dress

Ancient nonclassical Europe

Animal furs and hides made up the chief garments during the European Stone Age. They would be held to the body by a thong belt and by pins at the shoulder. Later such skins were pierced with awls and sewn together with cordage to give a closer fit. Finds from tombs and living sites dating to the Upper Paleolithic Period (c. 38,000–c. 8,000 bce) indicate that people had a fair knowledge of dressing skins, weaving, and sewing. No garments have survived the oldest part of the Upper Paleolithic, but archaeologists have recovered artifacts such as boxwood and bone combs, delicate bone needles, reindeer horn buttons and plaques, and decorative items such as necklaces and armlets of beads, amber, and ivory. Discoveries from more recent eras, such as that of the Iceman, or Ötzi (c. 3300 bce), have provided more information.

The advent of the Bronze Age varies in time and expression from one part of Europe to another. The art of bronze working came to Italy from the Middle East and then spread westward to Britain and Scandinavia. During the years 1500–600 bce the arts of spinning and weaving were further developed; simple natural dyes were used; and decoration was by embroidery, fringing, and plaiting.

In Denmark, the northern Netherlands, and Germany the practice of burying people in peat bogs has preserved a number of actual, almost complete, Bronze Age garments. Most of the garments are woolen or leather items that were maintained in remarkable condition in oak log coffins. They include large semicircular cloaks, felt caps, tunics with leather straps and belts, and, for women, jackets and skirts with ornamental belts and hair ornaments. Many of these are on display in the National Museum in Copenhagen and the Schleswig-Holstein Museum of Prehistory and Early History in Germany.

A different type of dress was worn by the nomadic peoples who lived on the Steppe, a grassy plain that stretches from Hungary to Manchuria. Such groups, which included the Scythians, Cimmerians, and Sarmatians, traveled immense distances on horseback. Their attire being suited to their way of life, both sexes wore similar garments consisting of a woolen tunic over a shirt and wide trousers. These garments were worn in layers one on top of another; they were fairly close-fitting but loose enough for comfort and for the practical needs of hours spent on horseback. Short boots were pulled up over the trouser bottoms and tied in place. These peoples also wore leather belts around their waists, and felted woolen caps kept their heads warm. Around 600 bce the Scythians lived in the region around the Black Sea and then gradually moved westward to Romania, Hungary, and Germany. Excavation of their burial sites in the Dnieper valley and near Simferopol, both in Ukraine, and in the Balkans has yielded both actual garments and a wealth of relief sculpture, vases, and plaques that illustrate Scythian dress.

The 6th-century-bce Hallstatt culture of the Bavarian and Bohemian areas had an advanced lifestyle for its time. Finds from this early phase of the Iron Age, however, are chiefly weapons and jewelry. In the 4th century bce the Celts from central Europe, or at least some of their styles and methods of manufacture, moved into Italy and thence on to Britain, Ireland, and Spain. Finds of the Celtic culture, which consist largely of jewelry, toilet articles, and ornaments, illustrate both the high Celtic standard of craftsmanship, especially in metal, and the individual character of their design. Museums in many countries—notably Italy, Spain, Portugal, Ireland, and Britain—display a wealth of such work.

Roman influence on the dress of the northern and western countries of the empire was strong until the early 5th century ce. This was to a certain extent, however, a two-way influence since, in the colder northern areas, the Romans found the indigenous dress styles of belted tunics with trousers or leg-banding more suitable than their own Classical tunica and bare legs. Useful evidence of local attire in Britain, Gaul, and Germany is graphically illustrated on Trajan’s Column and that of Marcus Aurelius, both in Rome. This evidence is reinforced by the written accounts of Roman historians such as Cornelius Tacitus of the 1st century ce and Sidonius Apollinaris of the later years.