ground. Completely incongruous with the rest of the landscape, it soared 145 feet and dominated the Amritsar skyline, just as intended. Pic from the early 1900 Moreover, whereas British buildings across India incorporated elements of traditional Indian architecture, the Amritsar clock tower was designed in purely Gothic style and was made of red bricks, giving it the unimaginative nickname ‘Red Tower’ or Lal Chabutra. But it was despised more for what it meant than how it looked. The clock tower’s ornamentation, although simple, was elegant and its proportions singularly graceful. Not satisfied with its height as designated by the original plan, the tower was further raised and clocks with illuminated dials were built into large stones on all four sides. The additions and modifications cost the government an extra Rs 23,000, a handsome sum in those days. Over time, the clock tower chimed its way into the rhythm of daily life, its large and inviting courtyard acting as a magnet for passersby to pause and rest, residents to hang out and exchange daily gossip and news, and for those who simply wanted to feed pigeons. Photographs from earlier times show vendors selling merchandise here, and gymnasts and wrestlers in action, holding crowds in rapt attention. 39 Near the clock tower were rows of shops where Karah Parshad (semolina halwa) and other sweet meats could be bought as offerings at the gurdwara. There were also many sarais or rest houses for tourists nearby. During festivals like Diwali and Gurpurab, the clock tower’s platform was decorated with earthen lamps, and displays of fireworks would be mounted for the benefit of British officials and wealthy and influential local chiefs, who would be seated in the courtyard to enjoy the show. And so the clock tower stood, the march of time writing many a chapter in its own history as well as that of India as a whole. It was now the 1940s. The political tide had turned and Independence was around the corner. So, when the temple authorities wanted to extend the parikrama to accommodate the growing number of pilgrims, the colonial administration had little choice but to agree. As a result, the clock tower and many of the bungas that lay in the path of the parikrama were razed. The red brick clock tower finally came down in the closing months of 1945. With so much more space to work with, the parikrama of the Harmandir Sahib was redrawn and a new entrance, or a deori or gateway, was built in 1947. This structure is now the main entrance to the Harmandir Sahib and it houses a museum, a clock – yes, a clock – and it continues to be called ‘Ghanta Ghar Deori’. Seventy-three years after this politically charged symbol of Amritsar’s colonial past was pulled down, the clock tower still lingers in the city’s memory. Apart from the entrance to the Harmandir Sahib, the market which rubbed shoulders with the original clock tower and the road junction nearby still bear its name – Bazar Ghanta Ghar and Chowk Ghanta Ghar. Nevertheless, it was a Sikh victory all right, in a local Anglo-Sikh War that never made it to the history books. 40 Ghanta Ghar Deori|Wikimedia Commons 5 Amritsar sarovar Many sacred Sikh shrines can be found in the Sikh holy city of Amritsar. Of particular importance are the five sacred pools in this city. These are called sarovars and it is the practice of some Sikhs to have a dip in all five of these holy pools. The ritual, apart from being good exercise, acquaints one with the importance of these five sites. Gurdwara Ramsar stands alongside the Ramsar sarovar, the smallest of Amritsar's five holy sarovars. Located near Chativind Gate, on the south-eastern side of the walled city of Amritsar, the present Gurdwara Ramsar is a small marble-lined hall topped by a gilded, fluted lotus dome. Built in 1855, at the site of the original shrine, where long before the present Gurdwara was constructed. Guru Arjun Dev, the fifth Sikh Guru who was looking for a quiet spot away fom the growing city of Amritsar. 41 Aerial View & map Ramsar Sahib @ wikimapia.org It was the year 1603, after the completion of the Harimandir Sahib in 1601, that the beloved Guru choose this once secluded, shady spot, about 1km away from the bustle of the town growing around the Harmandar Sahib, that the Guru set about collecting the hymns of the first four Gurus, Guru Nanak, Guru Angad, Guru Amar Das and Guru Ram Das. Although there was plenty of cooling shade trees around and the spot provided the quiet that the Guru needed, the cooling breezes of the Amrit Sarovar were far away. To make the surroundings more agreeable, Guru ji had a small tank dug, which he named Ramsar after his father Guru Ram Das. He and his scribe, Bhai Gurdas spent over a year at the site in semi-seclusion. To the teachings of the earlier Gurus, Guruji added his own compositions, as well as selections from the writings of several Hindu Sants and Muslim Pirs that shared the principles of Sikhism. After the completion of the Adi Granth (lit. First Book) in 1604 the Adi Granth was installed, with due honor and ceremony, in the Harimandir Sahib. Today the Adi Granth is known as the Guru Granth Sahib; the sacred Sikh scripture. The Guru Granth Sahib, which now spans 1430 pages, was installed by Guru Gobind Singh as the Eternal Guru of the Sikhs, shortly before his death. This unique holy book preserves the purity of the scriptures, embodying, the philosophy of the Gurus for the perpetual guidance of Sikhism, as well as other faiths. Sarovar Ramsar 42 Psalm of Peace": The spot was also where Guru Arjan Dev Ji composed his famous Sukhmani (the "Psalm of Peace"). As this site marks the exact location of the Guru's labours and the formal beginning of the compilation of the Sikh scripture, it is only natural that this place where the current, perpetual, and honoured Sikh Guru, the Guru Granth Sahib Ji was first created, is a site of special significance for all Sikhs. 5 Sacred Pools: It is the practice of some Sikhs to have a dip in all five of these holy pools. The ritual, apart from the being good exercise, acquaints one with the importance of these five sites. These five holy Sarovars are: Amritsar (1586) (now used more to refer to the city rather than the sarovar), Santokhsar (1587-88), Ramsar (1602-03), Kaulsar (1627), and Bibeksar (1628). Among these famous five historical shrines is the famous Gurdwara, Ramsar. This is located south to south-east of the most important landmark for the Sikhs, the Harimandir Sahib. Santokhsar Amritsar ((31.62°n 74.8765°e) 31°38'N, 74°53'E) (literally "pool of nectar") was originally called Ramdaspur - Guru Ramdas's City (literally the City of God's Servant). This is now the name of a district and a Sikh holy city located in the northern Indian state of Punjab, in which the Harimandir Sahib complex is located. This is the current principal holy city of the Sikhs and is the headquarters of the district (Amritsar) in the Punjab. Gurdwara Santokhsar Sahib is an historical sikh shrine, situated at distance of 700 Meters from Harimandir Sahib. This is one of the five historical sarovers constructed by Guru Arjun Dev. When Guru Ram Das, had not yet ascended to the gaddi, he came here to find out a place for excavation of the holy tank on instructions from Guru Amar Das. When Guru Ram Das was getting the place dug, he found a Yogi, meditating. Kalusar: 43 Kaulsar Gurdwara Ramsar stands alongside the Ramsar sarovar, the smallest of Amritsar's five holy sarovars. Located near Chativind Gate, on the south-eastern side of the walled city of Amritsar, the present Gurdwara Ramsar is a small marble-lined hall topped by a gilded, fluted lotus dome. It was built in 1855 at the site of the original shrine, where long before the present Gurdwara was constructed, Guru Arjun Dev, the fifth Sikh Guru who was looking for a quiet spot away from the growing city of Amritsar, chose this site as the spot where the Guru Granth Sahib would take form. It was the year 1603, after the completion of the Harimandir Sahib in 1601, that the beloved Guru choose this once secluded, shady spot, about 1km away from the bustle of the town growing around the Harmandar Sahib, that the Guru set about collecting the hymns of the first four Gurus, Guru Nanak, Guru Angad, Guru Amar Das and Guru Ram Das. Bibeksar This is the Sarovar or pool next to the Gurdwara Mata Kaulan near Gurdwara Baba Atal in Amritsar, Punjab next to the main Darbar Sahib at Harmandar Sahib. It is named after a holy lady who was raised as a Muslim called Bibi Kaulan, the adopted (possibly Hindu) daughter of the Qazi of Lahore. She was a highly spiritual woman who was above religious divides and took refuge with the sixth master Guru Hargobind Ji at Amritsar (1606-1645). The samadh of this lady, who is called Mata Kaulan lies at the western end of the Kaulsar Gurdwara. The significance of Gurdwara Mata Kaulan and Kaulsar sarovar could be adjudged from the fact that Guru Hargobind, the sixth Sikh guru, had directed the devotees to take a dip in the Sarovar Kaulsar before the Golden Temple sarovar. (sakhi to this effect is written right outside the entrance of Gurdwara Bibi Kaulan, adjacent to Darbar Sahib). Bibeksar is built: 1628 and this sarovar is located to south/south-east of the most important landmark for the Sikhs, Harimandir Sahib in the city of Amritsar. Gurdwara Bibeksar Sahib is situated on the banks of the Bibeksar Sarovar. The sarovar was built by Guru Hargobind Sahib, the 6th Sikh guru, and the present beautiful gurdwara was built by Maharaja Ranjit Singh. The two ancient villages of Chatiwind and Sultanwind borders the gurdwara. Bibeksar (built: 1628) This sarovar is located to south/south-east of the most important landmark for the Sikhs, Harimandir Sahib in the city of Amritsar. Gurdwara Bibeksar Sahib is situated on the banks of the Bibeksar Sarovar. The sarovar was built by Guru Hargobind Sahib, the 6th Guru of Sikhism, and the present beautiful gurdwara was built by Maharaja Ranjit Singh. The two ancient villages of Chatiwind and Sultanwind borders the gurdwara. Nearby was also a beautiful garden where the Guru used to come for recreation. He usually took rest on the edge of the tank where now stands the Gurdwara Bibeksar. Sometimes, he held his meetings here in the evening. Also this is where the Guru organized his followers on military lines following skirmishes with the Mughal forces. 44 Situated near Chattiwind gate it also marks the place where Guru Hargobind Sahib used to tie his horse with Kareer Tree; this tree can still be seen. The Guru himself laid the foundation of the holy tank or Sarovar. Bibeksar Sarovar//Historical Tree Guru Hargobind sahib used to tie his horse with this Karir tree The Court of Lahore-August Schoefft, ca. 1840's - 1855, Vienna, after drawings made at Lahore, 1841. oil on canvas, 487 x 254 cm, Princess Bamba Collection 45 Schoefft and the Sikhs August Theodor Schoefft Hungarian National Museum, Budapest A son of a local portrait painter August Theodor Schoefft was born in Budapest in 1809 to German parents who had migrated to Hungary. After formal art training in Vienna Schoefft set out on a great adventure to travel exotic lands and paint foreign scenes while supporting himself on painting commissions as a professional artist. He managed to secure several prestigious portraits including Count Istvn Szchenyi. Schoefft eventually made his way to India via Turkey, arriving at Bombay in 1838. Once in India he advertised his skills as a artist in local newspapers which led to a number of profitable commissions. In September 1839 at Madras Schoefft recieved 5,000 Rupees for two full-length, life-size portrats of the Nawab of Arcot and his uncle. As word of Schoefft's skills as an artist spread he spent the next two years travelling extensively and working on commissioned painting for various clients. M. Schoefft who has resided amongst us for some months and acquired considerable reputation as an artist is, we understand on the point of quitting Calcutta on a journey to Lahore. On his way thither, M. Schoefft propoes to halt at Moorshedabad, Monghyr, Patna, Dinapore, Benares, Allahabad, Lucknow, Cawnpore, Agra, Delhi, Meerut, Kurnaul etc. etc. and will, we believe be happy to be employed by the residents at the several stations in every way in which his talents can be made available. It should be stated that M. Schoefft is not merely a portrait painter. He has much skill in painting historical subjects, landscapes, constumes, etc. works with astonishing quickness and is, we thing more reasonable in his charge than any artist who has preceded him. Calcutta Courier, June 13, 1840 Eventually Schoefft reached the capital of the Sikh Kingdom, Lahore in November 1841 during the reign of Maharaja Sher Singh. Once in Lahore, Schoefft was the guest of Dr. Martin Honigberger, the personal physician to the Sikh Royal Court and a fellow German speaker. Schoefft ended up spending over a year in the Sikh Kingdom painting various scenes and portraits of prominent members of the Sikh Court. Although many of these have now been lost, fortunately Schoefft made copies of a few for his own reference. Russian Prince Alexis Soltykoff visiting Lahore in March 1842 tells of finding Schoefft's paintings in the palace treasures: 46 Five or six portraits in oils without frames, the work of Schoeft, the German painter who has returned to British India. There was also a portrait of the King covered with jewels and holding in his hand a scimitar straight and very broad at the point and a portrait of the chief minister, Raja Dhian Singh, a good looking man, on horseback and wearing that suit of armour which I have already described. The King who admires the armour wished to be painted in it also. The Punjab a Hundred Years Ago as described by V. Jacquemont (1831) & A. Soltykoff (1842) Editor H.L.O. Garrett, Lahore, 1935 While at Lahore Schoefft also studied and copied existing portraits by various artists of some of the principal characters of the Royal Court who had died before his arrival including Maharaja Ranjit Singh, Maharaj Kharak Singh and Raja Nau Nihal Singh and other past members of Maharaja Ranjit Singhs Royal Court. Schoefft had plans to incorporate these character studies of past figures along with his own sketches of current principal figures at Maharaja Sher Singh’s court into epic scenes at a later time on his return to Europe. Visiting Amritsar and Lahore and preparing preliminary sketches of the locations as well as observations of the Sikh Royal Court and accounts he had heard of what it had been like during the time of Maharaja Ranjit Singh, Schoefft was able to get a good sense of Maharaja Ranjit Singh’s Royal Court. Schoefft successfully combined reality with imagination to create scenes that he had never witnessed, but which were based on bits and pieces of real scenes that he had sketched along with his imagination of events and details that may have been. Thus Schoefft laid the foundation work for his two most famous epic historical paintings of the Court of Lahore and Ranjit Singh at Darbar Sahib. After spending over a year in the Sikh Empire, Schoefft left in 1842 undertaking a journey back to Europe via Afghanistan, Persia, and Egypt, spending some time in St. Petersburg Russia before eventually reaching Vienna. Here in his studio Schoefft would now spend the next several years working on his grand epic masterpieces using his notes, preliminary sketches, copies of other artist’s portraits and some imagination. Once completed his monumental masterpieces of the Lahore Court and Ranjit Singh at Darbar Sahib as well as some other paintings from the Sikh Empire were exhibited by Schoefft to the public at the Vienna Salon of 1855. His masterpieces received great critical acclaim. At the time of their unveiling to the public, Schoefft's paintings now represented scenes of a Sikh Kingdom which no longer existed. Maharaja Sher Singh was now dead, the Sikh Empire had been annexed and it’s last figurehead ruler the child king Maharaja Duleep Singh was in exiled captivity in Britain. Schoefft eventually died in 1888. His painting of Maharaja Ranjit Singh at Darbar Sahib ended up in the collection of Maharaja Duleep Singh living in England along with some of his other paintings including the famous Court of Lahore. Upon Duleep Singh’s death these important paintings became the property of his daughter Princess Bamba Jindan. Princess Bamba eventually left England and moved to Lahore marrying a British doctor and upon her death in 1957 she bequeathed her property including Schoefft's paintings to her secretary Pir Karim Baksh Supra. Supra in turn then sold Schoefft's paintings to the Government of Pakistan in 1959 and they are now housed as part of the Princess Bamba Collection at the Lahore Fort Museum in Pakistan. _____________________________________________________________________________ 47 Millions throng to Amritsar and the ‘Golden Temple’- the holiest shrine of the Sikh community, every year. It is one of the most iconic religious places in India - but few who gaze at its grandeur realize that the Golden Temple also marks a historic turning point for the Sikh faith and the region. The site that was designated as the center of the Sikh order originally, was further afield in Goindval on the banks of the River Beas. It was almost 50 years after Guru Nanak’s death that the Fourth Guru of the Sikhs, Guru Ram Das decided to move base to what is now Amritsar. The move marked a new chapter in the faith and its formalization. Sikhism was founded by Guru Nanak at the end of the 15th century CE. Scholars draw close connections between the early teachings of Guru Nanak and the ‘nirguni’ (formless God) tradition of the Bhakti movement. In fact, Guru Nanak (1469-1539) is considered a Bhakti saint who emerged as a religious and social reformer at a time when a new wave of spiritual rejuvenation was spreading across India. A contemporary of the poet and mystic Sant Kabir, Nanak’s earthy philosophy was embraced quickly across the Punjab. Simple to understand, Nanak’s teachings were initially propagated in the form of hymns and these were later compiled into the sacred text the ‘Guru Granth Sahib’. It was only in the middle of the 16th century CE that Sikhism was given a formal structure and the two people responsible for this were the third and fourth of the ten Sikh Gurus. Both Guru Amar Das and Guru Ram Das, lesser known as compared to Guru Nanak and Guru Gobind Singh - the last Guru, played a pivotal role in establishing Sikhism and with it, the modern day city of Amritsar. Sikhism was given a formal structure in the middle of the 16th century CE Guru Amar Das was appointed the third Sikh Guru at the ripe old age of 73, on 26th March 1552 CE. Born a Hindu, Guru Amar Das had been a follower of Vaishnavism for most of his life. It was only through his nephew’s wife, daughter of the second Guru, Guru Angad, that he was first introduced to Sikhism. According to Sikh texts , in 1539 CE Amar Das, who was 60 by then, met Guru Angad and decided to devote himself to his service and the Sikh faith. So great a follower was he, that he became Guru Angad’s successor. Guru Amar Das passed away in 1574 CE leaving incomplete the great task of formalizing the faith that he had started. Under Amar Das Sikhism became far more structured. A religious organisation with trained clergy, the ‘Manji’ was introduced and a set of rituals and ceremonies, unique to the community, were put in place. 48 Guru Ram Das|Wikimedia Commons When it came to choosing a successor, to follow and fulfill his vision, Guru Amar Das, decided to follow his predecessor and choose his best disciple, his son-in-law Guru Ram Das. Born in Lahore, Bhai Jetha (later Guru Ram Das) was an orphan who moved to Goindval when he was 12. He grew up under the influence of Guru Amar Das and later married his daughter. But Guru Ram Das’s appointment as the Fourth Guru in 1574 CE didn't go down well with Guru Amar Das’s own sons. Under constant attack from them, it was Guru Ram Das who first moved base to present day Amritsar. According to varied sources, Guru Ram Das had already identified the place for a new base for the Sikh community and named it ‘Guru-ka-chak’. He moved here and founded a settlement, which he renamed Ramdaspur. 49 Painting - ‘the lake by the Golden temple’ by Charles Bartlett in 1920|Wikimedia Commons There are two versions of how Guru Ramdas got the land for Amritsar. The one based on the Gazetteer record of Amritsar district of 1892-93 states that Guru Ramdas obtained the land as a grant from Emperor Akbar. Though the Gazetteer does not mention any year for the same, various Sikh writers and historians point to the fact that Akbar may have visited Guru Amar Das in Goindval in 1567 CE and being impressed by his work, granted the piece of land to him and his disciples. According to another version, which lacks historical data, the land was purchased through donations made by the followers of the faith for Rs 700, from the owners of the village of Tung. Amritsar was initially the name given to the lake and thereafter a tank ‘Amritsarovar’ Interestingly, Amritsar was initially the name given to the lake and thereafter a tank ‘Amritsarovar’ which was excavated by Guru Ram Das in the new settlement in 1577 CE. Sikh chronicles record that caste-groups of 52 different trades and craftsmen from surrounding villages, especially Patti, Kasur and Kalanaur, were called in to take up residence in Amritsar. Guru Ram Das’ abode, later known as Guru ke Mahal was probably the first settlement at the site. It has the distinction of serving as home for the fourth (Ram Das), fifth (Arjan Dev) and the sixth (Hargobind) Gurus besides being the birthplace of the ninth Guru, Guru Tegh Bahadur. Photograph of Sri Harmandir Saheb in 1870|Wikimedia Commons During the period of the fifth Guru Arjan Dev, the tank Amritsarovar was enlarged to build a temple in the center. The construction of the temple known as Sri Harmandir Sahib or Sri Darbar Sahib, started in 1585 CE. It was envisaged as a place of worship for men and women from all 50 walks of life, open to followers from all religions . The foundation stone of the temple was laid by the Muslim sufi saint, Hazrat Mian Mir. After the completion of the construction of the temple, the Adi Granth was installed here in 1604 CE with due ceremony, thus making it the most important temple of Sikhs. The temple then also became home to the Akal Takht (the throne of the timeless one) and this was installed by the Sixth Guru, Guru Hargobind. The trinity of tank, temple and text thus raised the status of Amritsar to the holiest town of the Sikhs. The present day Gurudwara was renovated in 1764 CE by Jassa Singh Ahluwalia a Sikh leader. In the early 19th century CE, Maharaja Ranjit Singh of Punjab secured the region from outside attacks and covered the upper floors of the Gurudwara with 750 kgs of gold thus giving the temple the popular name, ‘Golden Temple’. Ranjit Singh also set up an armoury and military headquarters at the Gobindgarh Fort close by, to protect the holiest shrine of the Sikhs. Akal Takht and Harmandir Sahib and Amritsarovar tank |Wikimedia Commons The gradual shift of name from Ramdaspur to Amritsar could possibly be accorded to the growing fame of the sacred tank. The history of Sikhs is intertwined with the the evolution and development of Amritsar as a city. As the faith grew - so did its most important city Amritsar and its holiest shrine The Golden Temple. 51 The Lost Palace A majestic palace unlike any other once glimmered in the waters of the sacred pool of nectar at Amritsar. Learn about what was once one of the largest and most magnificent structures of its kind at the Darbar Sahib complex. Follow the history of the lost palace and the space it occupied from its origins in the Sikh Empire, to British Rule and eventually modern times. The Bungas of Darbar Sahib As a spiritual and inspirational hub of Sikhism The Darbar Sahib complex in the city of Amritsar has always been a very special place for Sikhs. Surrounding the sacred pool of nectar at Darbar Sahib the leading members of the Sikh misls (confederacies) first established their residences and palaces (bungas) at Amritsar in the late 18th century. After a dark period, Darbar Sahib was reconstruction in 1764 after repeated destruction by Ahmad Shah Durrani and Sikhs began to enjoy a period of relative peace in Punjab where they were no longer fighting for survival as a people. With the rise of Maharaja Ranjit Singhs empire and its prosperity, at their height there were over 84 bungas around the sacred pool. In the centre of the city of Umritsir is a gigantic reservoir of water, from the midst of which rises a magnificent temple, where the Grunth ( the holy book of the Sikhs ) is read day and night. Around this sheet of water are the houses of the maharajah, the ministers, sirdars, and other wealthy inhabitants. Thirty-five Years in the East L.M. Honigberger, London, 1852 Some of these palaces (bungas) were used as centers of religious teaching and education while most served as the residences of some of the powerful aind influential families of Punjab. Being on the sacred pool these palaces offered an intimate view and connection with Darbar Sahib. 52 1854 painting of the lost palace superimposed on a modern photograph showing the exact location and size of the palace. This is the scene that one would see standing on the south parkarma today if the palace still existed. Amritsar, 1859. In the centre of the tank rose a gorgeous temple of marble, the roof and minarets being encased in gilded metal; marble pavements, fresco paintings, added to the splendour of the scene, and round the outer circle sprung up a succession of stately buildings for the accommodation of the sovereign and his court. The establishment of no noble was complete, who had not his bhunga at Amritsar. Linguistic and Oriental Essays Robert Needham Cust, London, 1880 The Tulao, or pool, struck me with surprise. It is about 150 paces square, and has a large body of water, which to all appearance is supplied by a natural artesian well. There are no sign of the spring to be seen. It is surrounded by a pavement about 20 to 25 paces in breadth. Round this square are some of the most considerable houses of the city, and some buildings belonging to the temple, the whole being inclosed by gates: although one can look very conveniently from the windows of the houses into this inclosed space, and some of the doors even open into it. Travels in Kashmir and the Panjab Baron Charles Hugel, translated from German with notes by Major T.B. Jervis, 1845 Over time eventually almost all of the bungas have disappeared, being replaced by new structures; today the only two remaining bungas are the Akal Takht (Akal Bunga) and the twin towers of the Ramgharia Bunga. Although they are long gone, the palaces (bungas) of Amritsar live on in memory and are still remembered every day in the common Sikh prayer of Ardas: Chukiaan’, Jhandae, Bun:gae jugo j-ugg atall, dharam kaa jaaekaar. Bolo jee Vaaheguroo. May the bungas, the banners, the cantonments abide from age to age. May the cause of truth and justice prevail everywhere at all times, utter, Wondrous God!. 53 54 CHAPTER III History of Sri Harmandir Sahib History of Golden Temple, Harmandir Sahib Sri Harmandir Sahib, also known as Sri Darbar Sahib or Golden Temple, (on account of its scenic beauty and golden coating for English speaking world), is named after Hari (God) the temple of God. The Sikhs all over the world, daily wish to pay visit to Sri Amritsar and to pay obeisance at Sri Harmandir Sahib in their Ardas. Rare Old Photo of Golden Temple Guru Arjan Sahib, the Fifth Nanak, conceived the idea of creating a central place of worship for the Sikhs and he himself designed the architecture of Sri Harmandir Sahib. Earlier the planning to excavate the holy tank (Amritsar or Amrit Sarovar) was chalked out by Guru Amardas Sahib, the Third Nanak, but it was executed by Guru Ramdas Sahib under the supervision of Baba 55 Budha ji. The land for the site was acquired by the earlier Guru Sahibs on payment or free of cost from the Zamindars (landlords) of native villages. The plan to establish a town settlement was also made. Therefore, the construction work on the Sarovar (the tank) and the town started simultaneously in 1570. The work on both projects completed in 1577 A.D. Who donated land for Golden Temple Old Photos of Darbar Sahib The land for the site was bought by the Guru Ram Das Sahib on payment from the Zamindars (landlords) of native villages. Guru Arjan Sahib got its foundation laid by a muslim saint Hazrat Mian Mir ji of Lahore on 1st of Magh, 1645 Bikrmi Samvat (December, 1588). The construction work was directly supervised by Guru Arjan Sahib himself and he was assisted by the prominent Sikh personalities like Baba Budha ji, Bhai Gurdas ji, Bhai Sahlo ji and many other devoted Sikhs. Unlike erecting the structure on the higher level (a tradition in Hindu Temple architecture), Guru Arjan Sahib got it built on the lower level and unlike Hindu Temples having only one gate for the entrance and exit, Guru Sahib got it open from four sides. Thus he created a symbol of new 56 faith, Sikhism. Guru Sahib made it accessible to every person without any distinction of Caste, creed, sex and religion. The building work completed in 1601 A.D. on Bhadoon Sudi 1st, 1661 Bikrmi Samvat (August/September,1604). Guru Arjan Sahib installed newly created Guru Granth Sahib, in Sri Harmandir Sahib and appointed Baba Budha ji as its first Granthi i.e. the reader of Guru Granth Sahib. After this event it attained the status of ‘Ath Sath Tirath’. Now the Sikh Nation had their own Tirath, a pilgrimage center. Most Rare Pictures Of Golden Temple Sri Harmandir Sahib, is built on a 67ft. square platform in the centre of the Sarovar (tank). The temple itself is 40.5ft. square. It has a door each on the East, West, North and South. The Darshani Deori (an arch) stands at the shore end of the causeway. The door frame of the arch is about 10ft in height and 8ft 6inches in breath. The door panes are decorated with artistic style. It opens on to the causeway or bridge that leads to the main building of Sri Harmandir Sahib. It is 202 feet in length and 21 feet in width. The bridge is connected with the 13 feet wide ‘Pardakshna’ (circumambulatory path). It runs round the main shrine and it leads to the ‘Har ki Paure’ (steps of God). On the first floor of "Har Ki Pauri", there is continuous reading of Guru Granth Sahib. 57 Rare Old and Historical Photograph of The Golden Temple The main structure of Sri Harmandir Sahib, functionally as well as technically is a three-storied one. The front, which faces the bridge, is decorated with repeated cusped arches and the roof of the first floor is at the height of the 26 feet and 9 inches. At the top of the first floor 4 feet high parapet rises on all the sides which has also four ‘Mamtees’ on the four corners and exactly on the top of the central hall of the main sanctuary rises the third story. It is a small square room and have three gates. A regular recitation of Guru Granth Sahib is also held there. On the top of this room stands the low fluted ‘Gumbaz’ (dome) having lotus petal motif in relief at the base inverted lotus at the top which supports the "Kalash" having a beautiful "Chhatri" at the end. Its architecture represents a unique harmony between the Muslims and the Hindus way of construction work and this is considered the best architectural specimens of the world. It is often quoted that this architecture has created an independent Sikh school of architecture in the history of art in India. https://www.goldentempleamritsar.org/famous-temples-in-india/amritsar/goldentemple/history.php 58 59 Sri Akal Takht Sahib - Associated with - Sri Guru Hargobind Sahib Ji,Location - Golden Temple Road, Amritsar City, Punjab 143006, India The Akal Takht ("Throne of the Timeless One") is one of five takhts (seats of power) of the Sikhs. It is located in the Harmandir Sahib (Golden Temple) complex in Amritsar, Punjab, India. The Akal Takht was built by Shri Guru Hargobind as a place of justice and consideration of temporal issues; the highest seat of earthly authority of the Khalsa (the collective body of the Sikhs) and the place of the Jathedar, the highest spokesman of the Sikhs. The current Jathedar of Akal Takht appointed by the SGPC is Giani Harpreet Singh, while the Sarbat Khalsa calls for the reinstitution of Jagtar Singh Hawara. Akal Takht, (Punjabi: “Throne of the Timeless One”) the chief centre of religious authority of Sikhism. It is located in the city of Amritsar in Punjab state, northwestern India. Similar seats of authority (takhts) are located at Anandpur and Talwando Sabo (near Bathinda) in Punjab, Patna in Bihar state, and Nanded in Maharashtra state. The Akal Takht is part of the complex of religious buildings centred on the Harmandir Sahib, or Golden Temple, the principal Sikh house of worship. It is situated just beyond a large gateway at the entrance to the causeway across the tank (pool) that leads to the Golden Temple. The building was badly damaged during the assault on the Golden Temple by the Indian army in June 1984. It was subsequently rebuilt. When in 1708 Guru Gobind Singh declared that the line of personal Gurus (religious guides) had come to an end, the authority of the office of Guru was considered to be embodied in the holy scriptures, the Adi Granth. Disputes in interpretation had to be settled by the entire Sikh community. Decisions were made at annual or semiannual meetings in Amritsar, when groups would assemble behind their elected leaders in the open area in front of the Akal Takht. Resolutions had to be carried unanimously; they then became gurmatas (decisions of the Guru) and were binding on all Sikhs. Both political and religious decisions were taken at Akal Takht 60 Akal Takht, Sikhism's highest temporal seat, in Amritsar, Punjab state, northwestern India. meetings up until 1809, when Maharaja Ranjit Singh, the leader of the newly unified Sikh state, abolished political gurmatas and began to seek counsel from both Sikhs and non-Sikhs. Resolutions of local congregations on nonpolitical matters relating to the interpretation of Sikh doctrine or rules of conduct now can be appealed to the Akal Takht; decisions taken there are conveyed in the form of hukamnamas (orders). A hukamnama issued from the Akal Takht is considered mandatory for all Sikhs. 61 Akal Takht illuminated on Guru Nanak Gurpurab, Harmandir Sahib complex, Amritsar.//Akal Takht and Harmandir Sahib, Amritsar, Punjab, India. Originally known as Akal Bunga, the building directly opposite to the Harmandir Sahib was founded by sixth Sikh Guru, Guru Hargobind, as a symbol of political sovereignty and where spiritual and temporal concerns of the Sikh people could be addressed. Along with Baba Buddha and Bhai Gurdas, the sixth Sikh Guru built a 9-foot-high concrete slab. When Guru Hargobind revealed the platform on 15 June 1606, he put on two swords: one indicated his spiritual authority (piri) and the other, his temporal authority (miri). In the 18th century, Ahmed Shah Abdali and Massa Rangar led a series of attacks on the Akal Takht and Harmandir Sahib.[2] Takht which is on the first floor was rebuilt in brick between 1770–1780, under Sultan-ul-Qaum Jassa Singh Ahluwalia (1718–1783) – the leader of the Sikh Confederacy in Punjab. Hari Singh Nalwa, a general of Ranjit Singh, the maharaja, decorated the Akhal Takht with gold.On 4 June 1984, the Akal Takht was damaged when the Indian Army stormed Harmandir Sahib under the order of Indira Gandhi, then Prime minister of India, during Operation Blue Star. Architecture : The Akal Takht was built on a site where there existed only a high mound of earth across a wide-open space. It was a place where Guru Hargobind played as a child. The original Takht was a simple platform, 3.5 metres (11 ft) high, on which Guru Hargobind would sit in court to receive petitions and administer justice. He was surrounded by insignia of royalty such as the parasol and the flywhisk. Later, there was an open-air semi-circular structure built on marble pillars and a gilded interior section. There were also painted wall panels depicting Europeans.The modern building is a five-story structure with marble inlay and a gold-leafed dome. Three of the stories were added by Ranjit Singh in the 1700s. Contemporary restoration work found a layer of paint decorated lime plaster that might have been part of the original structure but later than the time of Harminder. 62 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Sikh Artifacts - Yes, see below Sarovar - Yes Sarai - Yes Sri Akal Takht Sahib literally means 'Eternal Throne'. The Akal Takht is part of the Golden Temple complex in Amritsar. Its foundation was laid by Guru Hargobind Sahib on 15th June 1606 (now celebrated on 2nd July). 6. The Akal Takht is situated opposite Sri Harmandir Sahib and is the oldest of the Five Takhts. 7. The building of the Akal Takht opposite Sri Harmandir Sahib has a special meaning. While Sri Harmandir Sahib stands for spiritual guidance the Akal Takht symbolizes the dispensing of justice and temporal activity. 8. During the day, the Guru Granth Sahib is kept in Sri Harmandir Sahib, while at night it is kept in Sri Akal Takht Sahib. 9. The Supreme Seat Of Power 10. The Akal Takht is the most supreme of all the Takhts. The four other takhts established by the panth (community) are: 11. Takht Sri Damdama Sahib, Talwandi Sabo Takht Sri Hazur Sahib, Nanded Takht Sri Harmandir Sahib, Patna Takht Sri Keshgarh Sahib, Anandpur 12. The Jathedar of the Akal Takht is the highest spokesperson of the Sikh Panth and is meant to be a spiritual leader without control or influence from any outside, politically motivated sources. Martyrdom Of Sri Guru Arjan Sahib Ji-Two years after the Adi Granth was installed in Sri Harmandir Sahib, Sri Guru Arjan Sahib Ji who compiled it, was arrested and tortured to death by order of the Mughal Emperor Jahangir. Jahangir mentions in his biography his opposition to the faith of Guru Arjan Sahib Ji and his desire to convert him to Islam. Jahangir stated that he was given an opportunity when Guru Arjan Sahib Ji harboured his rebel son Khusro. But, although some historians see the harbouring of Khusro as a political act, nothing in Guru Arjan's life supports this view. It is said that the success of Guru Arjan in transforming Sikhism into a new age faith earned him many enemies. They were at pains to bring harm to Guru ji and had even made an unsuccessful attempt to harm him by complaining to Akbar. Guru Arjan's concerns were spiritual, not political, and the murder of this man of profound learning was a senseless act. It gave Sikhism it's first martyr and transformed the Sikh character and the Sikh ethos from purely spiritual to the martial for the defence of the masses. This tragic turning point left a deep impression on the Sikh psyche in the form of a sharp and sudden awareness of the concept of martyrdom. Out of it grew the community's tradition of taking an implacable stand against injustice and the vagaries of tyrannical rulers. A new and lasting dimension was now added to the Sikh sense of mission and purpose. 63 Before his death, anticipating that the end was near, Guru Arjan Sahib Ji in a parting message to his son asked him to, 'sit fully armed on his throne and maintain an army.' And Guru Hargobind did just that. Sri Guru Hargobind Sahib Ji Guru Hargobind acceded to the Guruship in 1606, after his father's tragic end. Although he was just eleven years old at the time, Guru Hargobind is believed to have immediately begun the process of establishing an independent and strong Sikh panth. 64 At the ceremony of ascension, the Guru declared his intentions: on his turban, he would wear the ruler's aigrette; instead of the ascetics seli, he would wear a sword-belt with two swords symbolizing Miri and Piri, temporal and spiritual authority. Adopting traditional marks of sovereignty, Guru Hargobind asked his Sikhs to donate not cash but horses and arms. He raised a troop of 52 bodyguards, which formed the nucleus of his army. 500 youths came to him for enlistment from the Manjha (the country between the Ravi and Bias), the Doab (between the Bias and Satluj) and the Malwa countries (comprises the portion of the Punjab formed by Patiala, Nabha, Jind, Faridkot, Firzopur and Ludhiana). Guru Hargobind is also credited with developing the martial arts of the Sikhs. Guru Hargobind's architectural projects, not surprisingly, reflect his agenda and his personality. On Monday, the fifth day of the light half of Har, Sambat 1663, Guru Hargobind ji laid the foundation of the Takht Akal Bunga. Akal Takht foundations exposed during repair in 1980's. 65 The Akal Takht's Foundation The Akal Takht was built on a site where there was only a high mound of earth across a wide open space. It was a place where Hargobind played as a child. The original structure of Akal Takht was a simple platform. It was built by Guru Hargobind ji, Bhai Gurdas ji and Baba Buddha ji, with their own hands. No other person or artist was employed to build the platform. Guru Ji remarked that the seat of guru would serve the panth for eternity. Guru ji raised the height of the platform to 3.5 metres (11 ft) high, defying the royal edict of Jahangir that no other person except the Emperor himself can sit on a raised platform of more than three feet. Guru Hargobind would regularly sit on the raised platform, Takht, with all marks of royalty and dispence justice for all disputes of Sikhs. Guru Hargobind would sit in court to receive petitions and administer justice. He was surrounded by insignia of royalty such as the parasol and the flywhisk. Later, there was an open-air semi-circular structure built on marble pillars and a gilded interior section. The original Akal Takht was built a fraction lower than the Harmandir Sahib, implying the order of importance, that the search for spiritual grace was always to lead. A similar balancing of assertion and submission was built into Guru Hargobind's daily routine, which alternatively highlighted the Gurdwara, with its spiritual function and self-effacing architectural symbolism, and the throne platform, with its assertion of sovereignty and temporal authority.The Guru started the day with worship in Sri Harmandir Sahib; then he would grant audience from the Akal Takht in the afternoon; in the evening he would return to Sri Harmandir Sahib for prayers and kirtan, and at night he and other Sikhs would return to the Akal Takht to listen to dhadi varan of heroic deeds. 66 Architecture of the Akal Takht On several occasions during the eighteenth century, Akal Takht shared with the Harimandar desecration and destruction at the hands of Mughal satraps and Afghan invaders. Ahmad Shah Durrani, who had razed the Harimandar in 1762, again attacked Amritsar in December 1764. On this occasion a small band of 30 Sikhs under their leader, Nihang Gurbakhsh Singh stationed there to serve and protect the Akal Takht, came out to dare the invading horde and fell fighting to the last man. Ahmad Shah had the Akal Bunga completely demolished. Sikhs, however, continued to hold the Sarbat Khalsa in front of the ruins and decided at one such gathering on Vaisakhi, 10 April 1765, to rebuild the Akal Bunga as well as the Harmandir. Funds for this purpose had already been set apart from the pillage of Sirhind in January 1764. The work was entrusted to Bhai Des Raj, who was also furnished with Guru ki Mohar or the Guru's seal to enable him to raise more funds. The construction of the ground floor of the Akal Bunga was completed by 1774. The rest of the five - storeyed domed edifice was completed during the reign of Maharaja Ranjit Singh. It is said the first floor of the Akal Takht was completed on the instructions of Jassa Singh Ahluwalia. The second floor was completed on the instructions of Maharaja Ranjit Singh at a cost two lac and ninety-five thousand rupees (a huge amount of money at the time). The gilded dome atop the building was built by Sardar Hari Singh Nalwa at his own expense. The facade of the first four storeys including the basement (originally ground floor but rendered partly below ground level because of the raising of the level of the circumambulatory terrace in front) had a semi-circular orientation. 67 The ground door was a large hall With an attached pillared marble portico. The facades of the next two floors had projected eaves supported on decorative brackets. The facade of the third floor, a large hall with galleries on the sides, had cupped arched openings, nine in number.The exterior of the fourth floor, covering the central hall of the lower floor, was decorated with projected ornamental eaves and a domed kiosk at each corner. of the Akal Takht also took his seat. The second floor was used for important meetings and also for amrit prachar, administration of the initiation of the Khalsa.The hall on the third floor was used especially for the meetings of the Shiromani Gurdwara Parbandhak Committee until a separate office block, called Teja Singh Samundari Hall, was constructed for the purpose during the 1930's. Today's Akal Takht is now a large 5-storey modern structure with inlaid marble and a goldleafed dome, that does not convey the design of Guru Hargobind's simple Takht or plinth. However, recent restoration work has uncovered a layer of lime plaster, with painted decoration, that may have been part of the original Takht. That plinth was far higher than the plinth of the Harmandir; yet the absence of a superstructure kept the original Akal Takht at a level lower than the Gurdwara. The elaboration of the structure on marble pillars, as a semi-circular platform with an open view to the courtyard, reminiscent of an air-house, grew from the use to which the Darbar hall was put. The gilding of the ceiling with ornamentations like those in the interior of the Harmandir a the wall paintings apparently belong to a later period, as there are panels showing Europeans. The total effect of the Akal Takht and the open courtyard, in front of the Darshani Deori and the view of the Amritsar beyond, is of a unique and noble structure remenisant of the of the piazza Saint Marco in Venice where the Doge's Palace faces the Grand Canal.The modern building is a five storey structure with marble inlay and a gold-leafed dome. Three of the stories were added by Ranjit Singh in the 1700s. Contemporary restoration work found a layer of paint decorated lime plaster that might have been part of the original structure but later than the time of Harminder. 68 Akal Takht Sahib and Harmandir Sahib; Miri and Piri Hukamnama As the supreme authority in all Sikh matters, it is from the Akal Takht that Hukamnamas (edics or writs) are announced to provide guidance or clarification on any point of Sikh doctrine or practice.It may lay under penance persons charged with violation of religious discipline or with activity prejudicial to Sikh interests or solidarity. It may place on record its appreciation of outstanding services rendered or sacrifices made by individuals espousing the cause of Sikhism or of the Sikhs. Importantly, no individual is above the Akal Takht. There are in fact instances of the State showing subservience as in the case of Maharaja Ranjit Singh. The Maharaja responding to summons from the Akal Takht and accepted punishment for a moral misdemeanor. 69 The penalty for his misdemeanours (a number of lashes on his back) was imposed by its custodian, Akali Phula Singh, who had fought as a loyal soldier in several of the Maharaja's military campaigns. However, upon seeing the Maharaja's good faith, the penalty was changed to a heavy fine. In spite of its supremacy in the matter of enforcing religious discipline, Akal Takht discharges no divine dispensation. It remits no sins, nor does it invoke God's wrath upon anyone. An example of an individual penalized for disobeying the Akal Takht edict was that of Bhai Santa Singh, the Nihang, who for the charge brought against him was excommunicated from the Panth (Hukamnama, 8 Savan 515 Nanak Shahl/22 July 1984). Hukamnamas have also been issued to settle points of religious and political disputation; also for commending the services to the Panth of individuals and for adding passages to Sikh ardas, the daily prayer of supplication, as a particular historical situation might demand. On 26 Jeth 1984 sk/8 June 1927, the Akal Takht eulogized in a hukamnama Bhai Sahib Sardar Kharak Singh for his qualities of determination and steadfastness and for his sacrifices in the cause of the Panth; likewise, on 30 Bhadon 1988 sk/15 September 1931, Bhai Sahib Randhir Singh was honoured for his outstanding services to the Panth. On 20 Asuj 1970 sk/4 October 1913, Takht Sachkhand Sri Hazur Sahib promulgated a hukamnama fixing the length of kirpan or sword a Sikh will carry slung from across his shoulder at a minimum of one foot. On 12 Magh 483 Nanak Shahi/25 January 1952, Akal Takht enjoined upon the entire Khalsa and all Gurdwara ministers "to add these lines to the ardas: 'O Timeless Lord, the Benevolent One, ever the succourer of Thy Panth, we pray grant the Khalsa ji the privilege of unhindered access to and control and maintenance of Sri Nankana Sahib and other holy shrines and sites from which the Panth has been parted' [after the partition of the Punjab in 1947]." Such writs promulgated under the seal of a Takht carry sanction for the entire Sikh people. Like the Martrydom of Guru Arjan, which had lead Guru Hargobind to erect the Takht, the severe damage to the Takht served to awaken a sleeping spiritual nation. May the anniversary of the attack on the Harmandir Sahib and the Akal Takht always serve to remind us of those who died in order to uphold and protect the Sikh Panth (Faith). List of Artifacts at the Akal Takht- some of the Shastar in Sri Akal Takht Sahib) Sri Sahibs (swords) of Guru Hargobind Sahib that represented Miri and Piri Sri Sahib (sword) of Guru Gobind Singh Ji Sri Sahib (sword) of Baba Buddha Ji Sri Sahib (sword) of Bhai Jaetha Ji 70 Sri Sahib Baba Karam Singh Ji Shaheed Sri Sahib Bhai Uday Singh Ji, who was with Guru Gobind Singh Ji Sri Sahib Bhai Bidhi Chand Ji Dudhara Khanda (double-edged sword) of Baba Gurbakash Singh Ji Shaheed Dudhara Khanda (double-edged sword) of Baba Deep Singh Ji Dudhara Khanda of Baba Nodh Singh Ji Shaheed Khadag Bhai Vachitar Singh Ji which weighed 10 Saer Guru Hargobind Sahib's 'Guraj' weighing 16 saer. It was given to Dharamvir Jassa Singh by Mata Sundri A sword like weapon belonging to Guru Hargobind Sahib Guru Hargobind Sahib's Katar Baba Ajit Singh's Katar Baba Jujhar Singh's Katar Guru Hargobind Sahib's kirpan Guru Hargobind's Paeshkabaj Baba Deep Singh's Paeshkabaj A sword like weapon of Baba Deep Singh Ji Shaheed Pistol of Baba Deep Singh Ji Shaheed Two arrows of Guru Gobind Singh each containing one Tola of gold Medium sized Khanda of Baba Deep Singh Ji Two kirpans of Baba Deep Singh Ji Two small Khandas of Baba Deep Singh Ji Chakar Of Baba Deep Singh Ji Small Chakar of Baba Deep Singh Ji Baba Deep Singh Ji's chakar for head decoration 71 CHAPTER IV GURU RAM DAS Guru Amar Das – the third Guru of the Sikh tradition Guru Amar Das ; 5 May 1479 – 1 September 1574), sometimes spelled as Guru Amardas, was the third of the Ten Gurus of Sikhism and became Sikh Guru on 26 March 1552 at age 73. Fast Facts FATHER Har Das ji MOTHER Daya Kaur ji DATE OF BIRTH 09/24/1534 PLACE OF BIRTH Chuna Mandi, Pakistan WIFE Bhani ji CHILDREN Prithi Chand, Maha Dev & Arjan Dev ji AGE, YEAR & TIME AT 08/30/1574, 7 Year GUR GADHI REGIMS CONTRIBUTION BANIES AGE Akbar OF 638 Shabad, Salok & Chand etc. 47 JOYTI-JOT DAY 09/01/1581 JOYTI JOT PLACE Govindwal ਜਾ ਕੌ ਜੋਗੀ ਜਤੀ ਸਿਧ ਿਾਸਧਕ ਅਨੇਕ ਤਪ ਜਟਾ ਜੂਟ ਭੇਖ ਕੀਏ ਸਿਰਤ ਉਦਾਿ ਕਉ ॥ ਿੁ ਸਤਸਨ ਿਸਤਗੁ ਸਰ ਿੁਖ ਭਾਇ ਸਕਿਪਾ ਧਾਰੀ ਜੀਅ ਨਾਮ ਕੀ ਬਡਾਈ ਦਈ ਗੁ ਰ ਰਾਮਦਾਿ ਕਉ ॥੫॥ 72 That for whose Sake, the Yogis, celibates, Siddhas and seekers, the countless sects of fanatics with matted hair wear religious robes, wander as renunciates. That True Guru (God), by the Pleasure of His Will, showered His Mercy upon all beings, and blessed Guru Ram Das with the Glorious Greatness of the Naam. ||5|| Guru Ram Das Born (Friday 9 (1534 to 1581) October, 1534 - Saturday 16 September, 1581) was the fourth of the Ten Gurus of Sikhism. Guru Ji was born in the year of 1534 in the city of Lahore to parents Bhai Hari Das ji and Mata Anup Devi Ji, with the birth name Jetha. After being orphaned at the age of 7, Bhai Jetha grew up living with his maternal grandmother. At the age of 12, Bhai Jetha met the third Guru of Sikhs, Sri Guru Amar Das Ji. From then on, Bhai Jetha served Guru Amar Das Ji and the Sikh populace with supreme devotion and humility. He was married to Bibi Bhani Ji, the younger Bhai Jetha Full Name : daughter of Guru Amar Das Ji. After having Personal Details subjected Bhai Jetha's spirit of service and sacrifice to Birth : several tests over the years, in the year of 1574, Guru Amar Das Ji renamed Bhai Jetha Ji as Ram Das ("servant of God"), and appointed him as Sri Guru Ram Das Ji, the fourth Guru of the Sikhs. Guru Ram Das ji's bani (spiritual revelations and writings) consists of 638 holy hymns, that Guru ji had composed to 30 different ragas of Indian classical music. These hymns are registered in the sacred scripture Sri Guru Granth Sahib. Through his writings, Guru Ram Das ji shared a common message for the entire humankind, to live a disciplined life full of humility, and to be forever and ever thankful to the True Guru (God). A hymn from page 305 of the Guru Granth Sahib, spoken by Guru Ram Das ji, decries the morning activity of one who calls himself a Sikh of the True Guru: 73 One who calls himself a Sikh of the True Guru shall get up early morning and meditate on the God's Name. Bathe daily in the ambrosial pool and following the Guru's instructions, chant Har, Har. All sins, misdeeds and negativity shall be erased. Guru Ram Das Ji remained the Guru of Sikhs for seven years, until he passed away in the year 1581. During his Guruship, Guru Sahib focused especially on organizing the structure of the Sikh society. He created and planned the township of Ramdaspur, which subsequently became the holy city of Sri Amritsar Sahib, the spiritual and political center of the Sikh faith till today. After founding the township, Guru ji invited and helped settle traders and craftsmen from fifty two different professions, leading to its rapid growth, and in due course the town had become the largest commercial center in the northern Indian sub-continent. This was a landmark development in the life of the Sikh community, as Guru Sahib established a central place of the Sikh faith, distinct from the centers of existing faith traditions. In addition, Guru Ram Das Ji also introduced a new and distinct marriage code for the Sikhs, via composition of the four hymns known as Laava, and advised the Sikhs to solemnize the marriages of their children by reciting these hymns. Guru Ram Das ji also instituted the system of Masands, meant to support and spread the message of the Sikh faith throughout the world. Before Guru Ji passed away, he had nominated his youngest son as the next Guru of the Sikhs - Sri Guru Arjan Dev Ji.         Birth Place: Chuna Mandi, Lahore, Punjab (Present day Pakistan) Father: Haridas Ji Mother: Mata Daya ji (also known as Anoop Davi) Wife: Mata Bhani Ji Daughters: None Sons: Baba Prithi Chand ji, Baba Mahadev Ji, Guru Arjan Dev Ji Became Guru at age 40 years and had life span of 47 years. Gurbani: The Guru contributed a total of 688 Shabads/hymns to the Sri Guru Granth Sahib. The fourth Sikh Guru contributed the following to the people of the world: Author of Laava, the hymns of the Marriage Rites  Designed the Golden Temple  Planned & created the township of Ramdaspur (later Amritsar)  Organization Structure of Sikh Society  Very little is known about the early years of Bhai Jetha, who later became the fourth Sikh Guru, Guru Ram Das. Jetha ji was born at Chuna Mandi Bazaar, Lahore, at the site of the present shrine on, 24 September 1534, where he spent the first seven years of his life. Soon after birth, he was given the name Jetha, meaning the first born. Jetha's simple and God-fearing parents, Hari Das and Anup Devi of Lahore, were delighted at this precious gift from Waheguru. As he was growing up and in his teens, he was always found in the company of religious men. When he was of 7 years, his father passed away so, 74 his maternal grandmother took him to Basarke, near Amritsar. Jetha continued to become a handsome young man. Guru Amar Das influence: One day Jetha came across a party of Sikhs who were on their way to Goindwal to pay homage to Guru Amar Das. Jetha decided to join them and also travel to Goindwal. Upon their arrival and meeting, Guru Amar Das at once noticed the young Jetha with his pleasant manner and sense of devotion. While his fellow travelers returned to Lahore, Jetha decided to stay and become a disciple of Guru Amar Das. Bhai Jehta worked hard in Goindwal in the various construction projects that were taking place. Guru Amar Das was very impressed with the Sewa performed by Bhai Jetha and susequently a marriage was arranged between Bibi Bhani, his daughter Bibi Bhani and his dedicated devotee, Bhai Jehta. The marriage took place on 18 February 1554. After their marriage, the couple remained in Goindval which was an upcoming Sikh town and carried out voluntary service (Sewa) in the construction of the Baoli Sahib (sacred well), serving the Guru and the congregation (Sangat). 75 Guru Ramdas From Max.Arthur.Macafuilee Book the Sikh Trusted disciple : Jetha became a trusted disciple of Guru Amar Das ji. He undertook many sewas and also successfully represented Guru Amar Das ji before the Mughal royal court to defend charges by some jealous Hindus who had taken exception to some of the wording of the Sikh teachings, saying that Sikhism maligned both the Hindu and the Muslim religions. The following is a translation of what Jetha said in the Court of Akbar: "Birth and caste are of no avail before God. It is ones deeds which make or unmake a man. To exploit ignorant people with superstitions and to call it religion is a sacrilege against God and man. To worship the infinite, formless and absolute God in the form of a totem, an image or an insignificant time-bound object of nature; to lead people to believe that they can wash away their sins, not through compassion and self-surrender, but through ablutions; to insist upon special diets-what to eat and what not to eat; to say that a certain language and dress allows access to God and to condemn masses of human beings, men, women and children, to the status of sub-humans, who are not even allowed to learn to read the scriptures that they are told rule their lives; never allowed to enter a house of worship; who are allowed to do only the lowest degrading work, is to tear man apart from man. This is not religion nor is it religion to deny the world by becoming an ascetic, for it is in the world alone that man can find his spiritual possibilities." Impressed by the tenets of Sikhism as explained by Bhai Jetha Emperor Akbar dismissed all of the charges. RAMDASPUR CONSTRUCTION Eventually Bhai Jetha was ordained as Guru Amar Das's successor and named Guru Ram Das ji. (Ram Das means servant of God). Guru Ram Das ji now eagerly continued the building of the city of Ramdaspur (the abode of Ram Das) by the digging of the second sacred pool as he had been instructed by Guru Amar Das ji. Pilgrims came in ever growing numbers to hear the Guru and to help in the excavation work of the tank. The holy tank would be called Amritsar meaning pool of nectar. Today the city of Ramdaspur, which now is the holiest center of Sikhism has come to be know as Amritsar. Guru Ram Das ji urged his Sikhs that one could fulfill one's life not merely by quiet meditation, but by actively participating in the joys and sorrows of others. This is how one could also rid oneself of the prime malady - Ego, and end their spiritual loneliness. One of the new entries into the Sikh fold at this time was Bhai Gurdas Bhalla, the son of the younger brother of Guru Amar Das ji. Bhai Gurdas ji was a superb poet and scholar of comparative religion who would later go on to become the scribe of the first edition of the Guru Granth Sahib ji. Guru Amar Das ji was impressed with Bhai Gurdas's existing knowledge of Hindi and Sanskrit and the Hindu scriptures. Following the tradition of sending out Masands across the country Guru Amar Das ji deputed Bhai Gurdas to Agra to spread the gospel of Sikhism. 76 Hymns: There are 688 Hymns of Guru Ram Dass included in Guru Granth Sahib which have various teachings for sikhs. Guru Sahib's Bani is also part of Rehras Sahib and Kirtan Sohila which are daily prayers of Sikhs. Page 305 of the Guru Granth Guru Sahib decries the morning activity of one who calls himself a Sikh of the True Guru (God): One who calls himself a Sikh of the True Guru shall get up early morning and meditate on the Lord's Name. Bathe daily in the ambrosial pool and following the Guru's instructions, chant Har, Har. All sins, misdeeds and negativity shall be erased. Guru Sahib on Sadhu People and Pilgrimage Bath ਮਲਾਰ ਮਹਲਾ ੪ ॥ ਗੰਗਾ ਜਮ฀ਨਾ ਗੋਦਾਵਰੀ ਿਰਿ฀ਤੀ ਤੇ ਕਰਸਹ ਉਦਮ฀ ਧੂਸਰ ਿਾਧੂ ਕੀ ਤਾਈ ॥ ਸਕਲਸਵਖ ਮੈਲ฀ ਭਰੇ ਪਰੇ ਹਮਰੈ ਸਵਸਿ ਹਮਰੀ ਮੈਲ฀ ਿਾਧੂ ਕੀ ਧੂਸਰ ਗਵਾਈ ॥੧॥ Malaar, Fourth Mehl: The Ganges, the Jamunaa, the Godaavari and the Saraswati - these rivers strive for the dust of the feet of the Holy. Overflowing with their filthy sins, the mortals take cleansing baths in them; the rivers' pollution is washed away by the dust of the feet of the Holy. ||1|| Anand Karaj The standard Sikh marriage ceremony known as the Anand Karaj is centered around of , a four stanza hymn composed by Guru Ram Das ji. During the marriage ceremony the couple circumscribe the Guru Granth Sahib ji as each stanza of the Lawan is read. The first round is the Divine consent for commencing the householders life through marriage. The second round states that the union of the couple has been brought about by God. In the third round the couple is described as the most fortunate as they have sung the praises of the Lord in the company of saints. In the fourth round the feeling of the couple that they have obtained their hearts' desire and are being congratulated is described. Guru Ram Das Sahib composed a beautiful bani called Laavan about the meaning of marriage to a Sikh couple – Effectively, the Guru defines a Sikh marriage in these 2 lines: "They are not said to be husband and wife who merely sit together. Rather they alone are called husband and wife, who have one soul in two bodies." Guru Sahib on Jogis "To wipe the dust off the feet of holy men like yourself" and then he proceeded to perform this supreme act of humility. Seeing this Sri Chand held his hand and embraced Guru Ram Das ji saying; "It's enough. This is the kind of character by which you have deprived me of my ancestral heritage. Now, what more is left with me that I could offer you for your piety and goodness of heart?" (Outraged that his father Guru Nanak had chosen to pass the Guruship to Guru Angad Sri Chand had attempted to install himself as the second Guru of the Sikhs and had hoped to alter the direction of Sikhi that Guru Nanak had chartered.) Deception:Guru Ram Das's first cousin Sahari Mal came to invite the Guru to visit Lahore in connection with the marriage of his son. The Guru being much too busy with his work promised to send one of his sons instead. Guru Ram Das ji asked his eldest son Prithi Chand to attend on his behalf, but he refused. Prithi Chand found a reason to avoid the trip, perhaps, he feared that his father would, in his absence, install his youngest brother, Arjan 77 Dev as the next Guru. Prithi was sure that Arjan was the favorite son of his father. Next the Guru asked his next eldest son Mahadev to attend the wedding, but Mahadev was a recluse and excused himself on the ground that he was not interested in the affairs of the world. The Guru therefore asked his youngest son Arjan Dev to attend, which he agreed to do with such grace and humility, that Guru Ram Das ji was very pleased. Arjan Dev proceeded to Lahore where, his father had asked him to remain until called for and to take charge of the needs and education of the Sikhs in Lahore, his father's ancestral home. Two years later, feeling intensely homesick, Arjan Dev composed a poem of love and devotion and sent it to Guru Ram Das ji. This poem along with another one, sent a few month's later were intercepted by his elder brother Prithi Chand who made sure his father never received them. Finally Arjan wrote a third poem marking it with the number 3 and gave strict instructions to the messenger to give it to the Guru personally. My mind longs for the Blessed Vision of the Guru's Darshan. It cries out like the thirsty song-bird. My thirst is not quenched, and I can find no peace, without the Blessed Vision of the Beloved Saint. ||1|| I am a sacrifice, my soul is a sacrifice, To the Blessed Vision of the Beloved Saint Guru. (SGGS, Raag Maajh, Pannaa 96) Receiving this poem, Guru Ram Das ji seeing the number 3 sensed that there must have been two earlier letters. Aware of the jealousy of his eldest son he confronted Prithi Chand, asking him if he knew anything about previous letters. At first, Prithi Chand denied everything, but seeing the insistence of the Guru and the consequences of his refusal to obey him, he finally confessed his treachery and produced the two earlier letters. (Another story often told has the Guru sending someone to Prithi Chand's quarters who finds the letters in Prithi's clothing.) When Guru Ram Das ji read them, he was moved to tears by the humility and sincerity of his son Arjan's compositions. Guru Ram Das ji immediately sent for Baba Buddha to journey to Lahore and to bring back his son Arjan Dev with full honours. On his return the Guru declared him his successor. Prithi Chand's deception had resulted in bringing about his fears, he never accepted his father's choice and continued to misbehave and abuse Guru Arjan Dev ji. Eventually Guru Ram Das ji had to publicly condemn his son Prithi Chand for his actions. Shortly thereafter Guru Ram Das left his physical form on September 16, 1581. 78 (1534-1581, Guruship, 1574-1581) Before becoming a Sikh, on a pilgrimage after having been prompted to search for a guru, he heard his nephew's wife, Bibi Amro, reciting a hymn by Guru Nanak, and was deeply moved by it. Bibi Amro was the daughter of Guru Angad, the second and then current Guru of the Sikhs. Amar Das persuaded Bibi Amro to introduce him to her father and in 1539, Amar Das, at the age of sixty, met Guru Angad and became a Sikh, devoting himself to the Guru. In 1552, before his death, Guru Angad appointed Amar Das as Guru Amar Das, the third Guru of Sikhism. Guru Amar Das was an important innovator in Sikhism, who introduced a religious organization called the 'manji system by appointing trained clergy, a system that expanded and survives into the contemporary era. He wrote and compiled hymns into a Pothi (book) that ultimately helped create the Adi Granth. Guru Amar Das helped establish the Sikh rituals relating to baby naming, wedding (Anand Karaj), and funeral, as well as the practice of congregation and celebrations of festivals such as Diwali, Maghi and Vaisakhi. He founded centres of Sikh pilgrimage, and picked the site for the Golden Temple. Guru Amar Das remained the leader of the Sikhs till age 95, and named his son-in-law Bhai Jetha later remembered by the name of Guru Ram Dass by his successors. Guru Amar Das was born to mother Bakht Kaur (also known as Lakshmi or Rup Kaur) and father Tej Bhan Bhalla on 5 May 1479 in Basarke village in what is now called Amritsar district of Punjab (India). He married Mansa Devi and they had four children which they named as Mohri, Mohan, Dani and Bhani. Amar Das had followed the Vaishnavism tradition of Hinduism for much of his life. reputed to have gone on some twenty pilgrimages into the Himalayas, to Haridwar on river Ganges. About 1539, on one such Hindu pilgrimage, he met a Hindu monk (sadhu) who asked him why he did not have a guru (teacher, spiritual counsellor) and Amar Das decided to get one.[1] On his return, he heard Bibi Amro, the daughter of the Sikh Guru Angad, singing a hymn by Guru Nanak. He 79 learnt from her about Guru Angad, and with her help met the second Guru of Sikhism and adopted him as his spiritual Guru who was much younger than his own age. He is famous in the Sikh tradition for his relentless service to Guru Angad, with legends about waking up in the early hours and fetching water for his Guru's bath, cleaning and cooking for the volunteers with the Guru, as well devoting much time to meditation and prayers in the morning and evening. Guru Angad named Amar Das his successor in 1552, instead of naming of his surviving son Shri Chand. He died in 1574,in Goindwal Sahib and like other Sikh Gurus he was cremated, with the "flowers" (remaining bones and ash after the cremation) immersed into harisar (flowing waters). Teachings Guru Amar Das taught with His own life the meaning of Guru Service, also known in Punjabi religious parlance as Guru Sewa. Guru Amar Das emphasised both spiritual pursuits as well an ethical daily life. He encouraged his followers to wake up before dawn, do their ablutions and then meditate in silent seclusion.[1] A good devotee, taught Amar Das, should be truthful, keep his mind in control, eat only when hungry, seek company of pious men, worship the Lord, make an honest living, serve holy men, not covet another's wealth and never slander others. He recommended holy devotion with Guru image in his follower's heart. He was also a reformer, and discouraged veiling of women's faces (a Muslim custom) as well as sati (a Hindu custom). He encouraged the Kshatriya people to fight in order to protect people and for the sake of justice, stating this is Dharma. 80 Brass plaque at Gurdwara Chaubara Sahib Goindwal depicting scene of Guru Ramdas being enthroned to Guruship in the presence of regional Manji heads. Guru Amar Das started the tradition of appointing manji (zones of religious administration with an appointed chief called sangatias) introduced the dasvandh ("the tenth" of income) system of revenue collection in the name of Guru and as pooled community religious resource nd the famed langar tradition of Sikhism where anyone, without discrimination of any kind, could get a free meal in a communal seating. He also started and inaugurated the 84-level step well called baoli at Goindval with a resting place, modeled along the lines of the Indian tradition of dharmsala, which then became a Sikh pilgrimage (tirath) center. Akbar He met the Mughal Emperor Akbar. According to the Sikh legend, he neither received Akbar nor was Akbar directly ushered to him, rather the Guru suggested that Akbar like everyone sit on the floor and eat in the langar with everyone before their first meeting. Akbar, who sought to encourage tolerance and acceptance across religious lines, readily accepted the suggestion. After the conclusion of the Langar, Akbar sat in the congregation with the rest of the sangat and asked the Guru a question. The Sikh hagiographies called janam-sakhis mention that Guru Amar Das persuaded Akbar to repeal the tax on Hindu pilgrims going to Haridwar. Rituals in Sikhism: wedding, festivals, funeral Guru Amar Das composed the rapturous hymn called Anand and made it a part of the ritual of Sikh marriage called "Anand Karaj", which literally means "blissful event". The Anand hymn is sung, in contemporary times, not only during Sikh weddings but also at major celebrations. Parts of the "Anand hymn" are recited in Sikh temples (Gurdwara) every evening, at the naming of a Sikh baby, as well as during a Sikh funeral. It is a section of the Anand Sahib composition of Guru Amar Das, printed on pages 917 to 922 of the Adi Granth and set to the "Ramkali" raga. Guru Amar Das's entire Anand Sahib composition is a linguistic mix of Panjabi and Hindi languages, reflecting Guru Amar Das' upbringing and background. The hymn celebrates the freedom from suffering and anxiety, the union of the soul with the divine, describing a devotee's bliss achieved through the Guru with inner devotion and by repeating the Name of the Creator.[10] The hymn states in stanza 19 that the Vedas teach "the Name is supreme", in stanza 27 that Smriti and Shastra discuss the good and the bad but are unreal because they lack a Guru and that it is the grace of the Guru which awakens the heart and the devotion to the Name. The hymn celebrates the life of a householder and constant inner devotion to the One, ending each stanza with the characteristic "says Nanak". 81 Guru Amar Das picked the site for Harimandir Sahib (Golden Temple). Guru Amar Das is also credited in the Sikh tradition to have encouraged building of temples and places where Sikhs could gather together on festivals such as Maghi,[25] Diwali and Vaisakhi. He required his disciples to gather together for prayers and communal celebrations in autumn for Diwali and in spring for Vaisakhi, both post harvest ancient festivals of India. Site of the Golden Temple Guru Amar Das selected the site in Amritsar village for a special temple, that Guru Ram Das began building, Guru Arjan completed and inaugurated, and the Sikh Emperor Ranjit Singh gilded. This temple has evolved into the contemporary "Harimandir Sahib", or the temple of Hari (God), also known as the Golden Temple. It is the most sacred pilgrimage site in Sikhism. Foundations and scripture Scholars such as Pashaura Singh, Louis E. Fenech and William McLeod state that Guru Amar Das was influential in introducing "distinctive features, pilgrimages, festivals, temples and rituals" that ever since his time have been an integral part of Sikhism.[7] He is also remembered as the innovator who began the collection of hymns now known as Goindwal Pothi or Mohan Pothi, the precursor to what became the Adi Granth – the first edition of Sikh scripture – under the fifth Sikh Master, which finally emerged as the Guru Granth Sahib under the tenth Sikh Master. The nearly 900 hymns composed by Guru Amar Das constitute the third largest part, or about 15%, of the Guru Granth Sahib. The early history of Guru Ram Das is referred to in the previous chapter. Many writers have expressed their opinion that Akbar granted the land only to Guru Ram Das on which he founded the city of Ramdaspur (later known as Amritsar), and so they contend that the city of Amritsar was not founded during the time of Guru Amar Das. It is also a well-known fact of Sikh history that Emperor Akbar came to Goindwal and he dined with the common people in the Guru's langar before he could see the Guru. It seems that the Emperor granted the estate in the name of 82 Bibi Bhani at that time, and Jethaji being her husband, was made incharge of the estate by Guru Amar Das. Guru Nanak awarded the Guruship to Bhai Lehna and not to his sons, and it is quite obvious that in order to avoid hostility of his sons towards his successor, he asked Guru Angad to move to Khadur instead of continuing to live in Kartarpur. The same circumstances prevailed during the reign of second and third Gurus. It is, therefore, quite likely that the planning of a new city was called for during the reign of Guru Amar Das as mentioned in the previous part. Guru Ram Das left Goindwal for his new colony. Many Sikhs followed the Guru and settled there. At first this city was called Ramdaspur, which is now called Amritsar. A revenue collector of Patti in district of Lahore had five daughters, the fifth daughter was very religious. One day the father asked who gave them to eat and drink. The first four daughters said that it were their parents who had provided them with food and other necessities of life, but the fifth daughter told her parents that God was the only Cherisher of His creation. On Bhai Jetha (Guru Amardas) used to earn his hearing this reply her father got very angry and livlihood by selling boiled grains. Very often remarked,"I shall see if God will protect you." he would freely give away the boiled grains One day a crippled leper came to the town and the to the needy and to the poor labourers. Guru father married his fifth daughter to him to teach Amardas was highly impressed by his her a lesson. She willfully accepted him as her charitable nature and blessed the young boy. true husband. She put him in a basket and carried Ultimately the divine succession was him on her head, and begged from door to door to bestowed on him, he was named Ramdas and maintain their livelihood. One day she left him was installed as the fourth Guru (Nanak). under a tree near a pool of water and went to the nearby colony to beg for food. The leper saw some crows (black in color) dipping in the water and they turned white when came out of the water. The leper thought that the water had some miraculous healing property. So he left his basket and crawled into the water, and lo, the leprosy at once disappeared from the body except one finger which was left out of water. When the lady came back, she did not believe the story of the healed leper. Ultimately they went to Guru Ram Das, who confirmed saying that the pool possesseth such extraordinary efficacy which the man alleged. Upon this the couple became Guru's followers and they worked in the excavation of the tank later on. The tree under the shade of which she left her husband, is still standing there and is called 'Dukhbhanjni Beri'. The pool was known as Amritsar- tank of nectar, the place itself came to be known as the city of Amritsar. The work was not finished by Guru Ram Das but it was completed by his successor, Guru Arjan Dev. GURU RAM DAS AND SRICHAND: 83 Baba Srichand, the eldest son of Guru Nanak, had founded a religious sect of his own known as Udasis. He visited Amritsar and came to see Guru Ram Das. On seeing Guru's long flowing beard, Baba Srichand asked him jocularly why he grew it that long. The Guru replied,"To wipe the dust from the holy feet of the saints like you." 'Your this sweet humility is the magic that makes you so great and makes me feel so small,' replied Srichand. Baba Srichand promised the Guru his co-operation. After that the Udasis spared no pains to serve Sikh eligion. It is said that after the Guru Ramdas (1534-1581 AD) laid the death of Banda Bahadur, when the Mughal rulers decided to root out Sikh religion, it was the Udasis foundation stone of Amritsar on 13th June 1577. The devotees have been visiting the who kept the Divine spark of the Sikh faith alight. Holy City since its existence, for having a dip in the ascred 'Sarovar' and also for FREE KITCHEN (GURU KA LANGAR): promoting their trade. Like his predecessors, Guru Ram Das carried on the work of Langar in a more elaborate and methodical way. As in the past strict adherence was made to the term 'Pangat' in Langar. Anybody irrespective of race, caste, creed, religion or sex, could partake of food without any hesitation. The caste system and pilgrimages were decried and superstitions were denounced. NEW CUSTOMS: Guru Ram Das composed a hymn known as 'Lawan' in Suhi Mohalla 4, page 773 of Guru Granth Sahib, and asked his Sikhs to recite them to solemnize marriages. The Sabad 'Lawan' embodies in itself a lesson for the couple to develop true love for each other. In reality this Sabad is for a human being to develop love for the divine ridegroom.          The Guru composed the following Sabad to instruct his Sikhs in the practice of their religion: "He who calleth himself a Sikh of the true Guru, should rise early and meditate on God; He should make an effort early in the morning, bathe in the inner tank of nectar; Repeat God's Name under Guru's instruction, and all his sins and transgressions shall be erased; At sunrise he should sing the Guru's hymns, and whether sitting or standing meditate on God's Name; The disciple who at every breath meditateth on God, will be dear to the Guru; The Guru imparteth instruction to that disciple to whom my Lord bestows His grace; The servant Nanak prayeth for the dust of the feet of such a disciple of the Guru who himself repeateth God's Name and causeth others to do so." 84  (Gauri Ki Var- Mohalla 4, p-305-6) SELECTION OF GURUSHIP: Sahari Mal, Guru's cousin from Lahore, invited the Guru to grace his son's marriage. For some reason the Guru could not go, but he asked his eldest son, Prithi Chand to attend the marriage. Prithi Chand refused to go. His refusal is attributed to possibly two motives. It is said that he was incharge of the offerings that were made to the Guru and was able to furtively set aside much wealth for himself. If he had gone to Lahore, this illicit gain might have fallen in somebody else's hands. Secondly he thought that the time was fast approaching for the selection of a person to succeed his father as Guru and so he should remain in Amritsar. Mahadev, the Guru's second son, did not want to go because of his indifference to worldly affairs. The third son, Arjan Dev agreed to attend the marriage. He was instructed to stay on in Lahore after the marriage to look after the affairs of the Sikh Sangat of that place. After some time he started feeling the pangs of separation for his father and the Guru, and wrote three letters, two of which were intercepted by his elder brother, Prithi Chand. A letter marked '3', reached the Guru and Arjan Dev was immediately recalled from Lahore. On his return he told his father that he had sent three letters. The truth came to light and Prithi Chand was forced to produce the other two letters. Thus Prithi Chand's actions were exposed. Guru Ram Das embraced Arjan Dev, sent for five paise and a coco-nut, and placed them before him. He descending from his throne, seated him there before the whole assembly of the Sikhs. Bhai Buddha affixed the tilak of spiritual sovereignty to Arjan Dev's forehead, and thus he was proclaimed as Guru Arjan Dev. This appened in August, 1581. Prithi Chand became so mad that he addressed his father in abusive language. He told Bhai Buddha that his father acted improperly in giving Guruship to his younger brother. He vowed that he would remove Guru Arjan and would seat himself on the Guru Gaddi (throne). The Guru counselled him not to quarrel about it, but Prithi Chand refused to submit and adopted an attitude of open defiance. Having nominated Guru Arjan Dev, Guru Ram Das left for his old headquarters at Goindwal. After a few days He left eft this world on the first of September, 1581. Gurdwara Santokhsar Sahib is an historical sikh shrine, situated at distance of 700 Meters from Harimandir Sahib. This is one of the five historical sarovers constructed by GUru Arjun Dev.When Guru Ram Das, had not yet ascended to the gaddi, he came here to find out a place for excavation of the holy tank on instructions from Guru Amar Das. When Guru Ram Das was getting the place dug, he found a Yogi, meditating. After sometime the Yogi opened his eyes and told Guru Ram Das that he had been meditating here for a long time, waiting for a Guru to give him salvation. He disclosed his name as Santakha and then breathed his last. The tank was then named as Santokhsar. Guru Arjan completed the unfinished work of excavation of tanks - Santokhsar and Amritsar. Baba Buddha was appointed to supervise the work of construction. Santokhsar was completed in 1587-89. 85 CHAPTER V ROLE OF AKAL TAKHT IN SIKH HISTORY, Karamjit Kaur RomanaResearch Scholar, University College of Basic Sciences and Humanities, Guru Kashi University Talwandi Sabo (Punjab). JETIR April 2018, Volume 5, Issue 4 1Akal Takht was founded by Sixth Guru Hargobind Ji in 1606 AD. He supervised the religious and political activities from Akal Takht. It aroused due to Guru Arjun Dev’s martyrdom and his last message to Guru Hargobind Ji. Even Sikhs did not want another of their another Guru to die. Guru Hargobind Ji started wearing turban with tuft, keeping arms and wearing hood was result of all these developments. Akal Takht was result of this ambience.1 Akal Takht means God’s throne. It also means Akal: timeless and unending. Both the meanings are identical as God is timeless and only His reign can last forever. No one from the mortals can keep their rule until eternity their rule is for limited period. God is the only Lord who remains ruler for eternity. Ten Sikh Gurus are called true rulers as they preached the message of the Lord. The Preachings of the God are true and the Gurus are true because they represent Him. Guru Hargobind Ji, under the guidance of his predecessors, built Akal Takht. He did not take the position of a ruler but remain a keeper of it.2 Guru Arjun Dev Ji took the Sikh religion to a high level. Adi Granth Sahib was completed in 1604 A D. and Harimander Sahib became a different identity for the Sikhs at the time of Guru Arjun Dev Ji. The Sikhs had their own scripture and it united people who were against the policies of Mughal Empire. Compilation of Adi Granth, organization and dieseline in Sikh religion was not tolerable for Jahangir. He thought it to be against his own motives so he turned against Guru Arjun Dev Ji. Guru Ji went to trail in the Mughal court because he helped Dara Shikoh. He had been tortured for it. He had to sit upon hot plates and the Mughal executioner poured hot sand over his head. 3 Jahangir was not in favor of the popularity of Sikh religion. That caused martyrdom of Guru Arjun Dev Ji in 1606 AD. Guru Ji was aware of Jahangir’s plan so before leaving to Lahore he called Guru Hargobind Ji and other Sikhs and told them to appoint Hargobind as his 2successor. He asked Hargobind to change his outlook regarding the policies of Sikh religion. Guru Arjun Dev Ji advised him to carry arms and organize an army, as in the changing times it was wise to do so.4 On the thirteenth day of Guru Arjun Dev’s martyrdom, Adi Granth Sahib was concluded and Guru Hargobind Ji was given the authority as the sixth Guru. The responsibility of uniting the Sikh Panth came on the shoulders of Guru Hargobind Ji. Then he led to the foundation of Harimander Sahib at Amritsar and established it as the fundamental center of Sikhism. He changed the policy of his predecessors. Guru Ji put on two swords of Miri and Piri. Miri indicated worldly authority and Piri indicated spiritual authority. It meant that Guru Ji would look after political matters alongside spiritual. So he changed the destructive power into constructive. He took the arms against the cruel people and it considered religious in manner.5 Historians have different views about the establishment of Akal Takht. Gyani Lal Singh believed that theconstruction of Akal Takht began in 1608 AD. and went on until 1613 AD. 86 According to Gyani Gyan Singh the construction of Akal Takht began in 1609 AD. Ganda. Singh and Teja Singh also supported this view. Some historians mentioned it 1606 AD, some other 1608 AD, 1609 AD and 1612 AD, but these could not be considered as authentic dates as they have not mentioned any source. Akal Takht was built opposite to the Harimander Sahib. Guru Hargobind Ji laid down the foundation stone. Baba Budha Ji and Bhai Gurdas Ji constructed the whole building of Akal Takht themselves. Akal Takht was necessitated in the presence of Harimander Sahib. Guru Hargobind Ji was the owner of two swords Miri and Piri. Harimander Sahib, the indicator of spiritual authority or Piri, was already in existence. So Akal Takht, the indicator of temporal 3 authority or Miri, was constructed. Guru Hargobind Ji hoisted two saffron-colored flags at Akal Takht. These were symbols of Miri and Piri. It means that Sikhs are independent of any rule. Guru Hargobind Ji used to dress up as an emperor. He wore a tuft and sat on throne in Akal Takht. He went to his court daily after his morning prayers. In evening there was a court meeting for public also. He delivered the first Hukamnama right after sitting on the throne. The order read as that who considered himself a true Sikh should present a horse and weapons to Guru Hargobind Ji, when they would visit him. He sent the order in 1606 AD and they circulated the copies to many devotees. Soon after that order, the Sikhs sent many horses and weapons to Amritsar. The evening court became a routine and number of people visiting the court was increased. Guru Hargobind Ji asked for horses and weapons, as he knew that a big threat would be awaiting Sikh religion in the near future, if they would not be organized as an army. Those weapons and horses were circulated in the trainees. The Sikhs were trained for guerrilla warfare. He asked his followers to change with time, even to those in abroad he asked to send horses and weapons. He told them to revolt against the rulers, not to pay any fine and die with dignity instead of living a life of slavery. He want to abolish cruelty, they must spark that in them. He encouraged them with saying that they were fighting for religion and that would be the cause of their success because those fighting for money could not hold for long. Sikhs should be afraid of no one but the God. He strongly advised them to live with the dignity. They should always be ready to fight for justice. They would be fearless if they were fighting for the right cause. They should live in unity. People were trained in front of the Harimander Sahib. Oration of Guru Hargobind Ji was impressive. He could lure the people only with the power of his speech. Many people joined the Sikh army. They were ready to die for the cause of the community. People were gathered in the open field near Akal Takht. They took part in kirtan. Afterwards a Nagara was being beaten and the poets sang the songs of bravery.10 Guru Ji 4wanted to aware the people to their present conditions so that they became ready for revolt. He considered Akal Takht to be an indicator of religion and justice. Jahangir sent for Guru Hargobind Ji to come to his court. Guru Ji took advice of his Sikhs on the matter that whether he should go to Jahangir’s court or not. Most of the Sikhs were not in the favor of his departure. However, Baba Budha Ji and Saalo Ji gave him permission to go for the meeting. He made Bhai Gurdas the first Jathedar of Akal Takht and Baba Budha Ji the in charge of Harimander Sahib while he went to Delhi. Jahangir knew well about the increasing power of Sikhs. He was afraid of the growing popularity of Sikh religion. The Sikhs became more determined after the martyrdom of Guru Arjun Dev Ji. When Guru Ji reached in his court, he arrested him and sentenced him 12 years of imprisonment in Gwalior fort. Guru Ji was released after two years on the request of many 87 Muslims.12Guru Ji went to Amritsar. After some time, Jahangir also visited Amritsar and offered some money to Guru Hargobind Ji for the construction of Akal Takht. But Guru Ji refused to accept his offering saying that Akal Takht was the Throne of justice and it was better to built it with the money of the Sikhs only. Jahangir did not tolerate his insult and it changed the relations between Guru Hargobind Ji and Jahangir.13 Guru Hargobind Ji fought many battles in the last years of his life. Those battles sure did pave a wide way to the establishment of Akal Takht and the declaration of independence of Sikhs. Guru Hargobind Ji visited rarely to Akal Takht during those battles. Therefore, the organization of the Akal Takht had never remained the same since Guru Hargobind Ji. After Guru Ji it came in the hands of the children of Prithi Chand, hypocrite enemies of Sikh religion. In 1651, when Guru Har Rai Ji returned Sodhi Hari Ji (grandson of Prithi Chand) was looking after Akal Takht and he was not like his grandfather. Therefore Akal Takht remained under many setups.14 5After his death, Niranjania Sikh the flatterer of Mughals was given the charge of Akal Takht. Sikhs were not happy with that, as he was supporter of Mughals. A group of Sikhs went to Anandpur Sahib to Guru Gobind Singh Ji and requested him to send a Sikh delegation to improve the order of Akal Takht. He sent Bhai Mani Singh Ji to Amritsar in 1699 AD, after the foundation of Khalsa to take control of Akal Takht. Bhai Mani Singh took Control of Akal Takht. Sikhs began to visit Harimander Sahib. Bhai Mani Singh also served the Sikh Panth in the Battles as the head Granthi and Jathedar. When he was with Guru Gobind Singh, he helped him in writing Guru Granth Sahib that was later copied in three copies by Baba Deep Singh These were sent to Amritsar, Nander Sahib and Patna Sahib.15 Guru Gobind Singh Ji visited and stayed in Nander Sahib, saddened the Sikhs. At that time Guru Gobind Singh sent Bhai Mani Singh to Punjab. Once in Punjab, he took the charge of Akal Takhat. He would hold diwan of Sikhs in the evening at Akal Takht. Bhai Mani Singh was the main Sikh Leader in Punjab after Guru Gobind Sigh. He was a political leader as the Jathedar of Akal Takht and he also helped Banda Singh Bahadur in many of his fights. His family until their last breath supported Banda Singh Bahadur. He also handed over the supervision of Akal Takht. On the other hand, Zakariya Khan wanted to blot out the Sikhs; therefore, he arrested Bhai Mani Singh and other main Sikh leaders. In his old age, Bhai Mani Singh was brutally murdered. They chopped off his body inch by inch.16 After the martyrdom of Bhai Mani Singh, the tradition of Sarbat Khalsa was founded. Nawab Kapoor Singh became the Chief Sikh leader and Jathedar. He divided the Sikh forces into two batches: Budha Dal and Taruna Dal in 1733-1734. Zakariya Khan captured the Sikhs living with Bhai Mani Singh and killed them. He banned entry of Sikhs at Amritsar. Sikhs were slaughtered for many years. Sikhs went away from Amritsar during that time. When Nadir Shah invaded India in 1739 AD, he crumbled the power of Zakariya Khan. He came under the rule of Nadir Shah. The Sikhs organized themselves during that period and looted Nadir Shah when he was returning.17 Sikhs became active once again. Then Zakariya Khan tried to abolish the Sikhs from Amritsar. Therefore, the Sikhs went into the hills. He died in 1745 AD. After his death, the 6Sikhs returned to plains, began to discipline and organize themselves. That was the period of Dal Khalsa. It was the Army of Sikh Panth. It was organized with the blessings of Akal Takht. They fought With Mir Mannu to Abdali. They faced many problems but it was their success in 1765AD that the Punjab was under the Sikh rule. They always worked on the directions of Akal Takht. All the decisions related to whole Sikh community were taken in the meetings of 88 Sarbat Khalsa at Akal Takht. Akal Takht played a very important role in the polity of that period. It was the place where the Sikhs gathered twice in a year on the occasion of Diwali and Basikhi for their further planning.18 The Sikhs held a meeting of Sarbat Khalsa in 1746 AD, Nawab Kapoor Singh divided the whole Sikhs in 25 Jathas and every Jatha had its own leader. It strengthened the political power of the Sikhs. Many young Sikhs joined the Army, which increased the number of the Khalsa soldiers.19 In the meeting of Sarbat Khalsa in 1748AD, Nawab Kapoor Singh organized a Sikh national army called Dal Khalsa. The Sikhs were divided into 11 Jathas or Dals. All those Dals were independent in their fields but they came together in the communal danger. They had to protect Sikh community jointly. The army of those Dals was called Dal Khalsa. It was a central fighting body of the Sikhs. Nawab Kapoor Singh elected Jassa Singh Ahluwalia as the supreme commander of Dal Khalsa.20 Dal Khalsa was always a part of Akal Takht. All the decisions of Dal Khalsa were taken in the meetings of Sarbat Khalsa at Akal Takht. It was so powerful that it even faced the enemies like Mir Mannu and Abdali. When Abdali invaded India in 1764 AD, he captured Lahore instantly, after it he moved towards Amritsar. Dal Khalsa was not present in Amritsar at that time. Gurbaksh Singh was the Jathedar of Akal Takht and he did not accept to leave Akal Takht at any cost. He decided to face Abdali’s forces with his 29 Sikhs present at that time in Akal Takht. When Abdali 7 reached near circumambulation, they attacked on the army of Abdali with guns. The forces of Abdali encountered them. They all died facing them in that battle.21 Abdali attacked only to teach a lesson to Sikhs. However, after a while, he returned to his home. Dal Khalsa called a meeting of Sarbat Khalsa and planned to capture Lahore. They wanted to have a battle with Abdali, so they became more active in their actions. They did not allow Abdali to be comfortable even for a minute in that battle. They were victorious and then called a meeting of Sarbat Khalsa. They decided to establish a new calendar and a new Khalsa rule. They also took care of Amritsar and Akal Takht. They renovated the Akal Takht and cleaned the holy tank. Dal Khalsa had almost every important area under their control and they thought Abdali would never attack them again.22 In 1765, Abdali’s representative was sitting in Delhi. Sikh besieged him and made him under their control. Abdali did invaded Punjab but he could not do any harm to Dal Khalsa. As Akali Singh was the chief attendant of Akal Takht at that time. He never left Akal Takht least it was the most necessary. The Sikhs were always ready to sacrifice their life and they would keep the interest of their humanity ahead of their personal motives. 23 They established the Khalsa rule in 1765 AD. Sarbat Khalsa and Gurmatta united the Sikhs since 1716 AD, in which once they divided themselves in different Jathas and always worked for their community and for Amritsar and Akal Takht. Afterwards they divided themselves into Misals and fought against their enemies. All that resulted in the establishment of Khalsa rule in Punjab in 1765 AD. After Abdali, his son Timur Shah prepared twice to invade Punjab in 1792 AD and 1798 AD. During that period, the Sikh leaders met at Akal Takht and they chose Ranjit Singh as the leader of Dal Khalsa to face Taimur Shah.24 8In 1800 AD, Akali Phula Singh became the Jathedar of Akal Takht.25 At that time Amritsar was under the rule of Bhangi Sardars. When Maharaja Ranjit Singh besieged Amritsar, Akali Phula Singh came in between for reconciliation. He had no personal interest but he acted only as a Jathedar of Akal Takht. As he was well aware that the battle would 89 cause damage to Sikh lives, he reconciled both the sides. Bhangi Sardars were given Jagir and Amritsar came under the rule of Ranjit Singh. The meeting between Ranjit Singh and Akali Phula Singh showed that Ranjit Singh hold religion and Jathedar of Akal Takht superior to his own position of a king. Even though a King, he still was a person from the Sikh Panth. In 1811 AD, Maharaja Ranjit Singh thought to win Multan a meeting of Sarbat Khalsa was called at Akal Takht under the leadership of Sahib Singh Bedi. Akali Phula Singh was sent as the leader of the army. Every mission planned at Amritsar was executed under the leadership of Phula Singh.26 Another incident, which proved the Superiority of Jathedar over the King, was that when Ranjit Singh voluntarily took the punishment given by Akali Phula Singh as a Jathedar of Akal Takht. When Ranjit Singh disobeyed the Sikh religion and he was tied to the tree of tamale on the order of Jathedar Phula Singh.27 Akali Phula Singh was also the part of military excursions. When Ranjit Singh attacked Peshawar, Akali Phula Singh and his batch was with him. In that fight, at one point of time, the Sikh soldier seemed almost helpless against Pathans but the Akali Sikhs encouraged them and showed rare piece of courage. Pathans got confused and Sikhs took advantage of that confusion to make their side strong. They had no plan to fight in that battle and many Akali Sikhs including Phula Singh died in it.28 Bhai Sant Singh also served Akal Takht after the death of Akali Phula Singh. He worked till his death in 1823. It is said that Maharaja Ranjit Singh had built four stories of Akal Takht in his time. His son Gurmukh Singh succeeded him. Hari Singh Nalwa built the golden dome and gave Jathedar Gurmukh Singh 25 thousand 9rupees to cover the dom with golden plates. During the time of Ranjit Singh the Akali Sikhs were made the Jathedars of Akal Takht. When British Government captured Punjab, most of the Akalis were killed and the responsibility was given to Garanthi Sikhs. Therefore, when Sikhs were not worried about it, the attendants became administrators. After the revolt of 1857 AD, the relation between the Sikhs and the British had changed. They gave back the responsibility of Akal Takht to the Sikhs and formed a committee of major Sikh leaders. But they were not serious to improve the condition of Akal Takht and Harimander Sahib.30 In 1920 AD, the newspapers began publishing news about the major Sikh issues. That also made people aware of bad administration of Gurudwara Mahants. In August 1920 AD, the Sikhs took Gurudwara under their control. The Sikh leaders gathered at Akal Takht and passed a Gurmatta on 15 November, 1920 to elect Shiromani Gurudwara Prabandak Committee for looking after the order and administration of Akal Takht and all other Gurudwaras.31 To conclude, Akal Takht has a very important role in Sikh Panth. It controlled the administration of the Sikh community from its establishment. We can say that it fulfilled the aim for which Sixth Guru Hargobind Ji established it and it is still working in Sikh society and politics of Punjab respectfully. Art and Architecture of Harimandir Sahib: The Golden Temple 90 Art and Architecture of Harimandir Sahib The study of the art and architecture of the Golden Temple has, unfortunately, remained a subject of unconcern for art historians and critics. Even scholars of Indian temple architecture have bypassed it and references, whenever made, were mere courtesies. Fergusson considered the Golden Temple an example of the forms which Hindu temple architecture assumed in the nineteenth century. According to the official list of buildings of interest, published by the Punjab Government in 1875, the design of the temple, as reconstructed by Ranjit Singh, was borrowed from the shrine of Saint Mian Mir, near Lahore. Louis Rousselet, writing in 1882, regarded it as a "handsome style of architecture". Major Cole described it as an adaptation of Mohammadan styles, flavoured with a good deal of Hindu tradition. Percy Brown considered it to be a product of the synthesis of Hindu and Muslim influences, combined with elaborations that imparted it an appearance of its own. In the opinion of Hermann Goetz, Kangra transformation of Oudh architecture was taken over by the Sikhs and evolved into that wonderful, though occasionally gaudy, Indian ‘rococo’ art often seen in the gurudwaras of Punjab. The architectural prototype of the Golden Temple came into being as an idea combining the dharamshala and the tank envisaged by Guru Arjan, the son and successor of Guru Ram Das. Instead of building the temple on a high plinth in the Hindu style, Guru Arjan had it built in a depression so that worshippers had to go down the steps in order to enter it. Also it had four entrances, symbolic of the new faith which made no distinction between the four Hindu castes. Although there is no written record or contemporary sketch giving the concept of the prototype, it appears to have been, more or less, similar to the present structure dating from 1764, with the greater part of its decoration added in the early years of the nineteenth century. The year 1764 has been ascribed by H. H. Cole in his monograph on the temple .published in 1884. However, in Tawarikh Sri Amritsar, published in 1889, Giani Gian Singh states that the tank, the Hari Mandir, the causeway and Darshani Deorhi were completed in 1776. The main structure rises from the centre of the sacred pool, 150 metres square, approached by a causeway about 60 metres long. An archway on the western side of the pool opens on to the causeway, bordered with balustrades of fretted marble, and, at close intervals, there are standard lamps, their great lanterns set upon marble columns. The 52-metre square-based Hari Mandir, to which the causeway leads, stands on a 20-metre square platform. Its lower parts are of white marble, but the upper parts are covered with plates of gilded copper. In the interior, on the ground floor, is the Guru Granth Sahib, placed under a gorgeous canopy, studded with jewels. On the second storey is a pavilion known as Shish Mahal or Mirror Room, so designed as to have a square opening in the centre to view from there the ground floor, with the further provision of a narrow circumambulatory around the square opening. 91 The interior of the Shish Mahal is ornamented with small pieces of mirror, of various sizes and shapes, skilfully inlaid in the ceiling, and walls richly embellished with designs, mostly floral in character. Further above the Shish Mahal is again a small square pavilion, considerably small both at its base as well as in its elevation, surmounted by a low fluted golden dome, lined at its base with a number of smaller domes. The walls of the two lower storeys, forming parapets, terminate with several rounded pinnacles. There are four chhatris or kiosks at the corners. The combination of several dozens of large, medium and miniature domes of gilded copper create a unique and dazzling effect, enhanced by the reflection in the water below. The typical art and architectural features of the Golden Temple can be summed up as (1) multiplicity of chhatris which ornament the parapets, angles at every prominence or projection; (2) the invariable use of fluted domes covered with gilded copper; (3) balconised windows thrown out on carved brackets or bay-windows with shallow elliptical cornices; and (4) enrichment of walls, arches and ceilings by various forms of mural art. Maharaja Ranjit Singh repaired the principal building in 1802 A.D. This act is commemorated by an inscription over the entrance to the central shrine, which reads: The Great Guru in His wisdom looked upon Maharaja Ranjit Singh as his chief servitor and Sikh, and, in His benevolence, bestowed on him the privilege of serving the temple. To roof the temple with sheets of gilded copper, he donated Rs. 500,000 and the work was executed by Mistri Yar Mohammad Khan, under the supervision of Bhai Sand Singh. The first plate on the temple was fixed in 1803 A.D. The personages who donated for the embellishment of the ceiling on the ground floor included Tara Singh Gheba, Pratap Singh, Jodh Singh and Ganda Singh Peshawari, the last of whom made his contribution in 1823 A.D. The archway under the Darshani Deorhi was embellished with sheets of gilded copper by Sangat Singh, the Raja of Jind. Being the central shrine of the Sikhs, almost every sardar of any pretension contributed to its architectural and decorative additions from time to time. That is why it is not feasible, except for a few date-inscribed works, to make a chronological account of the decorations, murals or other work, in the Golden Temple. The decorations which fall strictly in the category of mural painting are floral patterns interspersed with animal motifs. There are about 300 different patterns on the walls, which, from a distance, look like hung Persian carpets. The naqqashes, or painters, of these patterns had developed a terminology of their own to distinguish various designs. Among these the most prominent is known by the name of Dehin: a medium of expression of the imaginative study of the artist’s own creation of idealised forms. Gharwanjh is the base of Dehin. This is also a decorative device involving knotted grapples between animals. In the Golden Temple are seen Ghawanj showing cobras, lions and elephants clutching one another, carrying flower vases in which fruits and fairies have been depicted. Patta is a 92 decorative border design used around the Dehin and often depicted through creepers. There are also compositions based on aqdatic creatures. The only mural depicting human figures is to be seen on the wall behind the northern narrow stairway leading to the top of the shrine, representing Guru Gobind Singh on horseback. According to the late Bhai Gian Singh Naqqash, it was painted by a Kangra artist specially commissioned by Ranjit Singh for this purpose. It is said to be a true copy of a miniature painting that originally was in the collection of Raja Sansar Chand of Kangra, which Ranjit Singh had intended to get copied in the form of a mural in the Golden Temple. Since the artist of the miniature in question had already died, the mural was executed by the painter’s grandson. The name of the painter, however, is not known. Paintings depicting mythological scenes referred to by H. H. Cole have entirely disappeared. Writing in 1878, W. Wakefield referred to erotic frescoes that covered the walls of the Golden Temple. However, in the absence of any other corroborative observation, his statement is of dubious value. In addition to the work that falls strictly under the category of mural painting, a great volume of similar work in allied arts, loosely coming in the range of mural arts, has been done in the Golden Temple from time to time. This includes the work in embossed copper, gach, tukri, jaratkari and ivory inlay. Most of the exterior upper portions of the walls of the Golden Temple are covered with beaten copper plates, heavily gilded. The raised decorations are mainly floral and abstract, but there are some panels representing the human figure. On the front side, for instance, are two embossed copper panels, the lower representing Guru Nanak flanked by Bala and Mardana, and the upper representing Guru Gobind Singh on horseback. Gach, a sort of stone or gypsum, was treated to form a paste and was applied on the wall like lime. Then it was fashioned out in designs with steel cutters and other implements. Gach work inlaid with coloured glass was known as tukri work and is to be seen in the second storey of the Shish Mahal. Jaratkari work involved the inlaying of coloured cut-stones in marble and is to be found on the lower portion of the exterior walls of the temple. In fact, the work is pietre dure and the inlay consists of semiprecious stones, such as lapis lazuli and onyx. The designs are Mughal in spirit, but the introduction of human figures, never shown in true Mughal decorations, reveals their Sikh origin. The ivory inlay work is to be seen only on the doors of the Darshani Deorhi. The gate is made of shisham wood, the front overlaid with silver, the back inlaid with ivory. The silver-plated front is ornamented only with panels. At the back are square and rectangular panels with geometrical and floral designs, in which are introduced birds, lions, tigers and deer. Some of the ivory inlay is coloured green and red, the effect being, in the words of H. H. Cole, "extremely harmonious." Most of the painters and craftsmen, who worked in various branches of mural arts and its appurtenances in the Golden Temple, remained unknown. Therefore, barring a very few works, it is almost impossible, in the present state of our knowledge, to attribute them to particular painters and craftsmen. The late Bhai Hari Singh, himself an artist, prepared a list consisting of twenty names of painters and craftsmen who worked in the Golden Temple. This list serially 93 included the names of Baba Kishan Singh, Baba Bishan Singh, Kapur Singh, Bhai Kehar Singh, Mahant Ishar Singh, Bhai Sardul Singh, Bhai Jawahar Singh, Bhai Metab Singh, Mistri Jaimal Singh, Bhai Harnam Singh, Bhai Ishar Singh, Bhai Gian Singh, Lal Singh Tarn Taran, Bhai Mangal Singh, Mistri Narain Singh, Mistri Jit Singh, Bhai Atma Singh, Baba Darja Mal and Bhai Vir Singh. A good deal of the old work, particularly mural in character, has disappeared from the precincts of the Golden Temple. Initially, the disappearance of murals started at the close of the nineteenth century, when devotees were permitted to present contributions in the form of inlaid marble slabs, which were fixed on the walls painted with frescoes. The old Bungas of the Golden Temple, which have been demolished, were repositories of splendid paintings. Inside the main Darshani Deorhi, where marble slabs have been fixed, there were fine paintings by Mahant Ishar Singh. Efforts have alsq been made to renovate the decaying paintings in the, temple proper. But there appears not much reason to regret the loss, because, in the words of Michael Edwardes, the Golden Temple "is a symbol, glowing in richness and colour. That richness has, over the years, been constantly renewed, not always perhaps in the best of taste. But the Hari Mandir is not a museum. On the contrary, it is a shrine, part of the essential machinery of a living faith." Art and Architecture of Harimandir Sahib: The Golden Temple - Gateway To Sikhism (allaboutsikhs.com) 94 PART II Sikh Architecture at its very best 95 CHAPTER VI Sikh Architecture at its very best THE GOLDEN TEMPLE COMPLEX, An outline of Sikh architectureby S.S. Bhatti So little has been written about Sikh architecture that it is difficult for anyone to believe that such a style of architecture exists at all. It is ironic that whereas the Sikhs are known the world over for their characteristic vigor, valor, versatility, above all their distinct physical, moral and spiritual identity, their architecture should have remained so abjectly unidentified.This paper attempts to outline the main elements, principles, and objectives of building design with a view to conjuring up an overall picture of a style of architecture which can be doubtlessly called Sikh Architecture. 1 96 This venture will be extended to touch upon another area of architecture which has come to be known as urban design, and whose existence in Sikh architecture can also be substantiated by apt examples.Apart from buildings of religious order, Sikh architecture has secular types of forts, palaces, bungas (residential places), colleges, etc. The religious structure is the gurdwara, a place where the Guru dwells. A gurdwara is not only the all-important building of the Faith, as masjid or mosque of the Islamic faith and mandir or temple of the Hindu religion, but it is also, like its Islamic and Hindu counterparts, the keynote of Sikh architecture. The word gurdwara is compounded of Guru (Guide or Master) and Dwara (Gateway or Seat) and therefore has an architectural connotation. Sikh temples are by and large commemorative buildings connected with the ten Gurus in some way, or with places and events of historical significance. For example, Gurdwara Dera Sahib (Halting place) in Batala in Gurdaspur district was erected to commemorate the brief stay here of Guru Nanak along with the party on the ocassion of his marriage.Gurdwara Shish Mahal (Hall of Mirrors) in Kiratpur in Ropar district was built where the eighth Guru, Harkishan, was born and so on. Gurdwara Shahid Ganj (Martyr's Memorial) in Muktsar in Faridkot district commemorates the place where the dead bodies of the Sikhs, who were killed in the battle between Guru Gobind Singh and the Mughal forces in 1705, were cremated. Gurdwara Ram Sar (God's Pool) in Amritsar stands on a site where the fifth Guru, Arjan Dev, got the Adi Granth compiled by Bhai Gurdas.According to the Sikh faith, while prayers to God can be offered any time and at any place, a gurdwara is built particularly for congregational worship. Even a very small group of devotees living anywhere in the world would generally require a gurdwara to be built so as to get together for religious or even social purposes.The building could be as simple as a temporary shack, or a small room in a house, depending upon the resources of the local community.But the Sikhs would not stint in this matter, and they have thus built several beautiful and imposing gurdwaras some of which can accommodate hundreds of devotees. The main requirement of a gurdwara is that of a room in which the Adi Granth, the Holy Book, can be placed and a small sangat or congregation can be seated to listen to the path or readings from the Holy Book and to sing and recite its verses. The buildings of the Sikh shrines cover a wide spectrum of structures varying from the simple and the austere to the richly embellished and respondent.Gurdwaras have entrances on all the sides signifying that they are open to one and all without any distinction whatsoever.This distinguishing feature also symbolizes the essential tenet of the Sikh faith that God is omnipresent. In some cases, however, space shortage does not permit entry from all the sides, as in Gurdwara Sis Ganj in Delhi.Many Sikh temples have a deorhi, an entrance or gateway, through which one has to pass before reaching the shrine. A deorhi is often an impressive structure with an imposing gateway, and sometimes provides accommodation for office and other use. The visitors get the first glimpse of the sanctum sanctotum from the deorhi.There are over five hundred gurdwaras, big and small, which have an historical past. 97 They are to be found throughout India, although a majority of them are located in the Punjab and its surrounding provinces. Some important gurdwaras also exist in Pakistan, Bangladesh and elsewhere in the world.The buildings of the Sikh shrines, when classified according to their plan, are of four basic types: the square, the rectangular, the octagonal, and the cruciform. On the basis of the number of storeys, gurdwaras have structures, which may be one, two, three, five or nine storeys high. One comes across several interesting variations of gurdwara designs worked out on the permutations and combinations of the aforesaid basic plan and elevation types.A few examples are now given to illustrate the above categories. Darbar Sahib at Dera Baba Nanak in Gurdaspur district is constructed on a square plan and is a single-storeyed structure. Gurdwara Shahid Ganj at Muktsar in Faridkot district has one storey built on a rectangular plan.Examples of this plan shape are extremely rare. Gurdwara Lohgarh in Anandpur Sahib in Ropar district has an octagonal plan and a single-storied elevation. Gurdwara Tamboo (tent) Sahib in Muktsar is a double-storied building constructed on a square plan, on a raised basement. Gurdwara Chobara Sahib (room on terrace) at Goindwal in Amritsar district is a three-storeyed structure elevated on a square plan.Gurdwara Tham Sahib (pillar) at Kartarpur in Jullunder district has a square plan and five storeys.Gurdwara Shadian (martyrs') in Amritsar is a three-storied octagonal structure. Gurdwara Baba Atal Sahib (immutable) in Amritsar, basically a smadh (cenotaph) raised in the memory of Baba Atal, the revered son of the sixth Guru, Hargobind, is a nine storeyed building standing on an octagonal plan. It reminds one of Firoae Minar in Gaur. Gurdwara Dera Baba Gurditta at Kartarpur in Ropar district is a square structure placed on a high plinth, which has a ten-sided plan. This polygonal plan shape is quite unusual.Baolis (stepped wells) are also not uncommon.in.Sikh.architecture. Gurdwara Baoli Sahib at Goindwal in Amritsar district is representative example of such structures, which, for the purpose of this article, belong to the miscellaneous class. Gurdwara Nanak Jhira in Bidar in Karnataka, stands on a cruciform plan.There are five historical shrines which have been given the status of thakats (thrones) where the gurmattas (decisions) of a binding character taken through a consensus of the sangat (congregation) have great importance, affecting as they did the social and political life of the Sikh community. These are: Akal Takht, Amritsar; Harmandir Sahib, Patna, Bihar; Keshgarh Sahib, Anandpur; Damdama Sahib, Talwandi Sabo; and Hazur Sahib, Nanded, Maharashtra.Of these five takhats, the Akal Takhat (Indestructible Throne) is the most important by virtue of its location in Amritsar, the Vatican for the Sikhs.As a rule, a gumbad (dome) is the crowning feature of a gurdwara. Rarely, a shrine may be flat-roofed, as in the case of Gurdwara Guru-ka-Lahore near Anandpur Sahib in Ropar district. Sometimes, a small single roomed shrine is topped by a palaki, a palanquin-like roof, derived from Bengal style of architecture, as can be seen in Gurdwara Tahli Sahib, in village Tahala in Bhatinda district. Gurdwara Bahadur Garh in Patiala has a palaki instead of a dome as its crowning feature.More often than not, a dome is fluted or ribbed but a plane dome has also been 98 used in many cases, as in Manji Sahib at Damdama Sahib in Bhatinda district.Several dome shapes are to be found in Sikh shrines -- hemispherical, three-quarters of a sphere, etc., although the last mentioned is more frequently used. The shape of the dome of Gurdwara Patal Puri at Kiratpur in Ropar district has a remarkable likeness to the domes seen in Bijapur provincial style of architecture.The dome is usually white, and sometimes gilded, as in the Golden Temple at Amritsar, Darbar Sahib at Taran Tarn, and Sis Ganj in Delhi. Alternatively, in some cases, domes have been covered with brass, while in others, at least the finial has been given copper-gilt sheathing. Usually domes on Sikh shrines spring from a floral base, and have inverted lotus symbol top from which rises the kalasa, an ornate finial. Based on Mount Kailasa it shoots up in the form of a cylindrical construction, of ten with some concentric discs, spheroids, culminating in a small canopy with pendants hanging at the outer rim.An interesting point to note is the manner in which the dome is related to the cuboid structure of the shrine. As a rule, the lower part dominates the domical structure and looks somewhat austere in comparison with it. Apart from the larger central dome, there are often four other smaller cupolas, one on each corner of the unusually cuboid structure of the shrine. The parapet may be embellished with several turrets, or small rudimentary domes, or crenellations, or replicas of arcades with domical toppings, or strings of guldastas (bouquets) or similar other embellishments. Minarets - the symbols of royalty - are rarely seen in a Gurdwara.An exception Katal Garh (Place of Execution) at Chamkaur Sahib in Ropar district has several minarets.A recurrent element of gurdwara design is the preferred usage of two storeys to gain sufficient elevation for the shrine. However restrained the design may be, the elevation is usually treated by dividing the facade in accordance with the structural lines of columns, piers and pilasters, with vertical divisions creating areas of well-molded surfaces. The most important division is, of course, the entrance which receives more ornate treatment than other areas. The treatment often creates bas-reliefs of geometrical, floral, and other designs. Where magnificence is the aim, repousse work in brass or copper gilt sheathing is often introduced with a note of extravagance.Jaratkari or in-lay work, gach or plaster-of-Paris work, tukri work, fresco painting, pinjra or lattice work are the techniques used for embellishment of exterior surfaces as well as for interior decoration.Jaratkari is both a very extensive and timeconsuming technique of studding precious and colored stones into marble slabs. The slabs often have florid or geometrical borders, which enclose painstakingly, executed in-lay work using floral shapes and patterns. Beautiful designs are made on the walls with gach, which is subsequently gilded. Excellent examples of this work can be seen in the Golden Temple at Amritsar. Sometimes, the gach work is rended highly ornamental by means of colored and mirrored cut glass as well as precious stones. This is called tukri (small piece) work. Frescoes depicting popular episodes from the lives of the ten Gurus, are to be found in some shrines. Designs employed are based on vine, plant, flower, bird and animal motifs. The largest numbers of such frescoes have been painted on the first floor of Baba Atal at Amritsar. Pinjras or delicate stone grilles are used for screens, enclosures and parapets.Brick, lime mortar as well as 99 lime or gypsum plaster, and lime concrete have been the most favored building materials, although stone, such as red stone and white marble, has also been used in a number of shrines. The latter found use more as cladding or decorative material than for meeting structural needs for well over two hundred years. Nanak Shahi (from the times of Nanak) brick was most commonly used for its intrinsic advantages.It was a kind of brick tile of moderate dimensions used for reinforcing lime concretes in the structural walls and other components, which were generally very thick.The brick-tile made moldings, cornices, plasters, etc., is easy to work into a variety of shapes. More often than not, the structure was a combination of the two systems, viz, trabeated or post-and-lintal, and acerated or based on arches. The surfaces were treated with lime or gypsum plaster which was molded into cornices, pilasters, and other structural as well as non-structural embellishments.Sikh architecture represents the last flicker of religious architecture in India. Golden Temple at Amritsar is most celebrated example as this is one monument in which all the characteristics of the style are fully represented.Golden Temple being the sheet anchor of the stylistic index of Sikh architecture, it may well be to give some details of the revered temple. Almost leviating above and in the middle of an expansive water-body, the 'Pool of Nectar', the Darbar (Court) Sahib, or Harmandir Sahib (Lord's Temple) as it is called, stirs one deeply with glitters of its golden dome, kiesks, parapets, repousse work, and the enchanting evanescence of it's shimmering reflection in the pool. With the temple and tank as the focus, a complex of buildings, most of which repeat in their architectural details the characteristics of the central structure, have come up in the vicinity, in the course of time. The temple has four entrances and is approached by means of a causeway which connects the entrance gateway, darshani deorhi, with the main shrine. The causeway is a marble paved access bordered by latticed balustrades and lamp-posts with elegant copper gilded lanterns at close intervals, and meets the parkarma or circumambulatory. The outer parkarma or promenade of the Holy Tank had a string of bungas, once rooms or halting places built by villages or misals, the Sikh confederacies, for lodging their people during the visits to the shrine. Some of the bungas have now been demolished to widen the parkarma. Over the two-storied structure of the shrine rises a low gilt-metal flutted dome.There are kiesks also with fluted-metal cupolas at each corner while several small domes of similar design embellish the parapet. The first floor is designed as a gallery so that the central part of the shrine has unobstructed two-storey height. Sri Guru Granth Sahib, the Holy Book, is placed at the ground floor, facing the entrance off the causeway, while a small area around it is cordoned off by a row railing.The whole building of Harmandir Sahib is richly ornamented with floral designs, either painted in tempera or embossed in metal. The skillful handling of brass and copper is one of the crafts in which Sikh artisans excel. Golden Temple is the soul-stirring expression of intense religious emotion of the Sikh faith materialized in marble, glass, color and metal. In this respect, it has few equals in the world.Although Sikh architecture undoubtedly originated with the idea of devotion, it had to undergo rigors of compulsively transforming itself into buildings meant for defense purposes. It 100 assumed the character of military fortification, which was reflected in a number of buildings throughout Punjab. Gurdwara Baba Gurditta, Kiratpur, is a representative example of this type of Sikh architecture. With all the paraphernalia of multiple gateways, series of battlemented enclosures, placement of the structure atop a strategic point of a hill, etc., this shrine was virtually transformed into an architectural rendering of a fortification.As conditions became favorable, however, Sikh religion changed its militant posture and assumed the character of an organized institution, with consequent effect on the nature, character and aesthetic of its architecture.As a style, Sikh architecture is essentially eclectic [universal] in nature, which is an appropriate expression of the eclectic content of the Sikh faith itself. It shares its essence with imported monotheism and its lush exuberance with indigenous polytheism. Not only has Sikh architecture thrived at this but also flourished to the extent of working out its own stylistic idiosyncrasies.Pointed, semicircular, elliptical arches, with or without cusps, as well as ogee arches, are the ubiquitous elements of Sikh architecture.Among its typical features are the multiplicity of chattris, kiesks or pevilions, which embellish the parapets, angles, and every prominence and projection; the invariable use of the fluted or ribbed dome generally covered with brass or copper-gilt; the frequent introduction of oriel or embowed windows with shallow elliptical conics and supported on carved brackets; slanting over-hanging eaves also supported on brackets thrown out as an element emphasizing the string-course to decorate the lower structure and the parapet; elliptical eaves with multi-foil seffits a lavish enrichment of all arches by means of numerous foliations; and other structural ornamentation of a similar order. Sikh architecture is a lively blend of the Mughal and Rajput styles.Onion-shaped domes, multifoil arches, paired pilasters, in-lay work, frescoes, etc. are of Mughal extraction, more specially of Shah Jahan's period, while oriel windows, bracket supported eaves at the string-course, chattris, richly ornamented friezes, etc., are derived from elements of Rajput architecture such as is seen in Jaipur, Jodhpur, Bikaner and other places in Rajasthan. Sikh architecture expresses the characteristic resilience of the Sikh spirit and its inviolable freedom to deviate from the artistic exuberance, aesthetic magnificence and creative fullness.The curious mannerist emphasis on creative freedom makes Sikh architecture the Indian Baroque, with its characteristics of sculptured skylines, variegated wall treatments, interesting juxtaposition and or disposition of recesses and projections - at once bold, vigorous, and tastefully sumptuous.Use of water as an element of design has been frequently exploited in Mughal and Hindu architecture, but nowhere in so lively a manner as in Sikh architecture. Water becomes a sine qua non of Sikh architectural design, as in the Golden Temple at Amritsar or Darbar Sahib at Tarn Taran, and not merely an appendage to the main shrine. The gurdwara is placed lower down than the structures in the vicinity [signifying humility], unlike a masjid (mosque) or a mandir (Hindu temple), which are usually placed on raised platforms.With the main shrine as the focus, Sikh architecture has tended to develop into a complex of several buildings serving different functions including residences, offices, museums, community kitchens, etc. 101 These characteristics aptly express the three commandments of the Sikh Faith: working, worshipping and sharing.While sticking to the same basic requirements, different Sikh shrines have developed their own characteristic expression. It may be recalled that most of the Gurdwaras are commemorative buildings, and therefore the sites on which they have been built, had the intrinsic challenges and advantages which were more fortuitous than premeditated.. Most situations have been dealt with remarkable imagination and ingenuity. Eventually, no two shrines look exactly alike although there are exceptions such as Dera Sahib, Lahore, and Panja Sahib, both in Pakistan. Also the low metal-gilt fluted dome of the Golden Temple has been copied in these two shrines as well as in the Darbar Sahib at Tarn Taran. Sometimes, the difference in design is so great that it would be difficult to recognize a Gurdwara if the Sikh standard or Nishan Sahib [Sikh flag] were not there to help in its identification. Some of the Gurdwaras look more like gateways, as is the case with Fatehgarh Sahib (Town of Victory), Sirhind, or like an educational institution, as in the case with Ber (berry) Sahib, Sultanpur Lodhi, or like a Rajput Palace, as in the case of Gurdwara Bahadur Garh (Fort of the Valient) in Patiala district, when one first encounters its enclosing structures. But all this deviation, if somewhat baffling, does not detract one from the essentials of Sikh architecture. On the contrary, it substantiates the very basis of creative freedom on which it is built. As exemplified by Gurdwaras, Sikh Architecture is a veritable artistic expression of the evergreen ebullience of the Sikh way of life - its intensity, open-mindedness, and exuberance. It imparts a dimension of palpable immanence to the Transcendent Principle of Truth on which the Sikh faith is founded.The uniqueness of the Sikh religious thought lies in its willing acceptance of the perennial coexistence of paired opposites like good and evil, virtue and vice, health and disease, life and death, riches and poverty, etc. It is grounded in the domain of the Concrete from where it takes off for an ever-extended adventure into the realm of the Abstract. It encompasses the polychronic, polymorphic and polycreative dimension of the world of relativity and transforms them into the colorless, formless, uncreated self-existence of the ever-abiding Absolute. All this is powerfully expressed in a form of urban design, which is an important dimension of Sikh architecture. The Golden Temple complex at Amritsar is an apt example of excellence in urban design. It performs a variety of functions such as religious, social, cultural and spiritual. It's location is in the heart of the walled city, where it dwells in the midst of the entire civic organism with all its vital organs, veins and arteries. From the narrow lanes, among which are some handshake bazaars, which links it to the various parts of the city, one enters the grand, mystifying openness and splendor of Darbar Sahib complex. The access to the complex (and then to the main shrine) expresses the Sikh faith's willing acceptance of this world as it is, and symbolizes the progressive quest of the human spirit towards communion with God. The whole charm of spiritual experience lies in such exploration and should never be obvious. All such elements of curiosity, surprise, anticipation, encounter, excitement and fulfillment were there in the original city plan.Unfortunately, all these are being systematically destroyed in the name of urban renewal and redevelopment by widening roads and building the so-called modern 102 structures. Once the Golden Temple becomes visible from various sides, as it seems is now intended, it will lose much of its expressive magnificence. The obvious can never be grand! Must we therefore, not save it from irreparable damage that planning would without doubt cause to it in a big way.There is a variety of scattered evidence that structures other than Gurdwaras still exists, if in a state of utter neglect, here and there, on this side and across the border, which were/are significant contributions of Sikh architecture to the art and science of building. For instance, it has been reliably learnt that Hari Singh Nalwa built a 14-storeyed structure with additional three in the basement (taikhanas) for use during summer. Only four storeys now survive.It is said that the (taikhanas were cold enough for use of blankets even when there was sweltering heat outside. If it could be established that such a structure did come up in the first quarter of the 19th century, Sikh architecture would have the proud privilege of having put up the first skyscraper of the world. History has recorded that the age of the skyscraper began when Home Insurance building, a ten storied structure was constructed in Chicago towards the end of the 19th century.It is thus reasonable to surmise that a rich repertoire of buildings, which through their distinctive character belong to Sikh architecture, can be reconstructed through proper search and research in the field, which has hitherto remained neglected for various reasons. Undoubtedly, there is an urgent need for exhaustive documentation, in-depth study and thorough research in the field of Sikh Architecture (and Art). There is also a need for preserving our tradition, and for extending it through a continued process of modernization. As members of a young and living faith, we owe it to posterity. References: 1. 1https://www.thesikhencyclopedia.com/architecture/sikh-architecture 2. Arshi, Pardeep Singh, Sikh Architecture in the Punjab, Ph.D Thesis, 1980, Chandigarh. 3. Brown, Percy, Indian Architecture (Islamic Period), Fifth Edition, 1965, Bombay. 4. Brown, Percy, Indian Architecture (Hindu and Buddhist Period), Fifth Edition, 1965, Bombay. 5. . Singh, Mehar, Sikh Shrines In India, Publications Division, Government of India, 1974, New Delhi.5 Marg, Volume XXX, Number 3, June 1977, Bombay. 103 CHAPTER VII SIKH ARCHITECTURE Sikh Architecture is a style of architecture that is characterized with values of progressiveness, exquisite intricacy, austere beauty and logical flowing lines. Due to its progressive style, it is constantly evolving into many newly developing branches with new contemporary styles. Although Sikh architecture was initially developed within Sikhism its style has been used in many non-religious buildings due to its beauty. 300 years ago, Sikh architecture was distinguished for its many curves and straight lines; Shri Keshgarh Sahib and the Sri Harmandir Sahib (Golden Temple) are prime examples. Sikh Architecture is heavily influenced by Mughal and Islamic styles. The onion dome, frescoes, in-lay work, and multi-foil arches, are Mughal influences, more specially from Shah Jahan's period, whereas chattris, oriel windows, bracket supported eaves at the string-course, and ornamented friezes are derived from elements of Rajput architecture. Apart from religious buildings, Sikh architecture includes secular forts, bungas (residential places), palaces, and colleges. The religious structure is called gurdwara (a place where the Guru dwells). The word gurdwara is a compound of guru (guide or master) and dwara (gateway or seat). So, it has an architectural connotation. Sikh gurdwaras are generally commemorative buildings connected with the ten gurus in some way, or with places and events of historical significance. Some examples are Gurdwara Dera Sahib (halting place), in Batala in Gurdaspur district. It was erected in memory of the brief stay of Guru Nanak along with his companions on the occasion of his marriage. Gurdwara Shahid Ganj (Martyr's Memorial) in Muktsar in Faridkot district commemorates the cremation spot of Sikhs who were killed in a battle between Guru Gobind Singh and the Mughals in 1705. Gurdwara Shish Mahal (hall of mirrors) in Kiratpur in Ropar district was made where Guru Har Kisan was born. There are over 500 historical gurdwaras. Exterior of the Gurdwara Baba Atal, located in Amritsar, India. 104 By Sikh Architecture what has been meant is precisely the religious buildings of the faith. In other words these buildings which have served the religious-ritualistic and devotional functions of the Sikh community. Anywhere in the world we can spot a Sikh temple as a building apart from others. It has its own flag mast (nishan sahib) draped in yellow or blue with triangular flag with the Sikh insignia fluttering in the breeze. Its dome is different from domes of mosques or Hindu temples, so are its arches, balconies, columns, interiors and general layout. Golden Temple, Amritsar: Magnificent And Divine Footprint Of Sikh Architecture India Architecture News - May 19, 2018 - 01:08 Flip 17814 Views Architecture that is UNIQUE: India is a vast country with rich past and glorious heritage, witnessing a blend of cultures from all over the world. Many great civilizations dwelled and survived; great rulers ruled and revered saints worshiped here. The great history of our country with deep-rooted legacy is replete with milestones and footprints of the creators of history, and all of this shines brightly in our lives. India has much to boast about, and most of all, its magnificent architectural heritage. One such building that has an enchanting mark in all minds is The Golden Temple. The Golden Temple, also referred to as ‘Sachkhand’, ‘abode of God’, is a marvel of excellence that bejewels the sparkling legacy of the Indian architecture. Located in the holy city Amritsar (Punjab), the monument is a living example of spiritual and historical Sikh traditions, portraying Sikh architecture, which serves as a source of inspiration to the entire Sikh community as well as to the architects. 105 The monument has some unique construction influences that combine Muslim, Hindu, and European design principles. Each element of elegance that marks this distinctive monument has its own saga of history to tell. The interior and the exterior works, the entrances, the darshani deodi, the holy pool that surrounds the Gurudwara: all unfold a unique style—a style in imaginative, rebellious and worthy minds and genes of the Sikh gurus who created it. Today, Golden Temple stands unparalleled as an epitome of faith, sacrifice, and divinity; most importantly, it stands as an inspiration and motivation to the budding architects. Photos courtesy of Pappal Suneja Through the corridors of history, it is revealed that the temple that we see today is not exactly what it was built decades ago. It was pulled down many times, each time to rebuild with renewed zeal and energy. The original structure in the middle was modest in scale and rebuilt with simple materials like burnt brick and lime. The gurus wanted its design to reflect the directness, simplicity, and serenity that according to them were the characteristics of the Sikh beliefs; thus, concentrating on creating a home that receives the dweller's impression. During the reign of Maharaja Ranjit Singh, the temple received its architectural garnishing which includes gold plating, fresco work, marble work, mirror work, inlay etc. The devotees spent lavishly to enhance its magnificence by giving it a more artistic look. So it was after this phase that the temple received the distinctions of leaving its footprint in the era of architecture and art. The history of the temple is still shrouded in mystery; but it is believed that Guru Amardass Ji chalked out the plan to excavate the holy tank, whereas Guru Ramdas Ji executed the basic plan, under the guidance of Baba Buddha Ji; finally, Guru Arjun Dev Ji completed it. The location of the temple in the middle of the 106 Sarovar symbolizes the origin of Nirgun and Sargun i.e. the spiritual and temporal realms of human existence. Photos courtesy of global-gallivanting.com The abode of God, Harmandir Sahib, has four entrances, welcoming people from all lifestyles without any distinction based on caste, color, creed, sex or religion. Guru Ji reversed the prevalent practice of designing high temple plinths by building Harmandir Sahib at a level lower than its surrounding land. The person descending the stairs experiences the feeling of strength that comes from the first view of Darbar Sahib. There, shimmering in the hallowed pool stands redoubtable Harmandir Sahib. It takes a while to absorb the scene, to come to grips with the long-awaited sight that every devotee has yearned for. The clockwise circumambulation to Harmandir Sahib alongside the hallowed pool gives time for contemplation for the necessary spiritual re-orientation. The visual relationship of the pool with the Harmandir Sahib in its center, the length of the causeway, connecting the shrine to the circumambulation (parikrama), all seem to be a part of a rational progression. It is easy to relate to it, since neither the scale of circumambulation (parikrama) nor the buildings surrounding it appear to dominate, giving an excellent example of an open built relationship. Photos courtesy of transindiatravels.com 107 The Golden Temple, today, warmly hosts a large number of pilgrims with its pristine beauty. Faith has no bounds, no limits; people frequently visit this place in order to quench their devotional thirst and find peace of mind and soul. The divine magnetic spell of Gurbani introduces a new stream of spiritual energy feeding their faith and devotion. The sense of security, warmth, belief, and purity that lingers in the environment of the temple and the unearthly aroma that surrounds it, contrasts the polluted and congested city outside. The Golden Temple welcomes many pilgrims, offers them langar, and most importantly, arises in them the feeling and satisfaction of being at home and close to the Almighty. Many devotees voluntarily offer their services (Seva) for maintaining cleanliness, preparing langar, washing dishes and what not. How langar is prepared and served to the large masses that visit Golden Temple daily remains a mystery, when the number reaches a hundred thousand each day. It, surely, is a home away from home that has a lot to offer, something very far from this materialistic physical world, something very divine and spiritual, and something that can truly be defined as an eternal bliss. So, in the nutshell, we can only agree with the saying crafted for this place. Photos courtesy of bombayjules.blogspot.in The Architecture of Gurudwaras The buildings of the Sikh Shrines could be classified into two categories on the two fundamental principles i.e. the ground plan and the elevation. In the ground floor s many as four basic types of formation could be seen-the square, the rectangular, the octagonal and the cruciform. Similarly in elevation, 5 different types of can be noticed with the number of storeys i.e. 1, 2, 3, 5, 9 storeys. 1. Sikh Architecture at its very best THE GOLDEN TEMPLE COMPLEX, AMRITSAR 2. By Sikh Architecture what has been meant is precisely the religious buildings of the faith. In other words these buildings which have served the religious-ritualistic and devotional functions of the Sikh community. Anywhere in the world we can spot a Sikh temple as a building apart from others. It has its own flag mast (nishan sahib) draped in yellow or blue with triangular flag with the Sikh insignia fluttering in the breeze. Its dome is different from domes of mosques or Hindu temples, so are its arches, balconies, columns, interiors and general layout. 3. The Architecture of Gurudwaras The buildings of the Sikh Shrines could be classified into two categories on the two fundamental principles i.e. the ground plan and the elevation. In the ground floor s many as four basic types of formation could be seenthe square, the rectangular, the octagonal and the cruciform. Similarly in elevation, 5 different types of can be noticed with the number of storeys i.e. 1, 2, 3, 5, 9 storeys. 4. SRI AKAL TAKHAT, AMRITSAR • Opposite the Golden Temple, Amritsar, on the western corner of the marble paved courtyard, stands Sri Akal Takhat, the highest Temporal seat of the Sikhs. • The building of Sri Akal Takhat is a five storeyed structure with a dome at the top. The façade of the monument consisting of four stories including the basement has a semicircular orientation. Architecturally speaking the monument is quite complicated in its details of composition and layout. • The ground floor • larger platform having one hall underneath, with only one opening in the northern side. • The hall is flanked by stairways on its northern and southern side leading to the first floor. • The façade has an attached pillared marble portico, cusped arch opening on a raise plinth in its central part. 108 5. The first floor • Divided into three parts. It consists of a central hall and rooms on both the northern and southern sides. • The façade of the central hall has three openings formed by two pillars. • On both the sides of this central opening, there are two chambers having openings to the east and to the central hall. • The second floor • Repeats the same scheme of the first floor. • It has same rooms in the south and a gallery in the form of a rectangular room on the northern side. • The facade of this floor is in the form of a gallery formed by side chambers and central pillared openings of the type similar to that of the lower storey • The façade terminates into projected eave, supported by decorative brackets & is surmounted by parapet. • A flight of steps spirals in the western wall upto the top 6. Golden fluted dome Octagonal kiosks on octagonal minarets Decorative eave surmounting marble parapet Pillared marble portico on raised plinth THE AKAL TAKHAT 7. The third floor • A large hall formed by cusped arches and square pillars, and galleries on all sides. • In the façade, there are nine cusped arched openings • The façade terminates into a projected eave supported on pairs of decorative brackets. • Two beautiful octagonal minarets, each supporting an octagonal kiosk surmounted by domes are there on N-E and S-E corner of the floor. • The fourth floor • It is an extension of the lower central hall and has three foliated arched openings on each of its sides. • Each of its four corners has a pilaster. • The room is decorated with a projected ornamental eaveand a kiosk on each corner. • Finally, there springs a graceful fluted dome with lotus petal base on a circular drum. It is surmounted by an inverted lotus which supports a big Kalasa. 8. GURUDWARA BABA ATAL, AMRITSAR • The Gurudwara Baba Atal is basically a smadh (cenotaph) to the memory of Baba Atal, the revered son of the sixth Guru, Har Gobind. It is located to the S-W of the Golden Temple, Amritsar. • The monument of Baba Atal is the highest building in the city of Amritsar. It is 150 feet high. • It is constructed on an octagonal plan. A larger octagonal structure encloses another structure of the same plan upto the sixth storey, thus leaving circumambulatory path in between. • The inner sanctuary, where the Holy Granth is enshrined rises upto • Ninth storey surmounted by the fluted gilded dome. • The outer structure has four rectangular gates, one in each alternate side. The exterior walls are relieved by various decorative patterns. • There are 2 stairways on northern and southern walls leading upto the sixth storey. 9. The most interesting feature is the projected balconies supported on brackets throughout the exterior walls. • The top of the 6th storey is in the form of an open octagonal space guarded by balustrade supported on number of pairs of decorative brackets and surmounted by an iron railing. • The 7th stage does not have any opening on the exterior excepting a perforated screen throughout. • The 8th stage has one arched opening on each of its sides • The 9th stage has one arched opening in each of its alternate facets, the remaining ones have windows or projected balconies. • Finally, there springs the graceful fluted dome with the inverted lotus supporting Kalasa in the centre. • Within the premises, there is a large tank named Kaulsar, in the west, and also the mausoleums of Nawab Kapoor Singh, S.Jassa Singh and of other sardars. 109 10. Kaulsar Sarovar Window detail Gurudwara Baba Atal 11. GOLDEN TEMPLE, AMRITSAR • The Golden Temple, known as the Darbar Sahib or the Hari Mandir, is the most celebrated Sikh shrine situated in Amritsar. • The foundation stone was laid by HazratMian Mir of Lahore, a friend and admirer of Guru Arjan, in 1588A.D. • The major dates known for construction and reconstruction are as follows: • The first construction took place sometimes between 1588 and 1604A.D. • Subsequent reconstruction took place between 1764 and 1776A.D., following attacks by Ahmad Shah Abdali. • Renovation, and perhaps a major change in the design and fabric, was done by Maharaja Ranjit Singh starting from 1802 and continued through 1839A.D. 12. ARCHITECTURAL DETAILS • It is a 3 storeyed square building with an additional 2-storeyed building of half-hexagon shape appended to the back, thus the ground floor plan is like a hexa-square. • The main building is surmounted by a central domical structure and kiosks at the cardinal sides. • The building is placed on a square platform in the centre of a square tank, crossed over, in the western side, by a causeway terminating into double storeyed entrance pavillion with an imposing archway. • The sides of the square platform of the temple serve as the Parikrama and a similar function is served by the paved paths of the tank. • The arched pavillion serves as the entrance gateway (Darshini Deorhi) for an access into the causeway leading to the temple. 13. Northern Gateway • The entrance to the precincts of Hari Mandir, is obtained from the northern side through a three storeyed structure, surmounted by a domical member. • The ground floor is divided into three section by two rows of square pillars. • Stairs leading to the upper storeys have been provide in both the sides of the entrance. • The first floor consists of a big hall which serves as a Central Sikh museum. There are projected balconies on northern and southern sides of this floor. • The second floor consists of a small room erected exactly on the central four pillars. • The third storey has been built exactly on the walls of the second storey. There are three rectangular windows in its each wall over which is fixed a clock on each of its sides. • On each corner there is a small kiosk. At the top is fluted dome with lotus petal base fixed on a circular drum. 14. The Southern & Eastern Gateways • The southern gateway is identical to the northern gateway in architectural design. • The eastern gateway has a big archway as the main architectural feature • The tank of Immorality • The tank or Sarovar is a rectangle, measuring 510’x490’ and is 17’ deep. • The main source of water for the tank is through a canal dug from river Ravi in 1778A.D. • The banks of the tank which serve as pradakshina is paved with marble on all sides. • To avoid any accident, or to prevent people from going deep in the tank, perforated marble walls have been put in the water. 15. Darshini Gate • On the western banks of the tank is a two storeyed building known as Darshini Deorhi. The whole building can be divided into three parts i.e. the central archway, northern and southern wings. • The ground floor has the management offices in the side wings of central doorway • The Darshini Gate is 66’ in length and 36’ in width. The ante chamber in which the ate opens is 25’ in length and 14’6” in width. • 110 The first floor contains the Tosha Khanna (temple treasury). It has 3 openings on each side of its side winga, both in western and eastern facades. In the centre, on both the facades, there is a bi projected balcony. • At the top are 4 chhatris, one each in the middle of all four sides • All the chhatris are roofed with decorative fluted domical tops with Kalasas on inverted lotus base at the top. 16. The Causeway • The causeway or bridge that leads to the Hari Mandir is 202’10”long and 21’ wide. • It is constructed in the pool of Nectar. • The bridge is constructed on 8 large and 35 small spans, which are known as Swarg Dwaries. • Ten golden lanterns supported on tapering fluted marble pillars decorate both the sides of the causeway. These pillars are joined by lattice balustrades on both the sides. • The bridge was constructed by Mohd. Yar and his brothers of Amritsar who were well reputed masons and craftsmen of Maharaja Ranjit Singh’s time. Pradakshina The bridge is connected with the 13’11”wide circumambulatory path which runs the main shrine, measuring 68’2” each side. 17. Har Ki Pauri • A two storeyed structure appended on the eastern side of the temple is an irregular quadrangular in plan. This is known as Har Ki Pauri. • In the centre of the structure, is 8’10” wide entrance to reach the pool of Nectar. • In northern and southern wings of the central entrance stairs have been provided which move in circular plan upto the top of the temple with terminal openings in the first floor. • The first floor is a large pavillion, supported and formed by semi-circular arches. • It is beautifully decorated with gold and mirror work in all its sides including cielings. • It is roofed with fluted dome with the usual Kalasa motif at the top. 18. Main Sanctuary • The main sanctuary of the Hari Mandir is a square edifice of 40’4”x40’4” in dimensions erected on a square platform of 64’ side. • The building has one rectangular doorway from each of its four sides. • The doors of eastern and Western were plated with silver by Maharaja Ranjit Singh in 1830A.D. • Stairways spiral to the thickness of wall in the northern side upto the top with terminal in the first floor. • The parapet of the sanctuary has been decorated with small turrets, 58 in number, with their individual square base of 2’ in side. • The four architectural members in the four corners re crowned with cupolas. • The cupolas are roofed with fluted domes, surmounted by Kalasa on the inverted lotus base. • The cupolas on the Har Ki Pauri are octagonal with eight openings • Exactly on the top of central hall of main sanctuary, is the third storey in the form of a square room having three gates. 19. Finally there springs the low fluted gumbaz having lotus petal motif in relief at the base and inverted lotus at the top, which supports the Kalasa having a beautiful chhatri at the end. • The dome at its base has a series of small turrets, 36 in number, and one kiosk in each corner. View from southern gateway 20. Sri Akal Takhat Main sanctuary Darshini gate The causeway pradakshina Har Ki Pauri Nishan Sahib Amrit Sarovar 21. The Decoration and Ornamentation Golden Temple • The Hari Mandir is decorated in such a marvelous manner that there is no other building which can be compared to its grandeur. • The beautification of the Hari Mandir was taken in hand by Maharaja Ranjit Singh. • The whole work of gold plating was executed by Mistri Mohammad Yar Khan of Amritsar. • The lower walls of the whole edifice of the temple are faced 111 with marble slabs with arabseques of conventional flower sprays in precious stones of different colors and shades. 22. The inlay work of floral decoration on the walls in the ground floor was executed by the Muslim masons from Chaniot under the supervision of Badaru-Mohiudin, the Chief Architect. • The interior of the Hari Mandir is exquisitely • beautified and ornamented with floral designs. • The embellishments of the cielings of Darshini • Gate was done by Raja Sangat Singh of Jind. • There are abut 300 different designs on walls • of Golden Temple • The only surviving mural can be seen on the lintel of northern stairways of the first floor. Darshini Gate ceiling 23. Gurudwara Baba Atal, Amritsar • The ground floor Pradakshina and the first floor are beautifully embellished with fresco painting. • The roof of the circumambulatory is beautified in Gach technique. • The first floor is decorated with paintings from the life of Guru Nanak. • The archway or Deorhi contains paintings in their original form and colors. • Large panels illustrate scenes from the life of Guru Nanak and Baba Atal Rai. 24. Sri Akal Takhat, Amritsar The interior of the first storey of Sri Akal Takhat has been beautified on the pattern of the Golden Temple, Amritsar. The second storey of the north wing was adorned with paintings depicting themes from Sikh History. Techniques Gach Work: Gach was a sort of gypsum or stone. This was propounded & fried in pan. When it formed a paste being mixed with water, it was put to use on walls like lime. Tukri Work: Tukri work is another kind of Gach work. It involves the setting of the pieces of glass of various sizes in the cut clay work. Colored glass, mirror, glass pieces and gold leaves were used. Jarat Kari: It involves the in-laying of colored stone in marble. The designs are prepared by artists and transferred to marble slabs. The multi-colored stones were then cut in that pattern. 25. Architectural Features The Dome: Almost all important Sikh shrines have an imposing visual effect because of the types and forms of the domes. The dome of Golden Temple, Amritsar is unique not only in view of its imposing size and dignified grandeur but also due to interesting formation of its domical superstructure. The dome represents the synthesis of all important characteristics of the shape and details of ornamentation noticed in the domes of other shrines. 26. The Kiosk: The Sikh shrines have number of subsidery structres in the form of Kiosks. The most common type of a kiosk is a square miniature room crowned by a domical member. The room normally has the walls disposed into number of entrances , often with arched or foliated upper portion. The maximum number of entrances is however 3 on each side. Kiosk at N. gateway Kiosk& dome- main sanctuary The Golden Temple has kiosks of octagonal, rectangular and square form. Varieties of kiosks can be seen in Sri Akal Takhat also. 27. The Balconied Windows A very distinctive characteristic of Sikh Shrines is represented by the balconied windows. Several varieties of windows could be noticed in Sikh monuments. Window detail(Baba Atal) Window at N. gateway Bay window at golden temple 28. The Arches: Sikh shrines offer interesting varieties in respect of the types and forms of the arches. The most common, perhaps the foremost popular, type of arch is 112 represented by foliations or cusps. The number of cusps is invariably found to be nine. Arches along Parikrama 29. The Pillars and Pilasters: One of the major distinctive features of Sikh shrines seems to be the presence of pillars and pilasters. capital base The shafts are mostly plain, without any carving, except the vertical lines of accession. The capitals consists of floral or foliage designs. SRI AKAL TAKHAT, AMRITSAR Opposite the Golden Temple, Amritsar, on the western corner of the marble paved courtyard, stands Sri Akal Takhat, the highest Temporal seat of the Sikhs. The building of Sri Akal Takhat is a five storeyed structure with a dome at the top. The façade of the monument consisting of four stories including the basement has a semicircular orientation. Architecturally speaking the monument is quite complicated in its details of composition and layout. The ground floor • larger platform having one hall underneath, with only one opening in the northern side. • The hall is flanked by stairways on its northern and southern side leading to the first floor. • The façade has an attached pillared marble portico, cusped arch opening on a raise plinth in its central part. The first floor • Divided into three parts. It consists of a central hall and rooms on both the northern and southern sides. • The façade of the central hall has three openings formed by two pillars. • On both the sides of this central opening, there are two chambers having openings to the east and to the central hall. The second floor • Repeats the same scheme of the first floor. • It has same rooms in the south and a gallery in the form of a rectangular room on the northern side. • The facade of this floor is in the form of a gallery formed by side chambers and central pillared openings of the type similar to that of the lower storey • The façade terminates into projected eave, supported by decorative brackets & is surmounted by parapet. • A flight of steps spirals in the western wall upto the top Pillared marble portico on raised plinth THE AKAL TAKHAT Golden fluted dome Octagonal kiosks on octagonal minarets Decorative eave surmounting marble parapet.The third floor • A large hall formed by cusped arches and square pillars, and galleries on all sides. • In the façade, there are nine cusped arched openings • The façade terminates into a projected eave supported on pairs of decorative brackets. • Two beautiful octagonal minarets, each supporting an octagonal kiosk surmounted by domes are there on N-E and S-E corner of the floor. The fourth floor • It is an extension of the lower central hall and has three foliated arched openings on each of its sides. • Each of its four corners has a pilaster. • The room is decorated with a projected ornamental eaveand a kiosk on each corner. Finally, there springs a graceful fluted dome with lotus petal base on a circular drum. It is surmounted by an inverted lotus which supports a big Kalasa. GURUDWARA BABA ATAL, AMRITSAR The Gurudwara Baba Atal is basically a smadh (cenotaph) to the memory of Baba Atal, the revered son of the sixth Guru, Har Gobind. It is located to the S-W of the Golden Temple, Amritsar. • The monument of Baba Atal is the highest building in the city of Amritsar. It is 150 feet high. • It is constructed on an octagonal plan. A larger octagonal structure encloses another structure of the same plan upto the sixth storey, thus leaving circumambulatory path in between. • The inner sanctuary, where the Holy Granth is 113 enshrined rises upto Ninth storey surmounted by the fluted gilded dome. • The outer structure has four rectangular gates, one in each alternate side. The exterior walls are relieved by various decorative patterns. • There are 2 stairways on northern and southern walls leading upto the sixth storey. The most interesting feature is the projected balconies supported on brackets throughout the exterior walls. • The top of the 6th storey is in the form of an open octagonal space guarded by balustrade supported on number of pairs of decorative brackets and surmounted by an iron railing. • The 7th stage does not have any opening on the exterior excepting a perforated screen throughout. • The 8th stage has one arched opening on each of its sides • The 9th stage has one arched opening in each of its alternate facets, the remaining ones have windows or projected balconies. Finally, there springs the graceful fluted dome with the inverted lotus supporting Kalasa in the centre. Within the premises, there is a large tank named Kaulsar, in the west, and also the mausoleums of Nawab Kapoor Singh, S.Jassa Singh and of other sardars. Gurudwara Baba Atal Kaulsar Sarovar Window detail GOLDEN TEMPLE, AMRITSAR The Golden Temple, known as the Darbar Sahib or the Hari Mandir, is the most celebrated Sikh shrine situated in Amritsar. The foundation stone was laid by Hazrat Mian Mir of Lahore, a friend and admirer of Guru Arjan, in 1588A.D. The major dates known for construction and reconstruction are as follows: • The first construction took place sometimes between 1588 and 1604A.D. • Subsequent reconstruction took place between 1764 and 1776A.D., following attacks by Ahmad Shah Abdali. • Renovation, and perhaps a major change in the design and fabric, was done by Maharaja Ranjit Singh starting from 1802 and continued through 1839A.D. ARCHITECTURAL DETAILS • It is a 3 storeyed square building with an additional 2-storeyed building of half-hexagon shape appended to the back, thus the ground floor plan is like a hexasquare. • The main building is surmounted by a central domical structure and kiosks at the cardinal sides. • The building is placed on a square platform in the centre of a square tank, crossed over, in the western side, by a causeway terminating into double storeyed entrance pavillion with an imposing archway. • The sides of the square platform of the temple serve as the Parikrama and a similar function is served by the paved paths of the tank. • The arched pavillion serves as the entrance gateway (Darshini Deorhi) for an access into the causeway leading to the temple. Northern Gateway The entrance to the precincts of Hari Mandir, is obtained from the northern side through a three storeyed structure, surmounted by a domical member. • The ground floor is divided into three section by two rows of square pillars. • Stairs leading to the upper storeys have been provide in both the sides of the entrance. • The first floor consists of a big hall which serves as a Central Sikh museum. There are projected balconies on northern and southern sides of this floor. The second floor consists of a small room erected exactly on the central four pillars. • The third storey has been built exactly on the walls of the second storey. There are three rectangular 114 windows in its each wall over which is fixed a clock on each of its sides. • On each corner there is a small kiosk. At the top is fluted dome with lotus petal base fixed on a circular drum. 1. The Southern & Eastern Gateways • The southern gateway is identical to the northern gateway in architectural design. • The eastern gateway has a big archway as the main architectural feature The tank of Immorality • The tank or Sarovar is a rectangle, measuring 510’x490’ and is 17’ deep. • The main source of water for the tank is through a canal dug from river Ravi in 1778A.D. • The banks of the tank which serve as pradakshina is paved with marble on all sides. • To avoid any accident, or to prevent people from going deep in the tank, perforated marble walls have been put in the water. 2. Darshini Gate On the western banks of the tank is a two storeyed building known as Darshini Deorhi. The whole building can be divided into three parts i.e. the central archway, northern and southern wings. • The ground floor has the management offices in the side wings of central doorway • The Darshini Gate is 66’ in length and 36’ in width. The ante chamber in which the ate opens is 25’ in length and 14’6” in width. • The first floor contains the Tosha Khanna (temple treasury). It has 3 openings on each side of its side winga, both in western and eastern facades. In the centre, on both the facades, there is a bi projected balcony. • At the top are 4 chhatris, one each in the middle of all four sides • All the chhatris are roofed with decorative fluted domical tops with Kalasas on 115 inverted lotus base at the top. 3. The Causeway • The causeway or bridge that leads to the Hari Mandir is 202’10”long and 21’ wide. • It is constructed in the pool of Nectar. • The bridge is constructed on 8 large and 35 small spans, which are known as Swarg Dwaries. • Ten golden lanterns supported on tapering fluted marble pillars decorate both the sides of the causeway. These pillars are joined by lattice balustrades on both the sides. • The bridge was constructed by Mohd. Yar and his brothers of Amritsar who were well reputed masons and craftsmen of Maharaja Ranjit Singh’s time. Pradakshina The bridge is connected with the 13’11”wide circumambulatory path which runs the main shrine, measuring 68’2” each side. 4. A two storeyed structure appended on the eastern side of the temple is an irregular quadrangular in plan. This is known as Har Ki Pauri. • In the centre of the structure, is 8’10” wide entrance to reach the pool of Nectar. • In northern and southern wings of the central entrance stairs have been provided which move in circular plan upto the top of the temple with terminal openings in the first floor. • The first floor is a large pavillion, supported and formed by semi- circular arches. • It is beautifully decorated with gold and mirror work in all its sides including cielings. • It is roofed with fluted dome with the usual Kalasa motif at the top. Har Ki Pauri 116 5. Main Sanctuary • The main sanctuary of the Hari Mandir is a square edifice of 40’4”x40’4” in dimensions erected on a square platform of 64’ side. • The building has one rectangular doorway from each of its four sides. • The doors of eastern and Western were plated with silver by Maharaja Ranjit Singh in 1830A.D. • Stairways spiral to the thickness of wall in the northern side upto the top with terminal in the first floor. • The parapet of the sanctuary has been decorated with small turrets, 58 in number, with their individual square base of 2’ in side. • The four architectural members in the four corners re crowned with cupolas. • The cupolas are roofed with fluted domes, surmounted by Kalasa on the inverted lotus base. • The cupolas on the Har Ki Pauri are octagonal with eight openings • Exactly on the top of central hall of main sanctuary, is the third storey in the form of a square room having three gates. 6. Finally there springs the low fluted gumbaz having lotus petal motif in relief at the base and inverted lotus at the top, which supports the Kalasa having a beautiful chhatri at the end. • The dome at its base has a series of small turrets, 36 in number, and one kiosk in each corner. View from southern gateway 7. Main sanctuary The causeway Darshini gate Sri Akal Takhat Har Ki Pauri Amrit Sarovar Nishan Sahibpradakshina 8. The Decoration and Ornamentation Golden Temple The Hari Mandir is decorated in such a marvelous manner that there is no other building which can be compared to its grandeur. • The beautification of the Hari Mandir was taken in hand by Maharaja Ranjit Singh. • The whole work of gold plating was executed by Mistri Mohammad Yar Khan of Amritsar. • The lower walls of the whole edifice of the temple are faced with marble slabs with arabseques of conventional flower sprays in precious stones of different colors and shades. 117 Golden Temple (Sri Harmandir Sahib) Sikh Art | Gold Embossed Work in Golden Temple Sikh Art and Architecture 118 Harmandir is not only a place for mental solace, it provides the rarest of art work to the visitors and art lovers visiting this shrine. The art displayed here is neither a copy of Islamic art or Hindu traditional art but a rare work of craftsmanship of fine art by Sikh Artists. In Harmandir Sahib one can find :   The Gold Embossed Work The Inlay Work The Gold Embossed Work Gold Embossed Work 119 \All the domes of Harmandir, inner walls, the door panels exhibit gold work. Special designs have been given to the copper sheets and then they have been covered with gold leaves. This work is also on the inner roofs. The Inlay Work 120 The beautiful designs depicting, birds, animals, flowers have been engraved in marble and then studded with colorful semi precious stones, that come out to be a great art work. In the art work at Harmandir one can find life everywhere in shape of human beings, birds, animals and flowers. The inlay work of floral decoration on the walls in the ground floor was executed by the Muslim masons from Chaniot under the supervision of Badaru-Mohiudin, the Chief Architect. • The interior of the Hari Mandir is exquisitely beautified and ornamented with floral designs. The embellishments of the cielings of Darshini Gate was done by Raja Sangat Singh of Jind. There are abut 300 different designs on walls of Golden Temple. The only surviving mural can be seen on the lintel of northern stairways of the first floor.Darshini Gate ceiling Gurudwara Baba Atal, Amritsar. The ground floor Pradakshina and the first floor are beautifully embellished with fresco painting. The roof of the circumambulatory is beautified in Gach technique. The first floor is decorated with paintings from the life of Guru Nanak. The archway or Deorhi contains paintings in their original form and colors. Large panels illustrate scenes from the life of Guru Nanak and Baba Atal Rai. Sri Akal Takhat, Amritsar The interior of the first storey of Sri Akal Takhat has been beautified on the pattern of the Golden Temple, Amritsar. The second storey of the north wing was adorned with paintings depicting themes from Sikh History. Techniques Gach Work: Gach was a sort of gypsum or stone. This was propounded & fried in pan. When it formed a paste being mixed with water, it was put to use on walls like lime. Tukri Work: Tukri work is another kind of Gach work. It involves the setting of the pieces of glass of various sizes in the cut clay work. Colored glass, mirror, glass pieces and gold leaves were used. Jarat Kari: It involves the in-laying of colored stone in marble. The designs are prepared by artists and transferred to marble slabs. The multi-colored stones were then cut in that pattern. Architectural Features- The Dome: Almost all important Sikh shrines have an imposing visual effect because of the types and forms of the domes. The dome of Golden Temple, Amritsar is unique not only in view of its imposing size and dignified grandeur but also due to interesting formation of its domical superstructure. The dome represents the synthesis of all important characteristics of the shape and details of ornamentation noticed in the domes of other shrines. The Kiosk: The Sikh shrines have number of subsidery structres in the form of Kiosks. The most common type of a kiosk is a square miniature room crowned by a domical member. The room normally has the walls disposed into number of entrances , often with arched or foliated upper portion. The maximum number of entrances is however 3 on each side. The Golden Temple has kiosks of octagonal, rectangular and square form. Varieties of kiosks can be seen in Sri Akal Takhat also. Kiosk at N. gateway Kiosk& dome- main sanctuary.The Balconied Windows A very distinctive characteristic of Sikh Shrines is represented by the balconied windows. Several 121 varieties of windows could be noticed in Sikh monuments. Bay window at golden temple Window at N. gateway Window detail(Baba Atal) The Arches: Sikh shrines offer interesting varieties in respect of the types and forms of the arches. The most common, perhaps the foremost popular, type of arch is represented by foliations or cusps. The number of cusps is invariably found to be nine. Arches along Parikrama The Pillars and Pilasters: One of the major distinctive features of Sikh shrines seems to be the presence of pillars and pilasters. The shafts are mostly plain, without any carving, except the vertical lines of accession. The capitals consists of floral or foliage designs. capital base 122 Craftsmen fitting the gold plated pataras (sheets) on the central dome of deodi (entrance) of the Golden Temple in Amritsar on Sunday. After applying mercury, craftsmen applying foil of gold on copper sheet at Kar Sewa office. (Sameer Sehgal) Amritsar’s Golden Temple to glow brighter with 160 kg more gold Shrine’s beauty to be enhanced by gold-plating four entrances, says official. Surjit Singh | Hindustan Times, Amritsar,2018 Golden Temple, the holiest shrine of the Sikhs, is set to shine brighter with 160-kg gold worth Rs 50 crore being plated on the domes of its four deodis (entrances). This will be in addition to the gold-platedHarmandar Sahib in the middle of the sarovar (holy tank), the domes of Akal Takht, the highest temporal seat of the Sikhs, and darshani deodi (entrance to the sanctum sanctorum). Diljit Singh Bedi, the spokesperson and additional secretary of Shiromani Gurdwara Parbandhak Committee that manages the historic gurdwaras, including Golden Temple, says the SGPC has decided to enhance the beauty of the shrine by gold-plating the four deodis (entrances), which symbolise that the doors of Golden Temple are open for all. “An estimated 40 kg of gold will be used on each of the domes of the four deodis. Gold-plating of the maindeodi near Ghanta Ghar is underway since April through kar sewa (voluntarily service). Work on the rest will be taken up after the gold-plating of the first entrance is completed,” Bedi says. Golden era and after It was 192 years ago that Maharaja Ranjit Singh, the Sikh ruler, donated Rs 16.39 lakh for ‘sone di sewa’. Mohammad Khan was the first craftsman to overlay the sanctum with gold foil. Besides Ranjit Singh’s successors, his queens and other prominent Sikhs also donated money for ‘sewa’. A total amount of Rs 64.11 lakh was spent at that time, as per the book, Twarikh Sri Amritsar. After Operation Bluestar in 1984, Sikh organisations decided to repair and renovate the Golden Temple. Sikh organisations, including the Guru Nanak Nishkam Sewak Jatha and Gurdwara 123 Soho Road, Birmingham, UK, undertook the task of coating the shrine with fresh plates of gold. Work started in February 1995 and was completed in April 1999. The craftsmen applying the foils of gold on the patra sheet, which is made of copper, as a part of gold plating at the Kar Sewa office. (Sameer Sehgal) Devotion and donation The main deodi has a bigger dome in the centre and is flanked by four smaller ones. These domes are being covered with gold-plated sheets called patras, originally made of copper. “40 kg of gold is expected to be used on each but that may go up by 10 kg,” says Baba Kashmir Singh Bhuriwale, the head of the ‘kar sewa’ organisation. He says the gold used to cover the patras is donated by the sangat (devotees). “Sri Harmandar Sahib is a very sacred place for the Sikhs. The Gurbani has underlined its significance as: ‘Ditthe sabhe thav, nahi tudh jehea (I have seen all the places, but failed to find one as beautiful as you)’. So, the sangat is always ready to donate and sacrifice everything for its sanctity and beauty. They feel blessed to get an opportunity to donate something to the shrine. Devotees in the country and abroad contribute gold mostly in the form of jewellery. Some donate cash for the gold.” The money for this purpose is donated at a cabin set up by the kar sewa organisation on the shrine’s premises. The gold-plated patras are made at the kar sewa organisation’s head office on Tarn Taran road. 124 Copper to gold The jewellery donated for the gold-plating is usually 22 carats so it is purified to 24 carats. The pure gold is then melted and shaped into a bar. The malleable metal is pressed into flat ribbons of precise thickness. “Each strip of ribbon is cut into small pieces. These are beaten into ultra-thin gold foil, which is stored in layers of paper. Ninety-five foils are made of the gold, weighing 15 gm each,” says Balbir Singh, who oversees the work of gold-plating. The finished copper patra is cleaned with sand, tamarind and a mixture of acid and mercury. It turns bright silver. Twenty successive layers of gold foil are then laid down on the copper. Even as the layers of gold are applied, the sheets remain silver-coloured. The sheets turn bright yellow only when they are heated to remove the mercury and four more layers of foil are added. Polishing brings out a brilliant golden glow. “Ten craftsmen and helpers are engaged in gold-plating. The sheets are finally fitted on the domes by another set of workers,” says Harkamal Kumar, one of the craftsmen. 125 126 127 The Golden Temple of Amritsar Then and Now For our next comparison we took a series of photographs from across the sarovar looking at the temple itself. Several of them were obscured by modern structures. As pilgrims noticed what we were doing, a large group of people coalesced around us. Each onlooker offered tidbits of history or voiced appreciation at the old photographs. Two sevadars dressed in their orange cholas and tall yellow turbans approached us, spears in hand. Not sure as to their motive, I smiled and waited. They glanced over our shoulders into our viewfinder and started enthusiastically telling us the precise location and angles from which each photo was taken. Both of them, I’m sure, had spent days in every conceivable spot around the parkarma. They quickly noticed, before we did, that the Dukh Banjan Beri was completely different from the way it once was. In fact, the temple is now obscured by a gurdwara built around the tree, which can still be seen growing through the roof. They pointed out that the tree we were photographing to the right of the gurdwara is far to the right of the original tree in the photo; the same tree now growing in the gurdwara.We continued our journey around the parkarma snapping away. The face of each person who saw the old photographs would light up. There was a certain reverence in the eyes and tone upon seeing the black and white images. Our next shot was facing the Darshan Deohri with the temple to our left. The original photo was a well-known one, depicting several boys with comically messy turbans sitting on the parkarma, their Punjabi teacher standing behind them. In our modern-day version, there just so happened to be a large group of Israeli tourists trekking around Asia in matching t-shirts. We thought that their group would make a nice touch, showing the change of the Harimandir Sahib from an institution of learning and spirituality to, in many cases, a tourist attraction to the outside world. 128 . My inner dialogue is conflicted. As a Sikh, I value the principles of a person over their religion, race, or creed. I try to live by principles over rules and value inner faith and goodness over outer physical identity. Why, then, should I be so concerned with the outer representation of the buildings that house the true object of desire to the Sikhs: the Guru? Shouldn’t I be unattached to such maya, such worldly, transient matters and be happy that I have a peaceful place to bow to the Guru and meditate? Of course I appreciate this place enormously. It is a sanctuary to millions including myself. But the destruction and streamlining of the buildings that surround the Guru, buildings that once served as schools or as rest houses represent much more. To me they represent the loss of the very essence of what the Guru represents: creativity, learning, light, universality, love, hospitality and service. That murals (such as in Baba Atal) are removed because they depict 129 Hindu deities honoring Nanak at the Harimandir betrays an attitude of small mindedness and dogma. It speaks of orthodoxy and limited ideology – and a rewriting of our physical history – over simple faith, truthfulness, and inquisitiveness. Capturing these images and juxtaposing them with the old was a fascinating project. I gleaned new insights into how the complex once looked and felt. The refashioning of those physical surrounds has as I’d previously acknowledged had a variety of impulses. However it is my hope that members of our community will step up and demand that this heritage be maintained not just for Sikhs, for by definition the Sikh is universal, but for all of humanity. Posted December 16, 2012 by Shabd Singh Khalsa 130 131 132 133 134 135 CHAPTER VIII Ramgarhia Bunga: Amritsar’s Hidden Marvel The 1980s were one of the most difficult periods, due to militancy in Punjab. A most tragic period in the Sri Harmandir Sahib’s history was between June 1 and 8, 1984, when the Indian army launched Operation Blue Star against the followers of Jarnail Singh Bhindranwale, who had fortified the shrine complex. In the battle that ensured, while the main sanctum remained unscathed, the Akal Takht and much of the extended complex were damaged. Thankfully, the complex was restored to its former glory, thanks to contributions from the Sikh community. Today, the Sri Harmandir Sahib has come a long way from the traumas of its past, and despite its history of dark and painful times, continues to welcome pilgrims from around the world, and act as a beacon of faith, kindness and humanity. Ramgarhia Bunga: Amritsar’s Hidden Marvel 136 Amritsar’s Golden Temple is the holiest shrine of the Sikhs and is visited by millions of pilgrims and tourists every year. Yet most visitors miss a piece of Sikh history that is hidden in plain sight. Look closely at the Sri Harmandir Sahib or Golden Temple and you will notice two minarets rising behind the central dome of the temple, north of the holy tank in which the shrine stands. They represent a forgotten but vital chapter in Sikh history. The two identical minarets, each one 156 feet tall, are a part of the Ramgarhia Bunga, one of many bungas that once served as the headquarters of various Sikh chieftains and as military posts that protected the Golden Temple and the city. Golden Temple, 1880|Wikimedia Commons The bungas were built in the middle to the late 18th century, during the Misl period in Punjab’s history, when the region was ruled by a confederation of misls or clans, each led by a chieftain. In a bid to offer organized resistance to Mughal oppression and protect the Sri Harmandir Sahib temple from attack, 65 bands of fighters were grouped into 11 misls or divisions, corresponding to the clans in the region. Each misl was led by a sardar or chief that had a separate name and banner. The misls survived actively for 50 years, till the rise of Maharaja Ranjit Singh, who united the misl confederacy and carved out an empire with Punjab at its heart. 137 Maharaja Ranjit Singh|Wikimedia Commons ‘Bunga’ or ‘Bungha’ is Arabic for a ‘place where people of different religions live together’. In Persian, it simply means ‘residence’, as these structures also served as a ‘residence’ or resting place for pilgrims. According to Ghiyas-al-Lughat, written by noted 19th-century historian Muhammad Ghiyas al-Din, the bungas were built over the huts and mud houses constructed by the Sikh gurus, Guru Ramdas ji and Guru Arjan Dev ji, for the inhabitants of the then newly built Amritsar city, when its foundation was laid in 1577. By the end of the 18th century, most of the huts were converted to larger residences or bungas. 138 Ramgarhia Bunga|Aashish Kochhar Another 19th-century author, Ahmed Shah, who was a courtier at Maharaja Ranjit Singh’s court in Lahore, mentions in his book the Tarikh-e-Punjab, that the chiefs of different misls used to stay in their respective bungas when they visited the city. He states that each bunga had a caretaker or ‘bungai’, who looked after the premises as well as the visitors and pilgrims who thronged there. Some records claim that there were as many as 82 bungas in Amritsar. The Ramgarhia Bunga is Amritsar’s most famous bunga and is one of only a handful that exists today. More importantly, it was one of only three bungas that were exclusively meant to protect the Golden Temple. Sardar Jassa Singh Ramgarhia A marvel of Misl architecture, it was built by Sardar Jassa Singh Ramgarhia (1723-1803), a prominent figure of the Misl period, noted mainly for his successful siege of Delhi and capture of the Red Fort, the Mughal headquarters, in 1783. Built in 1755, the Ramgarhia Bunga’s minarets served as watchtowers, from which the approaching enemy could be spotted from miles away. During the Misl period, the saffroncoloured Nishan Sahib (holy flag) of the Sikhs would have flown there. 139 Close-up of the bunga|Aashish Kochhar The Ramgarhia Bunga has two floors above ground and three storeys underground. It also has a baradari-like pavilion on the top floor, facing the Sri Harmandir Sahib. This bunga, apart from being the residence of Jassa Singh Ramgarhia, was also his military headquarters. In the Tawarikh Darbar Sahib by Udham Singh, there is a reference to Maharaja Jassa Singh of Ramgarhia and his son Sardar Jodh Singh, who together contributed Rs 5 lakh for the construction of this bunga. Courtyard of the bunga|Aashish Kochhar Enter the bunga and you will see a well in the centre of the courtyard. Although dry during many months of the year, the well fills up with rain water during the monsoon. The underground floors of the bunga seem to have been constructed around this well. The lower floors are approached through 14 steps that are accessed through a small door at ground level. They end in a hall. The roof|Aashish Kochhar 140 All the floors are constructed with triple arches on the window frames and have decorative columns. The Ramgarhia chiefs constructed roofs geometrically designed in a circle as this would prevent the roof from collapsing even if some of the bricks were removed. Underground throne|Aashish Kochhar To the left of the chamber through which you enter, is the Council Hall used by Jassa Singh Ramgarhia. The centrepiece of this hall is the throne of Jassa Singh Ramgarhia, which is still intact. Close your eyes and imagine how the warrior Misl chief must have held court in the shadow of the Golden Temple! 141 Kal kothri|Aashish Kochhar //The windows|Aashish Kochhar Behind the throne is a kal kothri, a cell for solitary confinement, in which the arrested were housed while Jassa Singh Ramgarhia announced their punishment. There is a similar cell on the opposite side. The top of the wall of this underground bunga, which faces the Dukh Bhanjhani Beri of parikarma, is adorned by beautiful small windows with lattice work. They have perfect arches to maintain proper cross-ventilation. Underground room|Aashish Kochhar Go to the opposite side of this chamber and look out for another set of stairs which takes you to the further lower floor. This second lower floor contains a 10 feet long and 8 feet wide room. Despite the absence of any cooling arrangement, the temperature here is perceptibly lower than that outside, and it doesn’t rise much even in the summer months. These chambers offered relief to the Sikh soldiers who stayed in the bunga in summer. 142 Well from underground|Aashish Kochhar These stairs then take you to a further lower floor where there appears to be a dry well, with steps leading to it. The point at which the steps end reflects the level at which the water might have been available in the well back then. Wall on the underground floor|Aashish Kochhar 143 Many more rooms are gradually being discovered by excavations at the complex, thus opening many unknown chapters in Sikh history. There are also claims that different bungas were connected by underground tunnels, which have been lost with the passage of time. As you descend, the temperature falls and air pressure decreases. Since the bunga was the headquarters of the Ramgarhias, it had three entrances through which 500-700 Ramgarhia warriors could enter and exit. Now, only one entrance is operational. Throne and pillars from the Red Fort|Aashish Kochhar Emerge from the underground chamber and opposite the courtyard on the first floor is a pavilion supported by 44 pillars along with a colourful stone slab. It is believed that these pillars and the slab were brought by Jassa Singh Ramgarhia as the spoils of war from the Red Fort in Delhi in 1783. 144 Sikhs capturing Delhi Almost all Sikh scholars make a note of this. Prithipal Singh Kapur, former Pro-Vice-Chancellor of Amritsar’s Guru Nanak Dev University and Editor-in-Chief of the Encyclopedia of Sikhism at Punjabi University, Patiala, in his book Jassa Singh Ramgarhia, mentions that Aurangzeb, while seated on this throne, had announced the execution of Guru Teg Bahadur ji. Takht-e-Taus|Aashish Kochhar 145 He further explains that on 11 March, 1783, when the united forces of Sardar Baghel Singh, Jassa Singh Ahluwalia, Jassa Singh Ramgarhia, Gurdit Singh and Bagh Singh won Delhi and captured the Red Fort, Jassa Singh Ramgarhia brought back 44 stone pillars and this stone throne. The book mentions that these pillars and the throne are kept in the bunga as symbols of valour. When Maharaja Ranjit Singh built a great Sikh Empire in the 18th-19th centuries, he didn’t confiscate the bungas from the misls. Instead, while unifying them, he granted them autonomy and did not change their caretakers. It is said that it was only during colonial rule that the royal standard of the bungas began to diminish due to lack of maintenance. Ramgarhia Bunga as seen from parikarma|Aashish Kochhar In his Sri Harmandir Sahib Ji da Sunehri Ithaas, 20th century writer Giani Kirpal Singh, who was also appointed head Granthi (scripture reader) of the Sri Harmandir Sahib, noted that due to the demand from the community that the parikarma of the shrine be extended, many of the bungas except the Ramgarhia Bunga, that lay in the path of the parikrama (circumambulation of the shrine), began to be demolished from 29 October 1943, and the process continued ever after Independence. During Operation Blue Star in 1984, the bunga was badly damaged and the entrance of many large rooms on the lower floor and other places were blocked with debris. The Ramgarhia community later repaired the minarets and requested the Shiromani Gurudwara Prabandhak 146 Committee (SGPC) to repair the bunga. As a result, repairs and renovation started under the supervision of the state Department of Archaeology in 2008 but were stopped within a few years, leaving the project incomplete. Close-up of the minarets|Aashish Kochhar The Ramgarhia Bunga can be visited by people of all faiths but, despite its proximity to the Golden Temple, it does not get many visitors. Yet there is much to be experienced here. Stand in the compound for a while and you can almost hear the hoofs of horses marching in and out of the compound. Gaze up at the pavilion on the first storey and you can almost see a triumphant Sardar Jassa Singh Ramgarhia galloping in with his army, after his famous victory in Delhi. But it is not too late. The bunga is of immense historical significance, and preserving it would restore much of its lost glory while making visible a vital piece of the region’s history. Written by Aashish Kochhar is a history enthusiast from Amritsar who studies at Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi. 147 Ranjit Singh era reconstruction An 1880 photograph of the Golden Temple, sacred pool and the nearby buildings. The walled courtyard and entrances were added later. Ranjit Singh founded the nucleus of the Sikh Empire at the age of 36 with help of Sukerchakia Misl forces he inherited and those of his mother-in-law Rani Sada Kaur. In 1802, at age 22, he took Amritsar from the Bhangi Sikh misl, paid homage at the Golden Temple and announced that he would renovate and rebuild it with marble and gold. The Temple was renovated in marble and copper in 1809, and in 1830 Ranjit Singh donated gold to overlay the sanctum with gold foil. After learning of the Gurdwara through Maharaja Ranjit Singh, the 7th Nizam of Hyderabad "Mir Osman Ali Khan" started giving yearly grants towards it. The management and operation of Darbar Sahib – a term that refers to the entire Golden Temple complex of buildings, was taken over by Ranjit Singh. He appointed Sardar Desa Singh Majithia 148 (1768–1832) to manage it and made land grants whose collected revenue was assigned to pay for the Temple's maintenance and operation. Ranjit Singh also made the position of Temple officials hereditary. Destruction and reconstruction after Indian independence The destruction of the temple occurred during the Operation Blue Star. It was the codename of an Indian military action carried out between 1 and 8 June 1984 to remove militant Sikh Jarnail Singh Bhindranwale and his followers from the buildings of the Harmandir Sahib (Golden Temple) complex in Amritsar, Punjab. The decision to launch the attack rested with Prime Minister Indira Gandhi. In July 1982, Harchand Singh Longowal, the President of the Sikh political party Akali Dal, had invited Bhindranwale to take up residence in the Golden Temple Complex to evade arrest. The government claimed Bhindranwale later made the sacred temple complex an armoury and headquarters. On 1 June 1984, after negotiations with the militants failed, Indira Gandhi ordered the army to launch Operation Blue Star, simultaneously attacking scores of Sikh temples across Punjab. A variety of army units and paramilitary forces surrounded the Golden Temple complex on 3 June 1984. The fighting started on 5 June with skirmishes and the battle went on for three days, ending on 8 June. A clean-up operation codenamed Operation Woodrose was also initiated throughout Punjab. The army had underestimated the firepower possessed by the militants, whose armament included Chinese-made rocket-propelled grenade launchers with armour piercing capabilities. Tanks and heavy artillery were used to attack the militants, who responded with anti-tank and machine-gun fire from the heavily fortified Akal Takht. After a 24-hour firefight, the army gained control of the temple complex. Casualty figures for the army were 83 dead and 249 injured. According to the official estimates, 1,592 militants were apprehended and there were 493 combined militant and civilian casualties. According to the government claims, high civilian casualties were attributed to militants using pilgrims trapped inside the temple as human shields.[51] Brahma Chellaney, the Associated Press's South Asia correspondent, was the only foreign reporter who managed to stay on in Amritsar despite the media blackout.[ His dispatches, filed by telex, provided the first non-governmental news reports on the bloody operation in Amritsar. His first dispatch, front-paged by The New York Times, The Times of London and The Guardian, reported a death toll about twice of what authorities had admitted. According to the dispatch, about 780 militants and civilians and 400 troops had perished in fierce gun-battles. Chellaney reported that about "eight to ten" men suspected Sikh militants had been shot with their hands tied. In that dispatch, Mr. Chellaney interviewed a doctor who said he had been picked up by the army and forced to conduct postmortems despite the fact he had never done any postmortem examination before. In reaction to the dispatch, the Indian government charged Chellaney with violating Punjab press censorship, two counts of fanning sectarian hatred and trouble, and later with sedition calling his report baseless and disputing his casualty figures. The military action in the temple complex was criticized by Sikhs worldwide, who interpreted it as an assault on the Sikh religion. Many Sikh soldiers in the army deserted their units, several Sikhs resigned from civil administrative office and returned awards received from the Indian government. Five months after the operation, on 31 October 1984, Indira Gandhi was assassinated in an act of revenge by her two Sikh bodyguards, Satwant Singh and Beant 149 Singh. Public outcry over Gandhi's death led to the killings of more than 3,000 Sikhs in Delhi alone, in the ensuing 1984 anti-Sikh riots. Architecture The Golden Temple's architecture reflects different architectural practices prevalent in the Indian subcontinent, as various iterations of temple were rebuilt and restored. The Temple is described by Ian Kerr, and other scholars, as a mixture of the Indo-Islamic Mughal and the Hindu Rajput architecture. The sanctum is a 12.25 x 12.25 metre square with two-storeys and a gold foil dome. This sanctum has a marble platform that is a 19.7 x 19.7 metre square. It sits inside an almost square (154.5 x 148.5 m2) pool called amritsar or amritsarovar (amrit means nectar, sar is short form of sarovar and means pool). The pool is 5.1 metre deep and is surrounded by a 3.7 metre wide circumambulatory marble passage that is circled clockwise. The sanctum is connected to the platform by a causeway and the gateway into the causeway is called the Darshani Ḍeorhi (from Darshana Dvara). For those who wish to take a dip in the pool, the Temple provides a half hexagonal shelter and holy steps to Har ki Pauri. Bathing in the pool is believed by many Sikhs to have restorative powers, purifying one's karma. Some carry bottles of the pool water home particularly for sick friends and relatives. The pool is maintained by volunteers who perform kar seva (community service) by draining and desilting it periodically. Left: Causeway to the sanctum with people, behind the pool is Ath Sath Tirath; Right: Entrance view The sanctum has two floors. The Sikh Scripture Guru Granth Sahib is seated on the lower square floor for about 20 hours every day, and for 4 hours it is taken to its bedroom inside Akal Takht with elaborate ceremonies in a palki, for sukhasana and Prakash. The floor with the seated scripture is raised a few steps above the entrance causeway level. The upper floor in the sanctum is a gallery and connected by stairs. The ground floor is lined with white marble, as is the path surrounding the sanctum. The sanctum's exterior has gilded copper plates. The doors are gold foil covered copper sheets with nature motifs such as birds and flowers. The ceiling of the upper floor is gilded, embossed and decorated with jewels. The sanctum dome is semi-spherical with a pinnacle ornament. The sides are embellished with arched copings and small solid domes, the corners adorning cupolas, all of which are covered with gold foil covered gilded copper. The floral designs on the marble panels of the walls around the sanctum are Arabesque. The arches include verses from the Sikh scripture in gold letters. The frescoes follow the Indian tradition and include animal, bird and nature motifs rather than being purely geometrical. The 150 stair walls have murals of Sikh Gurus such as the falcon carrying Guru Gobind Singh riding a horse. The Darshani Deorhi is a two-storey structure that houses the temple management offices and treasury. At the exit of the path leading away from the sanctum is the Prasada facility, where volunteers serve a flour-based sweet offering called Karah prasad. Typically, the pilgrims to the Golden Temple enter and make a clockwise circumambulation around the pool before entering the sanctum. There are four entrances to the gurdwara complex signifying the openness to all sides, but a single entrance to the sanctum of the temple through a causeway. Akal Takht and Teja Singh Samundri Hall Left: Akal Takht illuminated; Right: One of the entrance gates In front of the sanctum and the causeway is the Akal Takht building. It is the chief Takht, a center of authority in Sikhism. It is also the headquarters of the main political party of the Indian state of Punjab, Shiromani Akali Dal (Supreme Akali Party). The Akal Takht issues edicts or writs (hukam) on matters related to Sikhism and the solidarity of the Sikh community. Its name Akal Takht means "throne of the Timeless (God)". The institution was established by Guru Hargobind after the martyrdom of his father Guru Arjan, as a place to conduct ceremonial, spiritual and secular affairs, issuing binding writs on Sikh Gurdwaras far from his own location. A building was later constructed over the Takht founded by Guru Hargobind, and this came to be known as Akal Bunga. The Akal Takht is also known as Takht Sri Akal Bunga. The Sikh tradition has five Takhts, all of which are major pilgrimage sites in Sikhism. These are in Anandpur, Patna, Nanded, Talwandi Sabo and Amritsar. The Akal Takht in the Golden Temple complex is the primary seat and chief. The Teja Singh Samundri Hall is the office of the Shiromani Gurdwara Parbandhak Committee (Supreme Committee of Temple Management). It is located in a building near the Langar-kitchen and Assembly Hall. This office coordinates and oversees the operations of major Sikh temples. Ramgarhia Bunga and Clock Tower 151 Left: Ramgarhia Bunga watchtowers to protect the Golden temple, Right: An 1860s photo of the Golden Temple during the colonial British era with the under-construction Gothic clock tower (which was later demolished on extreme right-side. The Ramgarhia Bunga – the two high towers visible from the parikrama (circumambulation) walkway around the tank, is named after a Sikh subgroup. The red sandstone minaretstyle Bunga (buêgā) towers were built in the 18th-century, a period of Afghan attacks and temple demolitions. It is named after the Sikh warrior and Ramgarhia misl chief Jassa Singh Ramgarhia. It was constructed as the temple watchtowers for sentinels to watch for any military raid approaching the temple and the surrounding area, help rapidly gather a defense to protect the Golden Temple complex. According to Fenech and McLeod, during the 18th-century, Sikh misl chiefs and rich communities built over 70 such Bungas of different shapes and forms around the temple to watch the area, house soldiers and defend the temple. These served defensive purposes, provided accommodation for Sikh pilgrims and served as centers of learning in the 19th-century. Most of the Bungas were demolished during the British colonial era. The Ramgarhia Bunga remains a symbol of the Ramgarhia Sikh community's identity, their historic sacrifices and contribution to defending the Golden Temple over the centuries. The Clock Tower did not exist in the original version of the temple. In its location was a building, now called the "lost palace". The officials of the British India wanted to demolish the building after the Second Anglo-Sikh war and once they had annexed the Sikh Empire. The Sikhs opposed the demolition, but this opposition was ignored. In its place, the clock tower was added. The clock tower was designed by John Gordon in a Gothic cathedral style with red bricks. The clock tower construction started in 1862 and was completed in 1874. The tower was demolished by the Sikh community about 70 years later. In its place, a new entrance was constructed with a design more harmonious with the Temple. This entrance on the north side has a clock, houses a museum on its upper floor, and it continues to be called ghanta ghar deori. Ber trees The historic Dukh Bhanjani Ber tree inside the courtyard, next to Ath Sath Tirath. The Golden Temple complex originally was open and had numerous trees around the pool. It is now a walled, two-storey courtyard with four entrances, that preserve three Ber trees (jujube). One of them is to the right of the main ghanta ghar deori entrance with the clock, and it is called the Ber Baba Buddha. It is believed in the Sikh tradition to be the tree where Baba Buddha sat to supervise the construction of the pool and first temple. A second tree is called Laachi Ber, believed to the one under which Guru Arjan rested while the temple was being built.[33] The third one is called Dukh Bhanjani Ber, located on the other side of the sanctum, across the pool. It is believed in the Sikh tradition that this tree was the location 152 where a Sikh was cured of his leprosy after taking a dip in the pool, giving the tree the epithet of "suffering remover". There is a small Gurdwara underneath the tree. The Ath Sath Tirath, or the spot equivalent to 68 pilgrimages, is in the shade underneath the Dukh Bhanjani Ber tree. Sikh devotees, states Charles Townsend, believe that bathing in the pool near this spot delivers the same fruits as a visit to 68 pilgrimage places in India. 5 Takhts The Sikh religion has five Takhts, all of which are major pilgrimage. Takht which means a throne or seat of authority; there are five Takhts and each one is marked as five gurudwaras, each one has a very special significance for the Sikh community:  Akal Takht, Harmandir Sahib (Amritsar)  Takht Keshgarh Sahib (Anandpur Sahib)  Takht Damdama Sahib (Talwandi Sabo)  Takht Patna Sahib (Bihar)  Takht Hazur Sahib (Nanded, Maharashtra) As per an Indian Express Article (link below) from 2016, there are proposals for a sixth one too. As I had mentioned in my post about the city Amritsar is home of the stunning Harmandir Sahib, The temple itself is built around a man-made pool and was completed by Guru Ram Das in 1577. And the foundation stone was laid by Sai Mir Mian Mohammed – a Muslim Pir of Lahore, as requested by Guru Arjan Devji to 1589. In 1604, Guru Arjan placed a copy of the Adi Granth in Harmandir Sahib. Since it’s construction til modern times, the Harmandir Sahib, has repeatedly been rebuilt by the Sikhs after it has become a target of persecution and or was destroyed several times by the Muslim armies from Afghanistan; the Mughal Empire, or the Indian Army https://teatimewithjagroop.wordpress.com/2018/11/11/terrorism-and-punjab-1984/. With regards to the design of the Gurdwara itself, Guru Arjan Devji had it built in a depression so that worshippers had to go down the steps in order to enter it. Also it had four entrances, symbolic of the new faith which made no distinction between caste, creed, religon or sex. 153 It has a square plan with four entrances, has a circumambulation path around the pool. The temple is a collection of buildings around the sanctum and the pool. One of these is Akal Takht, the chief center of religious authority of Sikhism. Additional buildings include a clock tower, the offices of Gurdwara Committee, a Museum and a langar – a free Sikh community run kitchen that serves a simple vegetarian meal to all visitors without discrimination.Over 100,000 people visit the holy shrine daily for worship. HTTPS://EN.WIKIPEDIA.ORG/WIKI/GOLDEN_TEMPLE#CITE_NOTE-FOOTNOTETHE_EDITORS_OF_ENCYCLOPAEDIA_BRITANNICA2014-4 The Gurdwara was completed in bricks in 1589, it wasn’t until Maharaja Ranjit Singh took over the renovation did the Gurdwara attain the golden domes.At the age of 22 in 1802, Maharaja Ranjit Singh visited the Gurdwara and vowed to renovate the gurdwara, which he did in 1809. Maharaja Ranjit Singh repaired the principal building in 1802 A.D. Details of the work completed at that time can be found below: The Gurdwara consists of the Sanctum which has two-storeys and a gold foil dome. This sanctum has a marble platform, it sits inside an almost square pool called amritsar or amrit sarovar (amrit means nectar, sar is short form of sarovar and means pool). The sanctum is connected to a platform by a walkway and the gateway into the walkway is called the Darshani Ḍeorhi . 154 For those who wish to take a dip in the pool, the Temple provides a half hexagonal shelter and holy steps to Har ki Pauri. Bathing in the pool is believed by many Sikhs to have restorative powers, purifying one’s karma. Some carry bottles of the pool water home particularly for sick friends and relatives. The sanctum has two floors. The Sikh Scripture Guru Granth Sahib is seated on the lower square floor. The floor with the seated scripture is raised a few steps above the entrance causeway level. The upper floor in the sanctum is a gallery and connected by stairs. The ground floor is lined with white marble, as is the path surrounding the sanctum. The sanctum’s exterior has gilded copper plates. The doors are gold foil covered copper sheets with nature motifs such as birds and flowers. The ceiling of the upper floor is gilded, embossed and decorated with jewels. The sanctum dome is semi-spherical with a pinnacle ornament. The sides are embellished with arched copings and small solid domes, the corners adorning cupolas, all of which are covered with gold foil covered gilded copper. The Darshani Deorhi is a two-storey structure that houses the temple management offices and treasury. At the exit of the path leading away from the sanctum is the prasada facility, where volunteers serve a flour-based sweet offering called karah prasad. In front of the sanctum and the causeway is the Akal Takht building. It is the chief Takht, a center of authority in Sikhism. It is also the headquarters of the main political party of the Indian state of Punjab, Shiromani Akali Dal (Supreme Akali Party).[4] The Akal Takht issues edicts or writs (hukam) on matters related to Sikhism and the solidarity of the Sikh community. Its name Akal Takht means “throne of the Timeless (God)”. The Ramgarhia Bunga – the two high towers visible from the parikrama (circumambulation) walkway around the tank, is named after a Sikh subgroup. The red sandstone minaretstyle Bunga (buêgā) towers were built in the 18th-century, a period of Afghan attacks and temple demolitions. It is named after the Sikh warrior and Ramgarhia misl chief Jassa Singh Ramgarhia. It was constructed as the temple watchtowers for sentinels to watch for any military raid approaching the temple and the surrounding area, help rapidly gather a defense to protect the Golden Temple complex. The Golden Temple complex originally was open and had numerous trees around the pool. It is now a walled, two storey courtyard with four entrances, that preserve three Ber trees (jujube). One of them is to the right of the main ghanta ghar deori entrance with the clock, and it is called the Ber Baba Buddha. It is believed in the Sikh tradition to be the tree where Baba Buddha sat to supervise the construction of the pool and first temple. A second tree is called Laachi Ber, believed to be the one under which Guru Arjan rested while the temple was being built. The third one is called Dukh Bhanjani Ber, located on the other side of the sanctum, across the pool. It is believed in the Sikh tradition that this tree was the location where a Sikh was cured of his leprosy after taking a dip in the pool, giving the tree the epithet of “suffering remover”.[17][58] There is a small Gurdwara underneath the tree. 155 The complex is also home to a Museum dedicated to Sikhism, and of course the Langar Hall. Community-run free kitchen and dining hall. Food is served here to all visitors who want it, regardless of faith, gender or economic background. Vegetarian food is served and all people eat together as equals. Everyone sits on the floor in rows and food is served by volunteers. Tea is also served separately near the entrance of the Langar hall, 24 hours a day. Since around 2015, langar of sugar-free tea has been started for people suffering from Diabetes. 156 CHAPTER IX Origins Who built the lost palace? From its origins in the last years of Maharaja Ranjit Singh rule to the end of the Sikh Empire, the lost palace continued to serve its intended purpose as a palatial residence or bunga on the parkarma of the sacred pool at Amritsar. Its occupants would have had a spectacular view of the Darbar Sahib and the sacred pool of nectar. One of the most famous painting of the lost palace, August Schoeffts epic scene of Maharaja Ranjit Singh at Darbar Sahib was painted during this era. With the end of the Sikh Empire and its annexation by the British in 1849, European artist and then photographers started appearing in Punjab and visiting Darbar Sahib at Amritsar, an area that only a handful had ever seen before during the time of the Sikh Empire. The 1850’s would see the very first photographs of Darbar Sahib by Felice Beato and the popular paintings of Darbar Sahib by artist William Carpenter. These early images of Darbar Sahib featuring the lost palace help provide a record of the lost palace before it disappeared from the pages of history and memory. The loss of influence over Amritsar with British rule also ment that Sikhs lost control over the use of the lost palace. , The history of the lost palace would now take a drastic turn with the palace would now be symbolic of a new era of colonial government administration featuring a disregard for the religious and cultural sensitivities of the 'natives'. The lost palace, located on the ‘pool of nectar’ at Amritsar, an area representing the spiritual heartland of the Sikh religion was now occupied by the Christian missionaries of the Amritsar Mission School [1]. Although Sikhs are well known for their religious tolerance, this invasion of the spiritual sanctity of the Darbar Sahib complex by an organization dedicated to the conversion of Sikhs to Christianity represented a complete lack of religious sensitivity by the British administrators. In its final years things would take an even more bizarre turn as the lost palace would be used as a police station with a prison and court house. The Kutwallee - This building, used as a prision and Court House, was built by Mr. Saunders, Collector of Umritser, and is one of the few English buildings in India which do not look out of place among their native neighbours. It is situated on the borders of the Tank, opposite the Holy Temple, and is constantly haunted by beggars; the applications for baksheesh, or bounty, being indeed most inconveniently, and through their importunity annoyingly, multiplied through all the 157 neighbourhood of the Holy Tank. The deformities exhibited also to stimulate charity are very shocking. Original Sketches in the Punjaub by a Lady Dickinson Bros. London, ca. 1854 This account by the wife of a British officer stationed at Amritsar accompanies a detailed sketch by her of the lost palace. She erroneously attributes the construction of the lost palace to a British administrator, but we know from August Schoefft’s painting that the lost palace already existed in the time of Maharaja Sher Singh before British rule. Why the British felt a need to convert a palace on the sacred pool of nectar into a police station is odd and difficult to explain. In the entire city of Amritsar could they not have chosen a more appropriate location rather than at the Sikh spiritual center of Darbar Sahib? A travel account by William Knight of a visit to Darbar Sahib in October 1860 provides one of the last known references to the lost palace prior to its destruction. October 22. - Out at four A.M. to explore the great durbar, or head-quarters of the Sikh religion in the Punjab. Entering through a highly decorated archway in the kotwalee, or police-station, we came upon an enormous tank, with steps descending into the water on all sides, and planted around with large and shady tree…After this we repaired to the kotwalee again, and, getting a pair of slippers in exchange for our boots, descended to the durbar and mingled with the crowd. Diary of a Pedestrian in Cashmere and Thibet William Henry Knight, London, 1863 Knights provides additional important information indicating that during this time period the palace served as one of the main entrances to the Darbar Sahib complex, complete with a depository for shoes. Knight also mentions that the palace had a archway leading to the parkarma which was covered with decorative paintings. These paintings would likely have been portraits of the Gurus and 158 scenes from Sikh history. Although now a police station, the paintings and the archway would have harkened back to an earlier time when the structure had served as a palace. Closeup of previous image showing palace details. The simple rounded curves of the main palace arches on top of multiple columns contrast with the ornate arch of the building to the left of the palace. In the second archway from the left can be seen an soldier wearing a red coat standing at attention. Given his scale this indicated that the main arches were between 15 to 20 feet high. A large open second floor veranda extending the length of the building with doorways and arches. A group of people on the veranda enjoy a spectacular view. Another smaller veranda on a third floor is also visible higher up. 159 ANNEXURE Ath Sath Tirath, Golden Temple Complex While moving in the outer parikarma of Harmandir Sahib, around the holy pool of water, next to Dukh Bhanjani Beri is the place known as Ath Sath Tirath, signifies that any one taking a dip here with devotion will have benefit of visit to 68 holy places. The marble palanquin on the raise platform, is the place where small pothis (manuscripts) of Gurbani were kept after they were obtained from the families of Gurus. These pothis (holy books) were brought to Amritsar for compilation of Adi Granth (Sri Guru Granth) Sahib by Guru Arjan Dev Ji. Origins & Ownership Religion Des Sikhes Magasin Pittoresque ca. Dec. 1836 woodcut engraving, SSB Collection, One of the earliest European depictions of the Darbar Sahib complex. The image does not show the lost palace When was the lost palace built and who did it belong too? Peering through the fog of history we can see some clues as to the palaces origins. Although a number of historians and authors have attributed the lost palace to various figures in Sikh history, there does not seem to be any agreement among them or conclusive proof. The lost palace was the largest structure of its kind on the parkarma of the sacred tank of Amritsar. This indicated that the owner was someone of great influence and power during the time of the Sikh Empire. Evidence from the French engraving of the Darbar Sahib Complex printed in 1836 and likely based on a sketch recorded one to two years earlier in Punjab indicates that the palace did not yet exist in the early 1830’s. The palace would have had to have been constructed in the time frame between the late 1830’s and before the 1841 visit of artist August Schoefft who depicted it in his epic painting of Ranjit Singh at Darbar Sahib. 160 An examination of some prominent figures and attributed individuals reveal some interesting possibilities and helps narrow the scope of possible ownership of the lost palace during the era of the Sikh Empire. Maharaja Ranjit Singh Being the largest palace on the parkarma surrounding the sacred pool, it would be logical to assume that it must have belonged to Maharaja Ranjit Singh. The Maharaja was known to move about from place to place in his vast empire and had numerous residences. Runjeet Sing has no regular residence where he constantly lives, but instead is continually on the move, either in the wars in which he is constantly engaged, or moving from one part of his territory to another. Five Years in India, Volume 1 Henry Edward Fane, London, 1842 Sohan Lal Suri the court historian records that Maharaja Ranjit Singh built his own bunga towards the north-west of Darbar Sahib, close to the sacred tank, to be used for stay if necessary, on the occasion of his visits. In August Schoeffts famous painting of Maharaja Ranjit Singh, he is depicted as sitting on the balcony of a palace overlooking the sacred pool. In this painting the lost palace appears in the distance on the left side in the painting. The balcony that Schoefft painted his scene from is verified as having been Ranjit Singhs palace by Dr. Martin Honigberger who accompanied Schoefft on his visit to Darbar Sahib. On the following morning, we went to the house of the Baii Goormuck Sing, who had promised, on the previous evening, to send a servant to point out to us the most elevated terrace in the square ( which was in the mansion of Runjeet Sing ), from which Herr Schofft could get a view of 161 the temple and the surrounding buildings ; on this place he prepared his atelier. He occupied the whole of the day in sketching the scene, and on the following day he also went there, but alone, to continue his work. Thirty-five Years in the East L.M. Honigberger, London, 1852 Given that Schoefft painted his scene from a terrace in Ranjit Singhs mansion and that the painting he produced shows the lost palace and that the location of Ranjit Singhs palace is further corroborated by Sohin Lal Suri’s account it is evident that the lost palace and Maharaja Ranjit Singhs palace were two different structures. Sada Kaur The lost palace has also been attributed as the Atari (mansion) of Sada Kaur . In her time Sada Kaur (1762-1832) was the most powerful woman in the Sikh Empire. She was the mother-in-law of Maharaja Ranjit Singh and head of the Kanhaiya clan. She is widely regarded as the powerful king-maker who helped the young Ranjit Singh militarily to conquer Lahore and a number of Sikh chieftain’s territories. Given Sada Kaur’s wealth as head of a powerful family and her influence she does seem to be a candidate for having constructed the lost palace, but looking at the timeline of her influence it seems less likely. Sada Kaur’s friendship and close ties with Maharaja Ranjit Singh started to wane in 1807 as their relations started souring. Sada Kaur refused to retire and hand over her territories to her grandson Raja Sher Singh when he turned 12 years old [3] (1819) and would eventually be placed under house arrest in Lahore by the Maharaja. Here she would spend the remainder of her life until her death in 1832 162 Given that Sada Kaur was imprisoned and did not have access to Amritsar in her final years and that the French engraving of the Darbar Sahib complex does not show the lost palace as being there in the early 1830’s, Sada Kaur could not have constructed the palace during this time period. Raja Nau Nihal Singh Maharaja Ranjit Singh’s only had one grandson, the much loved Raja Nau Nihal Singh, son of the Maharaja’s only legitimate son Raja Kharak Singh. Nau Nihal Singh (1821-1840) has also been attributed as the owner of the lost palace. Being the only grandson of Maharaja Ranjit Singh, Raja Nau Nihal Singh received a lot of attention and privileges from his grandfather. Barely 13, Raja Nau Nihal Singh was placed at the head of the Sikh military forces in the Peshawer campaign of 1834. Nau Nihal Singh participated in numerous military campaigns on behalf of the Sikh Empire and administered territories in the Attock and Peshawar regions during Maharaja Ranjit Singhs rule. The wedding of Nau Nihal Singh to the daughter of the powerful Sikh chieftan Sham Singh Attariwala in early March 1837 was a very grand occasion with extensive festivities at Amritsar, Lahore and the brides village of Attari. We hear at this place that the marriage fete at Umritsir is to last thirteen days, and that the Rajah has made up his mind to spend thirty lacs of rupees (300,000l.) on the occasion. Five Years in India, Volume 1 Henry Edward Fane, London, 1842 It is noteworthy that the wedding took place at Amritsar, lasting many days and was likely attended by a large number of rulers of other states. 163 With the death of Maharaja Ranjit Singh in 1839 also came a rise to power for Nau Nihal Singh. Deposing and imprisoning his father Maharaja Kharak Singh in a coup on October 9, 1839, Raja Nau Nihal now achieved command and rule over the Sikh Empire for a period of time until his death one year later on November 9, 1840. Given the special attention paid to Nau Nihal Singh by his grandfather and the fact that Nau Nihal Singh’s wedding took place at Amritsar and not the capital of the Empire, Lahore, the lost palace well may have belonged to Nau Nihal Singh. Could Nau Nihal Singh have built the lost palace for himself or could Maharaja Ranjit Singh have built it for his only grandson, possibly even as a wedding gift? Would a part of Nau Nihal Singh’s wedding have taken place at the largest and grandest palace on the sacred pool of Darbar Sahib in Amritsar? Could Nau Nihal Singh when he eventually ruled the Sikh Empire have built a grand palace at Amritsar? All of these questions raise interesting possibilities and unlike others, nothing that we know of Nau Nihal Singh’s life eliminates the possibility that the palace may have been his residence at Darbar Sahib. Raja Kharak Singh As Maharaja Ranjit Singh’s only son and heir apparent Raja Kharak Singh (1801-1840) lead a life of privilege, wealth and power as the heir apparent. During the rule of his father Maharaja Ranjit Singh, his son Kharak Singh was put in charge of a number of military campaigns on the behalf of his father. Although he was considered feeble of mind, being the only son it was widely recognized in the Sikh Empire that he would one day succeed his father as ruler. On his death bed Maharaja Ranjit Singh proclaimed Raja Kharak Singh as his official successor. The new Maharaja, ruled the Sikh Empire only for a few months from June to October 1839 before being overthrown by his son Nau Nihal Singh in a coup and imprisoned at Lahore till his death one year later on November 5, 1840. 164 Although no reference has been found attributing the lost palace to Maharaja Kharak Singh, the possibility cannot be ruled out either. As Maharaja Ranjit Singhs only son and heir apparent, he had a special status in the Sikh Empire and the largest palace at Darbar Sahib could have been constructed by Kharak Singh or for him in the last years of Maharaja Ranjit Singh’s rule by a father for his son a symbol of his sons status as the future Maharaja. Raja Sher Singh During the tumultuous times following the death of Maharaja Ranjit Singh, his step-son Raja Sher Singh was eventually able to gain the Royal throne by attacking Lahore and overthrowing Maharani Chand Kaur the widow of Ranjit Singh’s son Maharaja Kharak Singh. Maharaja Sher Singh ruled from January 20, 1841 till his death on September 15, 1842. During Maharaja Ranjit Singh’s rule Raja Sher Singh was the only step-son that he acknowledged and who was allowed in his presence at the Royal Court. Rajah Sher Sing was seated on his right hand, and Rajah Heera Sing, his minister's son, upon his left, the only two individuals who are allowed a seat in his presence on public occasions, with the exception of his son and heir, Kurruck Sing, though in private that privilege is sometimes accorded to the three Gooroos, or priests, who act as his spiritual advisers. The Court and Camp of Runjeet Sing W.G. Osborne, London, 1840 During Maharaja Ranjit Singhs rule, Sher Singh was also given a number of military campaigns and territories that he controlled. Although he could certainly have built a palace for himself at Darbar Sahib, in all probability Maharaja Ranjit Singh would not have allowed a step-son to have a larger palace at Darbar Sahib than his own son Raja Kharak Singh or his grandson Raja Nau Nihal. 165 Could Maharaja Sher Singh have built the lost palace during the timeframe of his reign from January 20, 1841 to September 15, 1842? August Schoefft the artist arrived at Maharaja Sher Singh court on November 14, 1841 and likely did the sketches for his famous painting at Darbar Sahib shortly thereafter prior to his departure in 1842. Could the lost palace have been built by Maharaja Sher Singh in the months between his ascension to the throne in January 1841 and Schoeffts arrival in November? This possibility cannot be eliminated but given the scale of construction required to build such a large structure on the parkarma and the potential length of time that such a construction project would have taken it does not seem likely that Sher Singh built the lost palace. Sikh Sardars Could one of the influential families at the Sikh Royal Court have built the lost palace for themselves? The lost palace has been attributed by some authors as having been the bunga of ‘Singh Sahib’ or Ladowalia clan Only the most powerful and influential families in Punjab had a palace or bunga on the parkarma of the sacred pool at Darbar Sahib. Could one of these influential and powerful families have built the lost palace for themselves? Perhaps, although the chances of Maharaja Ranjit Singh allowing the construction of the largest palace on the parkarma by another family in the years of his rule seem a remote possibility. The Maharaja maintained a very tight rule over his empire, including the confiscation of the property of the various ruling families in the empire as he expanded his rule over Punjab. If the lost palace had been constructed by another powerful family in the earlier years of Ranjit Singh’s rule and then confiscated by him as he consolidated his power than it would appear in the 1836 French engraving of the Darbar Sahib complex. Since the lost palace does not appear in the engraving, it would have to have been built in the mid to late 1830’s during the final years of Maharaja Ranjit Singhs rule. This was a time of absolute 166 rule by Ranjit Singh at a time when he had already consolidated his power in Punjab and especially Amritsar. The chances of another Sikh family being allowed to construct the largest palace on the parkarma seem remote. Ranjit Singhs successors to the Royal throne would likely have followed the same policy at a tumultuous time when the show of their status and authority would have been paramount to maintaining their throne. Honigberger, London, 1852 Sada Kaur sketch: attributed to Kehar Singh, Central Sikh Museum, Amritsar. http://www.sikhmuseum.com/lostpalace/origins.html 167 168 Soldiers lof Maharaja Ranjit Singh in Lahore 169 ANNEXURE SIKHISM ੴ ਿਸਤ ਨਾਮੁ ਕਰਤਾ ਪੁਰਖੁ ਸਨਰਭਉ ਸਨਰਵੈਰੁ ਅਕਾਲ ਮੂਰਸਤ ਅਜੂਨੀ ਿੈਭੰ ਗੁ ਰ ਪਿਿਾਸਦ॥ ikk ōankār sat(i)-nām(u) karatā purakh(u) nirabha'u niravair(u) akāl(a) mūrat(i) ajūnī saibhan gur(a) prasād(i). "There is one supreme being, the eternal reality, the creator, without fear and devoid of enmity, immortal, never incarnated, self-existent, known by grace through the true Guru." —Guru Granth Sahib (17th c.), p. 1 Sikhism is a monotheistic religion that originated in the Punjab region of the Indian subcontinent around the end of the 15th century CE. One of the youngest of the major religions and the world's fifth-largest organized religion, it comprises about 25 million Sikhs as of the early-21st century. However, according to rough estimates, there are around 25 million people across the world who also believe in 10 Sikh gurus and the Guru Granth Sahib. Sikhism developed from the spiritual teachings of Guru Nanak, the first Guru (1469–1539), and of the nine Sikh gurus who succeeded him. The tenth guru, Gobind Singh (1676-1708), named the Sikh scripture Guru Granth Sahib as his successor, bringing to a close the line of human gurus and establishing the scripture as the eternal, religious spiritual guide for Sikhs. Guru Nanak taught that living an "active, creative, and practical life" of "truthfulness, fidelity, self-control and purity" is above the metaphysical truth, and that the ideal man "establishes union with God, knows His Will, and carries out that Will".Guru Hargobind, the sixth Sikh Guru (1606-1644), established the concept of the mutual co-existence of the miri (political/temporal) and piri (spiritual) realms. The Sikh scripture opens with the Mul Mantar (ਮੂਲ ਮੰਤਰ), fundamental prayer about ik onkar (ੴ, 'One God'). The core beliefs of Sikhism, articulated in the Guru Granth Sahib, include faith and meditation on the name of the one creator; divine unity and equality of all humankind; engaging in seva ('selfless service'); striving for justice for the benefit and prosperity of all; and honest conduct and livelihood while living a householder's life Following this standard, Sikhism rejects claims that any particular religious tradition has a monopoly on Absolute Truth. Sikhism emphasizes simran (ਸਿਮਰਨ, meditation and remembrance of the words of God), which can be expressed musically through kirtan, or internally through naam japna ('meditation on His 170 name') as a means to feel God's presence. It teaches followers to transform the "Five Thieves" (i.e. lust, rage, greed, attachment, and ego) . The religion developed and evolved in times of religious persecution, gaining converts from both Hinduism and Islam. Mughal rulers of India tortured and executed two of the Sikh gurus – Guru Arjan (1563–1605) and Guru Tegh Bahadur (1621–1675) – after they refused to convert to Islam. The persecution of Sikhs triggered the founding of the Khalsa - by Guru Gobind Singh in 1699 - as an order to protect the freedom of conscience and religion, with members expressing the qualities of a Sant-Sipāhī—a 'saint-soldier'. The majority of Sikh scriptures were originally written in the alphabet of Gurmukhī, a script standardised by Guru Angad out of Laṇḍā scripts historically used in presentday Pakistan and North India. Adherents of Sikhism are known as Sikhs, meaning 'students' or 'disciples' of the Guru. The anglicised word Sikhism derives from the Punjabi verb Sikhi, which connotes the "temporal path of learning" and is rooted in the word sikhana ('to learn'). Ik Onkar A Sikh can be defined as any human being who faithfully believes in: i. One Formless Being ii. Ten Gurus, from Guru Nanak Sahib to Guru Gobind Singh Sahib, iii. The Guru Granth Sahib, iv. The utterances and teachings of the ten Gurus and v. the baptism bequeathed by the tenth Guru, and who does not owe allegiance to any other religion, is a Sikh. Sikhism is classified as an Indian religion along with Buddhism, Hinduism, and Jainism. The basis of Sikhism lies in the teachings of Guru Nanak and his successors. Sikh ethics emphasize the congruence between spiritual development and everyday moral conduct. Its founder Guru Nanak summarized this perspective as: "Truth is the highest virtue, but higher still is truthful living." Sikhism lays emphasis on Ėk nūr te sab jag upjiā, 'From the one light, the entire universe welled up.' Concept of god Some sources call Sikhism a monotheistic religion, while others call it a monistic and panentheistic religion. According to Nesbitt (2005), English renderings of Sikhism as a monotheistic religion "tend misleadingly to reinforce a Semitic understanding of monotheism, rather than Guru Nanak's mystical awareness of the one that is expressed through the many. However, what is not in doubt is the emphasis on 'one'." In Sikhism, the overall concept of God is Waheguru ('wondrous Teacher') considered to be nirankar ('shapeless'), akal ('timeless'), karta purakh ('the creator'), and agam agochar ('incomprehensible and invisible'). God has no gender in Sikhism, though translations may present it as masculine. It is also akaal purkh ('beyond time and space') and nirankar ('without form'). In addition, Nanak wrote that there are many worlds on which it has created life. The Sikh scripture begins with God as ik onkar (ੴ), the 'formless one', understood in the Sikh tradition as monotheistic unity of God. Ik onkar (sometimes capitalized) is more loosely 171 rendered 'the one supreme reality', 'the one creator', 'the all-pervading spirit', and other ways of expressing a diffused but unified and singular sense of God and creation. The traditional Mul Mantar goes from ik onkar until Nanak hosee bhee sach The opening line of the Guru Granth Sahib and each subsequent raga, mentions ik onkar: ੴ ਿਸਤ ਨਾਮੁ ਕਰਤਾ ਪੁਰਖੁ ਸਨਰਭਉ ਸਨਰਵੈਰੁ ਅਕਾਲ ਮੂਰਸਤ ਅਜੂਨੀ ਿੈਭੰ ਗੁ ਰ ਪਿਿਾਸਦ॥ ikk ōankār sat(i)-nām(u) karatā purakh(u) nirabha'u niravair(u) akāl(a) mūrat(i) ajūnī saibhan gur(a) prasād(i). "There is one supreme being, the eternal reality, the creator, without fear and devoid of enmity, immortal, never incarnated, self-existent, known by grace through the true Guru." —Guru Granth Sahib (17th c.), p. 1 Worldly illusion Māyā, defined as a temporary illusion or "unreality", is one of the core deviations from the pursuit of God and salvation: where worldly attractions which give only illusory temporary satisfaction and pain which distract the process of the devotion of God. However, Nanak emphasised māyā as not a reference to the unreality of the world, but of its values. In Sikhism, the influences of ego, anger, greed, attachment, and lust, known as the pānj chor ('five thieves'), are believed to be particularly distracting and hurtful. Sikhs believe the world is currently in a state of kali yuga ('age of darkness') because the world is led astray by the love of and attachment to maya. The fate of people vulnerable to the five thieves, is separation from God, and the situation may be remedied only after intensive and relentless devotion . Timeless truth An Akali-Nihung Sikh Warrior at Harmandir Sahib, also called the Golden Temple According to Guru Nanak, the supreme purpose of human life is to reconnect with Akal ('The Timeless One;), however, egotism is the biggest barrier in doing this. Using the Guru's teaching remembrance of nām (the divine Name of the Lord) leads to the end of egotism. Guru Nanak designated the word Guru ('teacher') to mean the voice of "the spirit": the source of knowledge and the guide to salvation. As ik onkar is universally immanent, Guru is indistinguishable from Akal and are one and the same. One connects with Guru only with accumulation of selfless search of truth. Ultimately the seeker realises that it is the consciousness within the body which is seeker/follower of the Word that is the true Guru. The human body is just a means to achieve the reunion with Truth. Once truth starts to shine in a person's heart, the essence of current and past holy books of all religions is understood by the person. 172 Liberation Guru Nanak's teachings are founded not on a final destination of heaven or hell, but on a spiritual union with the Akal, which results in salvation or jivanmukti ('enlightenment/liberation within one's lifetime'), a concept also found in Hinduism. Guru Gobind Singh makes it clear that human birth is obtained with great fortune, therefore one needs to be able to make the most of this life. Sikhs accept reincarnation and karma concepts found in Buddhism, Hinduism, and Jainism, but do not necessarily infer a metaphysical soteriology akin to those found in those other religions. However, in Sikhism, both karma and liberation "is modified by the concept of God's grace" (nadar, mehar, kirpa, karam, etc.). Guru Nanak states that "the body takes birth because of karma, but salvation is attained through grace." To get closer to God, Sikhs: avoid the evils of maya; keep the everlasting truth in mind; practice shabad kirtan (musical recitation of hymns); meditate on naam; and serve humanity. Sikhs believe that being in the company of the satsang (association with sat, 'true', people) or sadh sangat is one of the key ways to achieve liberation from the cycles of reincarnation. Power and devotion (Shakti and Bhakti ) Sikhism was influenced by the Bhakti movement, but it was not simply an extension of Bhakti. Guru Nanak, the first Sikh Guru and the founder of Sikhism, was a Bhakti saint. He taught that the most important form of worship is Bhakti (devotion to Bhagvan). Guru Arjan, in the Sukhmani Sahib, recommended the true religion is one of loving devotion to God. The Guru Granth Sahib includes suggestions on how a Sikh should perform constant Bhakti. Some scholars call Sikhism a Bhakti sect of Indian traditions, adding that it emphasises "nirguni Bhakti," i.e. loving devotion to a divine without qualities or physical form. However, Sikhism also accepts the concept of saguni, i.e. a divine with qualities and form. While Western scholarship generally places Sikhism as arising primarily within a Hindu Bhakti movement milieu while recognizing some Sufi Islamic influences, some Indian Sikh scholars disagree and state that Sikhism transcended the environment it emerged from. The basis of the latter analysis is that Bhakti traditions did not clearly disassociate from Vedic texts and their cosmologies and metaphysical worldview, while the Sikh tradition clearly did disassociate from the Vedic tradition. Some Sikh sects outside the Punjab region of India, such as those found in Maharashtra and Bihar, practice aarti (the ceremonial use of lamps) during Bhakti observances in a Sikh gurdwara. But, most Sikh gurdwaras forbid aarti during their Bhakti practices. While emphasizing Bhakti, the Sikh gurus also taught that the spiritual life and secular householder life are intertwined, and not separate. This logically follows from the panentheistic nature of Sikh philosophy. In Sikh worldview, the everyday world is part of the Infinite Reality, increased spiritual awareness leads to increased and vibrant participation in the everyday world. Guru Nanak described living an "active, creative, and practical life" of "truthfulness, fidelity, self-control and purity" as being higher than the metaphysical truth. The 6th Sikh Guru, Guru Hargobind, after Guru Arjan martyrdom and faced with oppression by the Islamic Mughal Empire, affirmed the philosophy that the political/temporal (Miri) and spiritual (Piri) realms are mutually coexistent. According to the 9th Sikh Guru, Tegh Bahadur, the ideal Sikh should have both Shakti (power that resides in the temporal), and Bhakti (spiritual 173 meditative qualities). This was developed into the concept of the "saint soldier" by the 10th Sikh Guru, Gobind Singh. The concept of man as elaborated by Guru Nanak refines and negates the "monotheistic concept of self/God", and "monotheism becomes almost redundant in the movement and crossings of love." The goal of man, taught the Sikh gurus, is to end all dualities of "self and other, I and notI", attain the "attendant balance of separation-fusion, self-other, action-inaction, attachmentdetachment, in the course of daily life". Singing and music Sikhs refer to the hymns of the gurus as Gurbani ('Guru's word'). Shabad Kirtan is the singing of Gurbani. The entire verses of Guru Granth Sahib are written in a form of poetry and rhyme to be recited in thirty-one Ragas of the Classical Indian Music as specified. However, the exponents of these are rarely to be found amongst the Sikhs who are conversant with all the Ragas in the Guru Granth Sahib. Guru Nanak started the Shabad Kirtan tradition and taught that listening to kirtan is a powerful way to achieve tranquility while meditating; Singing of the glories of the Supreme Timeless One (God) with devotion is the most effective way to come in communion with the Supreme Timeless One.[84] The three morning prayers for Sikhs consist of Japji Sahib, Jaap Sahib, and Tav-Prasad Savaiye. Baptised Sikhs (Amritdharis) rise early and meditate, then recite all the Five Banis of Nitnem, before breakfast. Remembrance of the divine name A key practice by Sikhs is remembrance of the Naam (divine name) Waheguru. This contemplation is done through Nām Japna (repetition of the divine name) or Naam Simran (remembrance of the divine Name through recitation). The verbal repetition of the name of God or a sacred syllable has been an ancient established practice in religious traditions in India, however, Sikhism developed Naam-simran as an important Bhakti practice. Guru Nanak's ideal is the total exposure of one's being to the divine Name and a total conforming to Dharma or the "Divine Order". Nanak described the result of the disciplined application of nām simraṇ as a "growing towards and into God" through a gradual process of five stages. The last of these is Sach Khaṇḍ (The Realm of Truth) – the final union of the spirit with God. Service and action The Sikh gurus taught that by constantly remembering the divine name (naam simran) and through selfless service, or sēvā, the devotee overcomes egotism (Haumai). This, it states, is the primary root of five evil impulses and the cycle of birth and death. Service in Sikhism takes three forms: Tan (physical service, i.e. labor), Man (mental service, such as studying to help others), and Dhan (material service, including financial support).[92] Sikhism stresses kirat karō: that is "honest work". Sikh teachings also stress the concept of sharing, or vaṇḍ chakkō, giving to the needy for the benefit of the community.[93] Justice and equality Sikhism regards God as the true king, the king of all kings, the one who dispenses justice through the law of karma, a retributive model and divine grace. The term for justice in the Sikh tradition is niau It is related to the term dharam which in Sikhism connotes 'moral order' and righteousness (derived from but become distinct from the etymologically related Hindu concept of dharma). According to the Tenth Sikh Guru Guru 174 Gobind Singh, states Pashaura Singh (a professor of Sikh studies), "one must first try all the peaceful means of negotiation in the pursuit of justice" and if these fail then it is legitimate to "draw the sword in defense of righteousness".[95] Sikhism considers "an attack on dharam is an attack on justice, on righteousness, and on the moral order generally" and the dharam "must be defended at all costs".The divine name is its antidote for pain and vices. Forgiveness is taught as a virtue in Sikhism, yet it also teaches its faithful to shun those with evil intentions and to pick up the sword to fight injustice and religious persecution. Sikhism does not differentiate religious obligations by gender. God in Sikhism has no gender, and the Sikh scripture does not discriminate against women, nor bar them from any roles.[98] Women in Sikhism have been in positions of leadership, including leading in wars and issued orders or hukamnamas. Ten Gurus and authority A rare Tanjore-style painting from the late 19th century depicting the ten Sikh Gurus with Bhai Bala and Bhai Mardana The term Guru comes from the Sanskrit gurū, meaning teacher, guide, or mentor. The traditions and philosophy of Sikhism were established by ten Gurus from 1469 to 1708. Each Guru added to and reinforced the message taught by the previous, resulting in the creation of the Sikh religion. Guru Nanak was the first Guru and appointed a disciple as successor. Guru Gobind Singh was the final Guru in human form. Before his death, Guru Gobind Singh decreed in 1708, that the Gurū Granth Sāhib would be the final and perpetual Guru of the Sikhs. Guru Nanak stated that his Guru is God who is the same from the beginning of time to the end of time.[103] Nanak claimed to be God's mouthpiece, God's slave and servant, but maintained that he was only a guide and teacher. Nanak stated that the human Guru is mortal, who is to be respected and loved but not worshipped. When Guru, or SatGuru (The true Guru) is used in Gurbani it is often referring to the highest expression of truthfulness – God. Guru Angad succeeded Guru Nanak. Later, an important phase in the development of Sikhism came with the third successor, Guru Amar Das. Guru Nanak's teachings emphasised the pursuit 175 of salvation; Guru Amar Das began building a cohesive community of followers with initiatives such as sanctioning distinctive ceremonies for birth, marriage, and death. Amar Das also established the manji (comparable to a diocese) system of clerical supervision. Guru Amar Das's successor and son-in-law Guru Ram Das founded the city of Amritsar, which is home of the Harimandir Sahib and regarded widely as the holiest city for all Sikhs. Guru Arjan was arrested by Mughal authorities who were suspicious and hostile to the religious order he was developing. His persecution and death inspired his successors to promote a military and political organization of Sikh communities to defend themselves against the attacks of Mughal forces. The interior of the Akal Takht The Sikh gurus established a mechanism which allowed the Sikh religion to react as a community to changing circumstances. The sixth guru, Guru Hargobind, was responsible for the creation of the concept of Akal Takht (throne of the timeless one), which serves as the supreme decision-making centre of Sikhism and sits opposite the Harmandir Sahib. The Akal Takht is located in the city of Amritsar. The leader is appointed by the Shiromani Gurdwara Pabandhak Committee (SPGC). The Sarbat Ḵẖālsā (a representative portion of the Khalsa Panth) historically gathers at the Akal Takht on special festivals such as Vaisakhi or Hola Mohalla and when there is a need to discuss matters that affect the entire Sikh nation. A gurmatā (literally, 'guru's intention') is an order passed by the Sarbat Ḵẖālsā in the presence of the Gurū Granth Sāhib. A gurmatā may only be passed on a subject that affects the fundamental principles of Sikh religion; it is binding upon all Sikhs. The term hukamnāmā (literally, 'edict' or 'royal order') is often used interchangeably with the term gurmatā. However, a hukamnāmā formally refers to a hymn from the Gurū Granth Sāhib which is given order to Sikhs. The word guru in Sikhism also refers to Akal Purkh (God), and God and guru can sometimes be synonymous in Gurbani (Sikh writings). Scriptures: There is one primary scripture for the Sikhs: the Gurū Granth Sāhib. It is sometimes synonymously referred to as the Ādi Granth. Chronologically, however, the Ādi Granth – literally, 'First Volume' – refers to the version of the scripture created by Guru Arjan in 1604. The Gurū Granth Sāhib is the final expanded version of the scripture compiled by Guru Gobind Singh. While the Guru Granth Sahib is an unquestioned scripture in Sikhism, another important religious text, the Dasam Granth, does not enjoy universal consensus, and is considered a secondary scripture by many Sikhs. Adi Granth 176 The Ādi Granth was compiled primarily by Bhai Gurdas under the supervision of Guru Arjan between the years 1603 and 1604. It is written in the Gurmukhī script, which is a descendant of the Laṇḍā script used in the Punjab at that time. The Gurmukhī script was Approximate Life Spans and Guruship Spans of the 10 Sikh Gurus standardised by Guru Angad, the second guru of the Sikhs, for use in the Sikh scriptures and is thought to have been influenced by the Śāradā and Devanāgarī scripts. An authoritative scripture was created to protect the integrity of hymns and teachings of the Sikh Gurus, and thirteen Hindu and two Muslim bhagats of the Bhakti movement sant tradition in medieval India. The thirteen 177 Hindu bhagats whose teachings were entered into the text included Ramananda, Namdev, Pipa, Ravidas, Beni, Bhikhan, Dhanna, Jaidev, Parmanand, Sadh ana, Sain, Sur, Trilochan, while the two Muslim bhagats were Kabir and Sufi saint Farid. However, the bhagats in context often spoke of transcending their religious labels, Kabir often attributed to being a Muslim states in the Adi Granth, "I am not Hindu nor Muslim. The Gurus following on this message taught that different methods of devotion are for the same infinite God. Guru Granth Sahib The Guru Granth Sahib is the holy scripture of the Sikhs, and regarded as the living Guru. Compilation The Guru Granth started as a volume of Guru Nanak's poetic compositions. Prior to his death, he passed on his volume to Guru Angad (Guru 1539–1551). The final version of the Gurū Granth Sāhib was compiled by Guru Gobind Singh in 1678. It consists of the original Ādi Granth with the addition of Guru Tegh Bahadur's hymns. The predominant bulk of Guru Granth Sahib is compositions by seven Sikh Gurus – Guru Nanak, Guru Angad, Guru Amar Das, Guru Ram Das, Guru Arjan, Guru Teg Bahadur and Guru Gobind Singh. It also contains the traditions and teachings of thirteen Hindu Bhakti movement sants (saints) such as Ramananda, Namdev among others, and two Muslim saints namely Kabir and the Sufi Sheikh Farid. The text comprises 6,000 śabads (line compositions), which are poetically rendered and set to rhythmic ancient north Indian classical music. The bulk of the scripture is classified into sixty rāgas, with each Granth rāga subdivided according to length and author. The hymns in the scripture are arranged primarily by the rāgas in which they are read. Language and script 178 Mul Mantar written by Guru Har Rai, showing the Ik Onkar at top. The main language used in the scripture is known as Sant Bhāṣā, a language related to both Punjabi and Hindi and used extensively across medieval northern India by proponents of popular devotional religion (bhakti). The text is printed in Gurumukhi script, believed to have been developed by Guru Angad, but it shares the Indo-European roots found in numerous regional languages of India. Teachings The vision in the Guru Granth Sahib, states Torkel Brekke, is a society based on divine justice without oppression of any kind. The Granth begins with the Mūl Mantra, an iconic verse which received Guru Nanak directly from Akal Purakh (God). The traditional Mul Mantar goes from Ik Oankar until Nanak Hosee Bhee Sach. One God exists, truth by name, creative power, without fear, without enmity, timeless form, unborn, self-existent, by the Guru's grace. (Punjabi: ੴ ਿਸਤ ਨਾਮੁ ਕਰਤਾ ਪੁਰਖੁ ਸਨਰਭਉ ਸਨਰਵੈਰੁ ਅਕਾਲ ਮੂਰਸਤ ਅਜੂਨੀ ਿੈਭੰ ਗੁ ਰ ਪਿਿਾਸਦ ॥, romanized: Ika ōaṅkāra sati nāmu karatā purakhu nirabha'u niravairu akāla mūrati ajūnī saibhaṅ gura prasādi) As guru The Tenth Guru, Guru Gobind Singh ji, named the Sikh scripture Guru Granth Sahib as his successor, terminating the line of human Gurus and making the scripture the literal embodiment of the eternal, impersonal Guru, where Gods/Gurus word serves as the spiritual guide for Sikhs. All Sikhs are commanded to take the Granth as Guru (Punjabi: ਿੱਬ ਸਿੱਖਣ ਕੋ ਹੁਕਮ ਹੈ ਗੁ ਰੂ ਮਾਨਯੋ ਗਿੰਥ ।, romanized: Sabb sikkhaṇ kō hukam hai gurū mānyō granth) The Guru Granth Sahib is installed in Sikh Gurdwara (temple); many Sikhs bow or prostrate before it on entering the temple. The Guru Granth Sahib is installed every morning and put to bed at night in many Gurdwaras. The Granth is revered as eternal gurbānī and the spiritual authority. The copies of the Guru Granth Sahib are not regarded as material objects, but as living subjects which are alive. According to Myrvold, the Sikh scripture is treated with respect like a living person, in a manner similar to the Gospel in early Christian worship. Old copies of the Sikh scripture are not thrown away, rather funerary services are performed. In India the Guru Granth Sahib is even officially recognised by the Supreme Court of India as a judicial person which can receive donations and own land. Yet, some Sikhs also warn that, without true comprehension of the text, veneration for the text can lead to bibliolatry, with the concrete form of the teachings becoming the object of worship instead of the teachings themselves. Relation to Hinduism and Islam The Sikh scriptures use Hindu terminology, with references to the Vedas, and the names of gods and goddesses in Hindu bhakti movement traditions, such as Vishnu, Shiva, Brahma, Parvati, 179 Lakshmi, Saraswati, Rama, Krishna, but not to worship.It also refers to the spiritual concepts in Hinduism (Ishvara, Bhagavan, Brahman) and the concept of God in Islam (Allah) to assert that these are just "alternate names for the Almighty One". While the Guru Granth Sahib acknowledges the Vedas, Puranas and Qur'an, it does not imply a syncretic bridge between Hinduism and Islam, but emphasises focusing on nitnem banis like Japu (repeating mantra of the divine Name of God – WaheGuru), instead of Muslim practices such as circumcision or praying on a carpet, or Hindu rituals such as wearing thread or praying in a river. Dasam Granth The Dasam Granth is a Sikh scripture which contains texts attributed to Guru Gobind Singh, including his autobiography Bachittar Natak. The major narrative in the text is on Chaubis Avtar (24 Avatars of Hindu god Vishnu), Rudra, Brahma, the Hindu warrior goddess Chandi and a story of Rama in Bachittar Natak. Main article: Dasam Granth The Dasam Granth is a scripture of Sikhs which contains texts attributed to the Guru Gobind Singh. The Dasam Granth is important to a great number of Sikhs, however it does not have the same authority as the Guru Granth Sahib. Some compositions of the Dasam Granth like Jaap Sahib, (Amrit Savaiye), and Benti Chaupai are part of the daily prayers (Nitnem) for Sikhs. The Dasam Granth is largely versions of Hindu mythology from the Puranas, secular stories from a variety of sources called Charitro Pakhyan – tales to protect careless men from perils of lust. Five versions of Dasam Granth exist, and the authenticity of the Dasam Granth has in modern times become one of the most debated topics within Sikhism. The text played a significant role in Sikh history, but in modern times parts of the text have seen antipathy and discussion among Sikhs. Janamsakhis The Janamsākhīs (literally birth stories), are writings which profess to be biographies of Guru Nanak. Although not scripture in the strictest sense, they provide a hagiographic look at Guru Nanak's life and the early start of Sikhism. There are several – often contradictory and sometimes unreliable – Janamsākhīs and they are not held in the same regard as other sources of scriptural knowledge. 180 The Darbar Sahib of a Gurdwara Observant Sikhs adhere to long-standing practices and traditions to strengthen and express their faith. The daily recitation of the divine name of God VaheGuru and from a memory of specific passages from the Gurū Granth Sāhib, like the Japu (or Japjī, literally chant) hymns is recommended immediately after rising and bathing. Baptized Sikhs recite the fivemorning prayers, the evening and night prayer. Family customs include both reading passages from the scripture and attending the gurdwara (also gurduārā, meaning the doorway to God; sometimes transliterated as Gurudwara). There are many gurdwaras prominently constructed and maintained across India, as well as in almost every nation where Sikhs reside. Gurdwaras are open to all, regardless of religion, background, caste, or race. Worship in a gurdwara consists chiefly of the singing of passages from the scripture. Sikhs will commonly enter the gurdwara, touch the ground before the holy scripture with their foreheads. The recitation of the eighteenth century ardās is also customary for attending Sikhs. The ardās recalls past sufferings and glories of the community, invoking divine grace for all humanity. The gurdwara is also the location for the historic Sikh practice of "Langar" or the community meal. All gurdwaras are open to anyone of any faith for a free meal, always vegetarian.[142] People eat together, and the kitchen is maintained and serviced by Sikh community volunteers. Sikh festivals/events Guru Amar Das chose festivals for celebration by Sikhs like Vaisakhi, wherein he asked Sikhs to assemble and share the festivities as a community. Vaisakhi is one of the most important festivals of Sikhs, while other significant festivals commemorate the birth, lives of the Gurus and Sikh martyrs. Historically, these festivals have been based on the moon calendar Bikrami calendar. In 2003, the SGPC, the Sikh organisation in charge of upkeep of the historical gurdwaras of Punjab, adopted Nanakshahi calendar. The new calendar is highly controversial among Sikhs and is not universally accepted. Sikh festivals include the following:  Vaisakhi which includes Parades and Nagar Kirtan occurs on 13 April or 14 April. Sikhs celebrate it because on this day which fell on 30 March 1699, the tenth Guru, Gobind Singh, inaugurated the Khalsa, the 11th body of Guru Granth Sahib and leader of Sikhs till eternity. 181 o Nagar Kirtan involves the processional singing of holy hymns throughout a community. While practiced at any time, it is customary in the month of Visakhi (or Vaisakhi). Traditionally, the procession is led by the saffron-robed Panj Piare (the five beloved of the Guru), who are followed by the Guru Granth Sahib, the holy Sikh scripture, which is placed on a float. Nagar Kirtan crowd listening to Kirtan at Yuba City, California. Band Chor Diwas has been another important Sikh festival in its history. In recent years, instead of Diwali, the post-2003 calendar released by SGPC has named it the Bandi Chhor divas. Sikhs celebrate Guru Hargobind's release from the Gwalior Fort, with several innocent Raja kings who were also imprisoned by Mughal Emperor Jahangir in 1619. This day continues to be commemorated on the same day of Hindu festival of Diwali, with lights, fireworks and festivities.  Hola Mohalla is a tradition started by Guru Gobind Singh. It starts the day after Sikhs celebrate Holi,[149] sometimes referred to as Hola. Guru Gobind Singh modified Holi with a three-day Hola Mohalla extension festival of martial arts. The extension started the day after the Holi festival in Anandpur Sahib, where Sikh soldiers would train in mock battles, compete in horsemanship, athletics, archery and military exercises.  Gurpurbs are celebrations or commemorations based on the lives of the Sikh Gurus. They tend to be either birthdays or celebrations of Sikh martyrdom. All ten Gurus have Gurpurbs on the Nanakshahi calendar, but it is Guru Nanak and Guru Gobind Singh who have a gurpurb that is widely celebrated in Gurdwaras and Sikh homes. The martyrdoms are also known as a Shaheedi Gurpurbs, which mark the martyrdom anniversary of Guru Arjan and Guru Tegh Bahadur. Ceremonies and customs  182 Sikh wedding/Sikh funeral procession, Mandi, Himachal Pradesh Khalsa Sikhs have also supported and helped develop major pilgrimage traditions to sacred sites such as Harmandir Sahib, Anandpur Sahib, Fatehgarh Sahib, Patna Sahib, Hazur Nanded Sahib, Hemkund Sahib and others. Sikh pilgrims and Sikhs of other sects customarily consider these as holy and a part of their Tirath. The Hola Mohalla around the festival of Holi, for example, is a ceremonial and customary gathering every year in Anandpur Sahib attracting over 100,000 Sikhs. Major Sikh temples feature a sarovar where some Sikhs take a customary dip. Some take home the sacred water of the tank particularly for sick friends and relatives, believing that the waters of such sacred sites have restorative powers and the ability to purify one's karma. The various Gurus of Sikhism have had different approach to pilgrimage. Upon a child's birth, the Guru Granth Sahib is opened at a random point and the child is named using the first letter on the top left hand corner of the left page. All boys are given the last name Singh, and all girls are given the last name Kaur (this was once a title which was conferred on an individual upon joining the Khalsa). The Sikh marriage ritual includes the anand kāraj ceremony. The marriage ceremony is performed in front of the Guru Granth Sahib by a baptized Khalsa, Granthi of the Gurdwara. The tradition of circling the Guru Granth Sahib and Anand Karaj among Khalsa is practised since the fourth Guru, Guru Ram Das. Its official recognition and adoption came in 1909, during the Singh Sabha Movement. Upon death, the body of a Sikh is usually cremated. If this is not possible, any respectful means of disposing the body may be employed. The kīrtan sōhilā and ardās prayers are performed during the funeral ceremony (known as antim sanskār). Initiation and the Khalsa Khalsa (meaning "pure and sovereign") is the collective name given by Guru Gobind Singh to those Sikhs who have been fully initiated by taking part in a ceremony called ammrit sañcār (nectar ceremony). During this ceremony, sweetened water is stirred with a double-edged sword while liturgical prayers are sung; it is offered to the initiating Sikh, who ritually drinks it. Many Sikhs are not formally and fully initiated, as they do not undergo this ceremony, but do 183 adhere to some components of Sikhism and identify as Sikhs. The initiated Sikh, who is believed to be reborn, is referred to as Amritdhari or Khalsa Sikh, while those who are not initiated or baptised are referred to as Kesdhari or Sahajdhari Sikhs. The first time that this ceremony took place was on Vaisakhi, which fell on 30 March 1699 at Anandpur Sahib in Punjab. It was on that occasion that Gobind Singh baptised the Pañj Piārē – the five beloved ones, who in turn baptised Guru Gobind Singh himself. To males who initiated, the last name Singh, meaning "lion", was given, while the last name Kaur, meaning "princess", was given to baptised Sikh females. Baptised Sikhs wear five items, called the Five Ks (in Punjabi known as pañj kakkē or pañj kakār), at all times. The five items are: kēs (uncut hair), kaṅghā (small wooden comb), kaṛā (circular steel or iron bracelet), kirpān (sword/dagger), and kacchera (special undergarment). The Five Ks have both practical and symbolic purposes. History of Sikhism Guru Nanak (1469–1539), the founder of Sikhism, was born in the village of Rāi Bhōi dī Talwandī, now called Nankana Sahib (in present-day Pakistan). His parents were Punjabi Khatri Hindus. According to the hagiography Puratan Janamsakhi composed more than two centuries after his death and probably based on oral tradition,] Nanak as a boy was fascinated by religion and spiritual matters, spending time with wandering ascetics and holy men.[174] His friend was Mardana, a Muslim. Together they would sing devotional songs all night in front of the public, and bathe in the river in the morning. One day, at the usual bath, Nanak went missing and his family feared he had drowned. Three days later he returned home, and declared: "There is no Hindu, there is no Muslim" ("nā kōi hindū nā kōi musalmān"). Thereafter, Nanak started preaching his ideas that form the tenets of Sikhism. In 1526, Guru Nanak at age 50, started a small commune in Kartarpur and his disciples came to be known as Sikhs.[174] Although the exact account of his itinerary is disputed, hagiographic accounts state he made five major journeys, spanning thousands of miles: the first tour being east towards Bengal and Assam; the second south towards Andhra and Tamil Nadu; the third north to Kashmir, Ladakh, and Mount Sumeru[175] in Tibet; and the fourth to Baghdad. In his last and final tour, he returned to the banks of the Ravi River to end his days. There are two competing theories on Guru Nanak's teachings. One, according to Cole and Sambhi, is based on hagiographical Janamsakhis and states that Nanak's teachings and Sikhism were a revelation from God, and not a social protest movement nor any attempt to reconcile Hinduism and Islam in the 15th century.[180] The other states that Nanak was a guru. According to Singha, "Sikhism does not subscribe to the theory of incarnation or the concept of prophethood. But it has a pivotal concept of Guru. He is not an incarnation of God, not even a prophet. He is an illumined soul. The second theory continues that hagiographical Janamsakhis were not written by Nanak, but by later 184 followers without regard for historical accuracy, and contain numerous legends and myths created to show respect for Nanak. The term revelation, clarify Cole and Sambhi, in Sikhism is not limited to the teachings of Nanak, but is extended to all Sikh gurus, as well as the words of past, present and future men and women, who possess divine knowledge intuitively through meditation. The Sikh revelations include the words of non-Sikh bhagats, some who lived and died before the birth of Nanak, and whose teachings are part of the Sikh scriptures. [ The Adi Granth and successive Sikh gurus repeatedly emphasised, states Mandair, that Sikhism is "not about hearing voices from God, but it is about changing the nature of the human mind, and anyone can achieve direct experience and spiritual perfection at any time" Historical influences The roots of the Sikh tradition are, states Louis Fenech, perhaps in the Santtradition of India whose ideology grew to become the Bhakti tradition. Furthermore, adds Fenech: Few Sikhs would mention these Indic texts and ideologies in the same breadth as the Sikh tradition, let alone trace elements of their tradition to this chronological and ideological point, despite the fact that the Indic mythology permeates the Sikh sacred canon, the Guru Granth Sahib, and the secondary canon, the Dasam Granth ... and adds delicate nuance and substance to the sacred symbolic universe of the Sikhs of today and of their past ancestors. The development of Sikhism was influenced by the Bhakti movement; and Vaishnawa Hinduism however, Sikhism was not simply an extension of the Bhakti movement. Sikhism developed while the region was being ruled by the Mughal Empire. Two of the Sikh Gurus – Guru Arjan and Guru Tegh Bahadur, after they refused to convert to Islam, were tortured and executed by the Mughal rulers. The Islamic era persecution of Sikhs triggered the founding of the Khalsa, as an order for freedom of conscience and religion. A Sikh is expected to embody the qualities of a "Sant-Sipāhī" – a saintsoldier. Growth of Sikhism Guru Nanak explaining Sikh teachings to Sadhus 185 After its inception, Sikhism grew as it gained converts among Hindus and Muslims in the Punjab region. In 1539, Guru Nanak chose his disciple Lahiṇā as a successor to the Guruship rather than either of his sons. Lahiṇā was named Guru Angad and became the second Guru of the Sikhs.[192][193] Nanak conferred his choice at the town of Kartarpur on the banks of the river Ravi. Sri Chand, Guru Nanak's son was also a religious man, and continued his own commune of Sikhs. His followers came to be known as the Udasi Sikhs, the first parallel sect of Sikhism that formed in Sikh history. The Udasis believe that the Guruship should have gone to Sri Chand, since he was a man of pious habits in addition to being Nanak's son. Guru Angad, before joining Guru Nanak's commune, worked as a pujari (priest) and religious teacher centered around Hindu goddess Durga. On Nanak's advice, Guru Angad moved from Kartarpur to Khadur, where his wife Khivi and children were living, until he was able to bridge the divide between his followers and the Udasis. Guru Angad continued the work started by Guru Nanak and is widely credited for standardising the Gurmukhī script as used in the sacred scripture of the Sikhs. Guru Amar Das became the third Sikh Guru in 1552 at the age of 73. He adhered to the Vaishnavism tradition of Hinduism for much of his life, before joining the commune of Guru Angad. Goindval became an important centre for Sikhism during the Guruship of Guru Amar Das. He was a reformer, and discouraged veiling of women's faces (a Muslim custom) as well as sati (a Hindu custom). He encouraged the Kshatriya people to fight in order to protect people and for the sake of justice, stating this is Dharma.[200] Guru Amar Das started the tradition of appointing manji (zones of religious administration with an appointed chief called sangatias) introduced the dasvandh ("the tenth" of income) system of revenue collection in the name of Guru and as pooled community religious resource, and the famed langar tradition of Sikhism where anyone, without discrimination of any kind, could get a free meal in a communal seating. The collection of revenue from Sikhs through regional appointees helped Sikhism grow. Guru Amar Das named his disciple and son-in-law Jēṭhā as the next Guru, who came to be known as Guru Ram Das. The new Guru faced hostilities from the sons of Guru Amar Das and therefore shifted his official base to lands identified by Guru Amar Das as Guruka-Chak.[203] He moved his commune of Sikhs there and the place then was called Ramdaspur, after him. This city grew and later became Amritsar – the holiest city of Sikhism. Guru Ram Das expanded the manji organization for clerical appointments in Sikh temples, and for revenue collections to theologically and economically support the Sikh movement. In 1581, Guru Arjan – youngest son of Guru Ram Das, became the fifth Guru of the Sikhs. The choice of successor, as throughout most of the history of Sikh Guru successions, led to disputes and internal divisions among the Sikhs.[205] The elder son of Guru Ram Das named Prithi Chand is remembered in the Sikh tradition as vehemently opposing Guru Arjan, creating a faction Sikh community which the Sikhs following Guru Arjan called as Minas (literally, "scoundrels"). 186 Guru Arjan is remembered in the Sikh for many things. He built the first Harimandir Sahib (later to become the Golden Temple). He was a poet and created the first edition of Sikh sacred text known as the Ādi Granth (literally the first book) and included the writings of the first five Gurus and other enlightened 13 Hindu and 2 Muslim Sufi saints. In 1606, he was tortured and killed by the Mughal emperor Jahangir, for refusing to convert to Islam. His martyrdom is considered a watershed event in the history of Sikhism. Political advancement After the martyrdom of Guru Arjan, his son Guru Hargobind at age eleven became the sixth Guru of the Sikhs, and Sikhism dramatically evolved to become a political movement in addition to being religious. Guru Hargobind carried two swords, calling one spiritual and the other for temporal purpose (known as mīrī and pīrī in Sikhism). According to the Sikh tradition, Guru Arjan asked his son Hargobind to start a military tradition to protect the Sikh people and always keep himself surrounded by armed Sikhs. The building of an armed Sikh militia began with Guru HargobindGuru Hargobind was soon arrested by the Mughals and kept in jail in Gwalior. It is unclear how many years he served in prison, with different texts stating it to be between 2 and 12.[214] He married three women, built a fort to defend Ramdaspur and created a formal court called Akal Takht, now the highest Khalsa Sikh religious authority. In 1644, Guru Hargobind named his grandson Har Rai as the Guru. The Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan attempted political means to undermine the Sikh tradition, by dividing and influencing the succession.[216] The Mughal ruler gave land grants to Dhir Mal, a grandson of Guru Hargobind living in Kartarpur, and ate mpted to encourage Sikhs to recognise Dhir Mal as the rightful successor to Guru Hargobind. Dhir Mal issued statements in favour of the Mughal state, and critical of his grandfather Guru Arjan. Guru Hargobind rejected Dhir Mal, the later refused to give up the original version of the Adi Granth he had, and the Sikh community was divided. Guru Har Rai is famed to have met Dara Shikoh during a time Dara Shikoh and his younger brother Aurangzeb were in a bitter succession fight. Aurangzeb summoned Guru Har Rai, who refused to go and sent his elder son Ram Rai instead. The emperor found a verse in the Sikh scripture insulting to Muslims, and Ram Rai agreed it was a mistake then changed it. Ram Rai thus pleased Aurangzeb, but displeased Guru Har Rai who excommunicated his elder son. He nominated his younger son Guru Har Krishan to succeed him in 1661. Aurangzeb responded by granting Ram Rai a jagir (land grant). Ram Rai founded a town there and enjoyed Aurangzeb's patronage, the town came to be known as Dehradun, after Dehra referring to Ram Rai's shrine. Sikhs who followed Ram Rai came to be known as Ramraiya Sikhs. However, according to rough estimates, there are around 120–150 million (12–15 crore) . Guru Har Krishan became the eighth Guru at the age of five, and died of smallpox before reaching the age of eight. No hymns composed by these three Gurus are included in the Guru Granth Sahib Guru Tegh Bahadur, the uncle of Guru Har Krishan, became Guru in 1665. Tegh Bahadur resisted the forced conversions of Kashmiri Pandits and non-Muslims[ to Islam, and was publicly beheaded in 1675 on the orders of Mughal emperor Aurangzeb in Delhi for refusing to convert to Islam. His beheading traumatized 187 the Sikhs. His body was cremated in Delhi, the head was carried secretively by Sikhs and cremated in Anandpur. He was succeeded by his son, Gobind Rai who militarised his followers by creating the Khalsa in 1699, and baptising the Pañj Piārē. From then on, he was known as Guru Gobind Singh, and Sikh identity was redefined into a political force resisting religious persecution. Gurudwara Sis Ganj Sahib in Delhi. The long window under the marble platform is the location where Guru Tegh Bahadur was executed by the Mughals./Artistic rendering of the execution of Bhai Mati Das by the Mughals. This image is from a Sikh Ajaibghar near the towns of Mohali and Sirhind in Punjab, India. Sikh confederacy and the rise of the Khalsa Sculpture at Mehdiana Sahib of the execution of Banda Singh Bahadur in 1716 by the Mughals. Some bodyguards of Maharaja Ranjit Singh at the Sikh capital, Lahore, Punjab. Guru Gobind Singh inaugurated the Khalsa (the collective body of all initiated Sikhs) as the Sikh temporal authority in the year 1699. It created a community that combines its spiritual purpose and goals with political and military duties Shortly before his death, Guru Gobind Singh proclaimed the Gurū Granth Sāhib (the Sikh Holy Scripture) to be the ultimate spiritual authority for the Sikhs The Sikh Khalsa's rise to power began in the 17th century during a time of growing militancy against Mughal rule. The creation of a Sikh Empire began when Guru Gobind Singh sent a Sikh 188 general, Banda Singh Bahadur, to fight the Mughal rulers of India and those who had committed atrocities against Pir Buddhu Shah. Banda Singh advanced his army towards the main Muslim Mughal city of Sirhind and, following the instructions of the Guru, punished all the culprits. Soon after the invasion of Sirhind, while resting in his chamber after the Rehras prayer Guru Gobind Singh was stabbed by a Pathan assassin hired by Mughals. Gobind Singh killed the attacker with his sword. Though a European surgeon stitched the Guru's wound, the wound reopened as the Guru tugged at a hard strong bow after a few days, causing profuse bleeding that led to Gobind Singh's death. After the Guru's death, Baba Banda Singh Bahadur became the commander-in-chief of the Khalsa. He organised the civilian rebellion and abolished or halted the Zamindari system in time he was active and gave the farmers proprietorship of their own land Banda Singh was executed by the emperor Farrukh Siyar after refusing the offer of a pardon if he converted to Islam. The confederacy of Sikh warrior bands known as misls emerged, but these fought between themselves. Ranjit Singh achieved a series of military victories and created a Sikh Empire in 1799. The Sikh empire had its capital in Lahore, spread over almost 200,000 square miles (520,000 square kilometres) comprising what is now northwestern Indian subcontinent. The Sikh Empire entered into a treaty with the colonial British powers, with each side recognizing Sutlej River as the line of control and agreeing not to invade the other side. Ranjit Singh's most lasting legacy was the restoration and expansion of the Harmandir Sahib, most revered Gurudwara of the Sikhs, with marble and gold, from which the popular name of the "Golden Temple" is derived. After the death of Ranjit Singh in 1839, the Sikh Empire fell into disorder. Ranjit Singh had failed to establish a lasting structure for Sikh government or stable succession, and the Sikh Empire rapidly declined after his death. Factions divided the Sikhs, and led to Anglo-Sikh wars. The British easily defeated the confused and demoralised Khalsa forces, then disbanded them into destitution. The youngest son of Ranjit Singh named Duleep Singh ultimately succeeded, but he was arrested and exiled after the defeat of Sikh Khalsa. Singh Sabha movement The Singh Sabha movement, a movement to revitalize Sikhism, also saw the resurgence of the Khalsa after their defeat by the British in the Anglo-Sikh wars, and the subsequent decline and corruption of Sikh institutions during colonial rule, and the proselytization of other faith groups in the Punjab. It was started in the 1870s, and after a period of interfactional rivalry, united under the Tat Khalsa to reinvigorate Sikh practice and institutions. The last Maharaja of the Sikh Empire Duleep Singh converted to Christianity in 1853, a controversial but influential event in Sikh history. Along with his conversion, and after Sikh Empire had been dissolved and the region made a part of the colonial British Empire, proselytising activities of Christians, Brahmo Samajis, Arya Samaj, Muslim Anjuman-iIslamia and Ahmadiyah sought to convert the Sikhs in northwestern Indian subcontinent into their respective faiths. These developments launched the Singh Sabha 189 ABOUT THE AUTHOR Dr. Uday Dokras B.Sc., B.A. (managerial economics) LL.B. Nagpur University, INDIA Graduate Studies, Queen’s University, Kingston, CANADA MBA CALSATATE USA Graduate Diploma in Law, Stockholm University, SWEDEN Ph.D. Stockholm University, SWEDEN CONSULTANT Human Resource and Administration, FDCM ESSELWORLD GOREWADA ZOO Pvt. Ltd 190 191 Art and Architecture of the Golden Temple Dr Uday Dokras Architect Srishti Dokras 192

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