dress

Female display

Views on female display have also changed dramatically. In “primitive” societies living in hot climates, almost total nudity was acceptable for both sexes. However, with the rise of Christianity, and 600 years later of Islam, covering of the female form became compulsory. Meant to simultaneously demonstrate and inculcate modesty, both religions exhorted women to be clothed from head to foot. St. Paul wrote to Timothy “that women should adorn themselves modestly and sensibly in seemly apparel, not with braided hair or gold or pearls or costly attire but by good deeds, as befits women who profess religion.” St. Peter expressed similar views, and St. Augustine of Hippo censured makeup as well, although he allowed that a woman might adorn herself slightly to please her husband if the practice was carried out in private. Traditions of modest dress are expressed today in the apparel worn by women who are conservative Muslims or members of “plain” Christian groups such as the Amish and Mennonites.

From 381, when Theodosius I made Christianity compulsory in the Roman Empire, Christian views on modesty dominated women’s apparel. These views not only mandated the covering of the body and hair but also maintained that the fabric and fasteners of the covering itself should be modest. Later, Diocletian divided the Roman Empire into two parts, and Constantine I the Great founded another capital, Constantinople. Eastern Rome on the Bosporus adopted the Eastern taste for coloured and patterned fabrics, and after 552, when the emperor Justinian I established the first silk-manufacturing industry in Europe in Constantinople, the city became renowned for its luxurious silks and brocades.

Meanwhile, western Rome suffered barbarian invasions and centuries of disorder until it broke up into separate kingdoms. Once these new courts had established themselves, they, too, started trying to outdress and outshine one another. The Anglo-Saxons, for example, wore loose clothes, but after the Norman Conquest (1066) members of the court started wearing tighter-fitting clothes. This was achieved by cutting the garments on the bias and lacing them under the arm, with the result that the female figure in particular was outlined very obviously. Although abbots and bishops objected vehemently, the new fashion for displaying the physique continued unabashed. This style, which also featured exaggerated cuffs reaching the ground, dominated the 1100s. By the 1340s necklines had become so wide that they were almost off the shoulder. Moreover, the adoption of buttonholes from the Moors around 1250 had introduced the art of tailoring. Clothes could now be cut very tight and still be easily removed. Shaped seams evolved, and the possession of a shapely figure was essential for both men and women. By 1400 women’s waistlines were higher, emphasizing the bosom and making the differences between the sexes obvious. The exposure of the female neck became almost permanent in court circles thenceforth.

It was not until the end of the 18th century, when Neoclassical taste came to the fore, that the exposure of the female form was again a major issue. When the English novelist Fanny Burney visited Paris in April 1802, her modest wardrobe was found too full: “Three petticoats! no one wears more than one! Stays? everybody has left off even corsets! Shift-sleeves? not a soul now wears even a chemise.” In an homage to the styles of Classical Greece and Rome, women adopted high-waisted, diaphanous gowns.

With the end of the Napoleonic Wars, a more covered-up style developed. But the Victorians were not as prudish as people think. Crinolines revealed the ankles, and corsets emphasized female curves. Evening dresses had very low necklines. The narrower skirts of the 1870s and 1880s allowed the outline of a woman’s legs to be seen.

Also influential in the late 19th century was the vogue for women’s sports, and some freer clothes evolved in consequence. Amelia Bloomer’s reformed trousers (“bloomers”) for women did not become fashionable, but they were adopted by women gymnasts, sea bathers, and cyclists. Shorter skirts were designed for walking, golfing, shooting, and tennis.

The acceptance of less cumbersome costumes for sports affected swimwear, and, once the designer Coco Chanel made suntans the rage, exposure of the female form became almost total. Sunbathing suits revealed more of the female anatomy than any costume since antiquity: whereas in the past ladies had gone to great lengths to avoid being browned by the sun (for a sunburned complexion was the mark of a peasant), there was an almost universal vogue for sun worship in the West from the 1920s until the 1980s, when heavy sun exposure began to be warned against, with doctors stressing the dangers of skin cancer. The backless evening dresses of the 1920s and ’30s required a suntan to display and in cut were practically bathing costumes with skirts. The 1950s launched the bikini, which provided minimal coverage for women and was followed by the acceptance of even total nudity on some designated beaches.