Famous Men of the Middle Ages and Modern Times by Libraries of Hope

Famous Men of the Middle Ages and Modern Times J. H. Haaren A. B. Poland

Libraries of Hope

Famous Men of the Middle Ages and Modern Times

Copyright ÂŠ 2021 by Libraries of Hope, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without prior written permission of the publisher. International rights and foreign translations available only through permission of the publisher. Famous Men of the Middle Ages, by J.H. Haaren & A.B. Poland, (original copyright 1904). Famous Men of Modern Times, by J.H. Haaren & A.B. Poland, (original copyright 1909). Cover Image: Die Kaiserkronung Karls des Grossen, by Maximilianeum Munchen (before 1903). In public domain, source Wikimedia Commons. Libraries of Hope, Inc. Appomattox, Virginia 24522 Website: www.librariesofhope.com Email: librariesofhope@gmail.com Printed in the United States of America

CONTENTS FAMOUS MEN OF THE MIDDLE AGES INTRODUCTION

PAGE

The Gods of Teutons

The Nibelungs

CHAPTER

Alaric the Visigoth

Attila the Hun

Genseric the Vandal

Theodoric the Ostrogoth

Clovis

Justinian the Great

Mohammed

Charles Martel and Pepin

Charlemagne

Harun-al-Rashid

Egbert the Saxon

Rollo the Viking

Alfred the Great

Henry the Fowler

Canute the Great

102

The Cid

107

Edward the Confessor

112

William the Conqueror

115

Peter the Hermit

119

Frederick Barbarossa

124

Henry III and His Sons

128

Louis IX

137

Robert Bruce

143 i

Marco Polo q

148

Edward the Black Prince

152

William Tell & Arnold von Winkelried

157

Tamerlane

163

Henry V

166

Joan of Arc

172

Gutenberg

179

Warwick the Kingmaker

183

FAMOUS MEN OF MODERN TIMES CHAPTER

PAGE

Lorenzo the Magnificent

195

Christopher Columbus

200

Ferdinand of Aragon

207

Vasco da Gama

214

Chevalier Bayard

222

Cardinal Wolsey

228

Charles V of Germany

235

Solyman the Sublime

243

Sir Francis Drake

250

Sir Walter Raleigh

260

Henry of Navarre

267

Wallenstein

275

Gustavus Adolfus

282

Cardinal Richelieu

288

Galileo

294

Oliver Cromwell

301

Louis XIV

307

Sir Isaac Newton

314

William III, King of England

320 ii

Sobieski

326

Peter the Great

331

Charles XII of Sweden

337

Frederick the Great

343

William Pitt

352

George Washington

357

Robespierre

368

Napoleon Bonaparte

372

Horatio Nelson

380

Thadeus Kosciusko

387

Abraham Lincoln

391

Garibaldi

398

William Ewert Gladstone

403

Count Von Bismark

409

iii

Famous Men of the Middle Ages By J. H. Haaren and A. B. Poland

PREFACE The study of history, like the study of a landscape, should begin with the most conspicuous features. Not until these have been fixed in memory will the lesser features fall into their appropriate places and assume their right proportions. The famous men of ancient and modern times are the mountain peaks of history. It is logical then that the study of history should begin with the biographies of these men. Not only is it logical; it is also pedagogical. Experience has proven that in order to attract and hold the child’s attention each conspicuous feature of history presented to him should have an individual for its center. The child identifies himself with the personage presented. It is not Romulus or Hercules or Caesar or Alexander that the child has in mind when he reads, but himself, acting under similar conditions. Prominent educators, appreciating these truths, have long recognized the value of biography as a preparation for the study of history and have given it an important place in their scheme of studies. The former practice in many elementary schools of beginning the detailed study of American history without any previous knowledge of general history limited the pupil’s range of vision, restricted his sympathies, and left him without material for comparisons. Moreover, it denied to him a knowledge of his inheritance from the Greek philosopher, the Roman lawgiver, the Teutonic lover of freedom. Hence the recommendation so strongly urged in the report of the Committee of Ten — and emphasized also, in the report of the Committee of Fifteen — that the study of Greek, Roman and modern European history in the form of biography should precede the study of detailed American history in our elementary schools. The Committee of Ten recommends an eight years’ course in history, beginning with the fifth year in school and continuing to the end of the high school course. The first two years of this course are given wholly to the study of biography and mythology. The Committee of 3

FAMOUS MEN OF THE MIDDLE AGES Fifteen recommends that history be taught in all the grades of the elementary school and emphasizes the value of biography and of general history. The series of historical stories to which this volume belongs was prepared in conformity with the foregoing recommendations and with the best practice of leading schools. It has been the aim of the authors to make an interesting story of each manâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s life and to tell these stories in a style so simple that pupils in the lower grades will read them with pleasure, and so dignified that they may be used with profit as text-books for reading. Teachers who find it impracticable to give to the study of mythology and biography a place of its own in an already overcrowded curriculum usually prefer to correlate history with reading and for this purpose the volumes of this series will be found most desirable. The value of the illustrations can scarcely be over-estimated. They will be found to surpass in number and excellence anything heretofore offered in a schoolbook. For the most part they are reproductions of world-famous pictures, and for that reason the artistsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; names are generally affixed.

INTRODUCTION The Gods of the Teutons I In the little volume called The Famous Men of Rome you have read about the great empire which the Romans established. Now we come to a time when the power of Rome was broken and tribes of barbarians who lived north of the Danube and the Rhine took possession of lands that had been part of the Roman Empire. These tribes were the Goths, Vandals, Huns, Franks, and Anglo-Saxons. From them have come the greatest nations of modern times. All except the Huns belonged to the same race and are known as Teutons. They were war-like, savage, and cruel. They spoke the same language—though in different dialects—and worshiped the same gods. Like the old Greeks and Romans they had many gods. Woden, who was also called Odin, was the greatest of all. His name means “mighty warrior,” and he was king of all the gods. He rode through the air mounted on Sleip΄nir, an eight-footed horse fleeter than the eagle. When the tempest roared the Teutons said it was the snorting of Sleipnir. When their ships came safely into port they said it was Woden’s breath that had filled their sails and wafted their vessels over the blue waters. Thor, a son of Woden, ranked next to him among the gods. He rode through the air in a chariot drawn by goats. The Germans called him Donar and Thunar, words which are like our word thunder. From this we can see that he was the thunder god. In his hand he carried a wonderful hammer which always came back to his hand when he threw it. Its head was so bright that as it flew through the air it made the lightning. When it struck the vast ice mountains they reeled and splintered into fragments, and thus Thor’s hammer made thunder. Another great god of our ancestors was Tiew. He was a son of Woden and was the god of battle. He was armed with a sword which 5

FAMOUS MEN OF THE MIDDLE AGES

Thor throwing his hammer flashed like lightning when he brandished it. A savage chief named Attila routed the armies of the Romans and so terrified all the world that he was called “The Scourge of God.” His people believed that he gained his victories because he had the sword of Tiew, which a herdsman chanced to find where the god had allowed it to fall. The Teutons prayed to Tiew when they went into battle. Frija (free΄ ya) was the wife of Woden and the queen of the gods. She ruled the bright clouds that gleam in the summer sky, and caused them to pour their showers on meadow and forest and mountain. Four of the days of the week are named after these gods. Tuesday means the day of Tiew; Wednesday, the day of Woden; Thursday, the day of Thor; and Friday, the day of Frija. Frija’s son was Bald΄ur; who was the favorite of all the gods. Only Lo΄ki, the spirit of evil, hated him. Baldur’s face was as bright as sunshine. His hair gleamed like burnished gold. Wherever he went 6

INTRODUCTION night was turned into day. One morning when he looked toward earth from his father Woden’s palace black clouds covered the sky, but he saw a splendid rainbow reaching down from the clouds to the earth. Baldur walked upon this rainbow from the home of the gods to the dwellings of men. The rainbow was a bridge upon which the gods used to come to earth. When Baldur stepped from the rainbow-bridge to the earth he saw a king’s daughter so beautiful that he fell in love with her. But an earthly prince had also fallen in love with her. So he and Baldur fought for her hand. Baldur was a god and hence was very much stronger than the prince. But some of Baldur’s magic food was given to the prince and it made him as strong as Baldur. Frija heard about this and feared that Baldur was doomed to be killed. So she went to every beast on the land and every fish of the sea and every bird of the air and to every tree of the wood and every plant of the field and made each promise not to hurt Baldur. But she forgot the mistletoe. So Loki, who always tried to do mischief, made an arrow of mistletoe, and gave it to the prince who shot and killed Baldur with it. Then all the gods wept, the summer breeze wailed, the leaves fell from the sorrowing trees, the flowers faded and died from grief, and the earth grew stiff and cold. Bruin, the bear, and his neighbors, the hedgehogs and squirrels, crept into holes and refused to eat for weeks and weeks. The pleasure of all living things in Baldur’s presence means the happiness that the sunlight brings. The sorrow of all living things at his death means the gloom of northern countries when winter comes. The Val-kyr΄ies were beautiful female warriors. They had some of Woden’s own strength and were armed with helmet and shield and spear. Like Woden, they rode unseen through the air and their horses were almost as swift as Sleipnir himself. They swiftly carried Woden’s favorite warriors to Valhalla, the hall of the slain. The walls of Valhalla were hung with shields; its ceiling glittered with polished spearheads. From its five hundred and forty gates, each wide enough for eight hundred men abreast to march through, the warriors rushed every morning to fight a battle that lasted till nightfall and began again at the break of each day. When the heroes returned to Valhalla 7

FAMOUS MEN OF THE MIDDLE AGES the Valkyries served them with goblets of mead such as Woden drank himself.

One of the Valkyries bearing a hero to Valhala (Dielitz)

INTRODUCTION The Teutons believed that before there were any gods or any world there was a great empty space where the world now is. It was called by the curious name Gin΄nungagap, which means a yawning abyss. To the north of Ginnungagap it was bitterly cold. Nothing was there but fields of snow and mountains of ice. To the south of Ginnungagap was a region where frost and snow were never seen. It was always bright, and was the home of light and heat. The sunshine from the South melted the ice mountains of the North so that they toppled over and fell into Ginnungagap. There they were changed into a frost giant whose name was Ymir (e΄mir). He had three sons. They and their father were so strong that the gods were afraid of them. So Woden and his brothers killed Ymir. They broke his body in pieces and made the world of them. His bones and teeth became mountains and rocks; his hair became leaves for trees and plants; out of his skull was made the sky. But Ymir was colder than ice, and the earth that was made of his body was so cold that nothing could live or grow upon it. So the gods took sparks from the home of light and set them in the sky. Two big ones were the sun and moon and the little ones were the stars. Then the earth became warm. Trees grew and flowers bloomed, so that the world was a beautiful home for men. Of all the trees the most wonderful was a great ash tree, sometimes called the “world tree.” Its branches covered the earth and reached beyond the sky till they almost touched the stars. Its roots ran in three directions, to heaven, to the frost giants’ home and to the under-world, beneath the earth. Near the roots in the dark under-world sat the Norns, or fates. Each held a bowl with which she dipped water out of a sacred spring and poured it upon the roots of the ash tree. This was the reason why this wonderful tree was always growing, and why it grew as high as the sky. When Woden killed Ymir he tried to kill all Ymir’s children too; but one escaped, and ever after he and his family, the frost giants, tried to do mischief, and fought against gods and men. According to the belief of the Teutons these wicked giants will 9

FAMOUS MEN OF THE MIDDLE AGES some day destroy the beautiful world. Even the gods themselves will be killed in a dreadful battle with them. First of all will come three terrible winters without any spring or summer. The sun and moon will cease to shine and the bright stars will fall from the sky. The earth will be shaken as when there is a great earthquake; the waves of the sea will roar and the highest mountains will totter and fall. The trees will be torn up by the roots, and even the “world tree” will tremble from its roots to its topmost boughs. At last the quivering earth will sink beneath the waters of the sea. Then Loki, the spirit of evil, will break loose from the fetters with which the gods have bound him. The frost giants will join him. They will try to make a secret attack on the gods. But Heimdall, the sentry of heaven, will be on guard at the end of the rainbow-bridge. He needs no more sleep than a bird and can see for a hundred miles either by day or night. He only can sound the horn whose blast can be heard through heaven and earth and the under-world. Loki and his army will be seen by him. His loud alarm will sound and bring the gods together. They will rush to meet the giants. Woden will wield his spear—Tiew his glittering sword—Thor his terrible hammer. These will all be in vain. The gods must die. But so must the giants and Loki. And then a new earth will rise from the sea. The leaves of its forests will never fall; its fields will yield harvests unsown. And in a hall far brighter than Woden’s Valhalla the brave and good will be gathered forever.

The Nibelungs I The time came when the people of Western Europe learned to believe in one God and were converted to Christianity, but the old stories about the gods and Valkyries and giants and heroes, who were half gods and half men, were not forgotten. These stories were repeated from father to son for generations, and in the twelfth century a poet, whose name we do not know, wrote them in verse. He called his poem the Nï΄bel-ung΄en-lied (song of the 10

INTRODUCTION Nibelungs). It is the great national poem of the Germans. The legends told in it are the basis of Wagner’s operas. “Nibelungs” was the name given to some northern dwarfs whose king had once possessed a great treasure of gold and precious stones but had lost it. Whoever got possession of this treasure was followed by a curse. The Nibelungenlied tells the adventures of those who possessed the treasure. II In the grand old city of Worms, in Burgundy, there lived long ago the princess Kriemhilda. Her eldest brother Gunther was king of Burgundy. And in the far-away Netherlands, where the Rhine pours its waters into the sea, dwelt a prince named Siegfried, son of Siegmund, the king. Ere long Sir Siegfried heard of the beauty of fair Kriemhilda. He said to his father, “Give me twelve knights and I will ride to King Gunther’s land. I must win the heart of Kriemhilda.” After seven days’ journey the prince and his company drew near to the gates of Worms. All wondered who the strangers were and whence they came. Hagen, Kriemhilda’s uncle, guessed. He said, “I never have seen the famed hero of Netherlands, yet I am sure that yonder knight is none but Sir Siegfried.” “And who,” asked the wondering people, “may Siegfried be?” “Siegfried,” answered Sir Hagen, “is a truly wonderful knight. Once when riding all alone, he came to a mountain where lay the treasure of the king of the Nibelungs. The king’s two sons had brought it out from the cave in which it had been hidden, to divide it between them. But they did not agree about the division. So when Seigfied drew near both princes said, ‘Divide for us, Sir Siegfried, our father’s hoard.’ There were so many jewels that one hundred wagons could not carry them, and of ruddy gold there was even more. Seigfied made the fairest division he could, and as a reward the princes gave him their father’s sword called Balmung. But although Siegfried had done his best to satisfy them with his division, they soon fell to quarreling and fighting, and when he tried to separate them they 11

FAMOUS MEN OF THE MIDDLE AGES made an attack on him. To save his own life he slew them both. Alberich, a mountain dwarf, who had long been guardian of the Nibelung hoard, rushed to avenge his masters; but Siegfried vanquished him and took from him his cap of darkness which made its wearer invisible and gave him the strength of twelve men. The hero then ordered Alberich to place the treasure again in the mountain cave and guard it for him.” Hagen then told another story of Siegfried: “Once he slew a fierce dragon and bathed himself in its blood, and this turned the hero’s skin to horn, so that no sword or spear can wound him.” When Hagen had told these tales he advised King Gunther and the people of Burgundy to receive Siegfried with all honor. So, as the fashion was in those times, games were held in the courtyard of the palace in honor of Siegfried, and Kriemhilda watched the sport from her window. For a full year Siegfried stayed at the court of King Gunther, but never in all that time told why he had come and never once saw Kriemhilda. At the end of the year sudden tidings came that the Saxons and Danes, as was their habit, were pillaging the lands of Burgundy. At the head of a thousand Burgundian knights Siegfried conquered both Saxons and Danes. The king of the Danes was taken prisoner and the Saxon king surrendered. The victorious warriors returned to Worms and the air was filled with glad shouts of welcome. King Gunther asked Kriemhilda to welcome Siegfried and offer him the thanks of all the land of Burgundy. Siegfried stood before her, and she said, “Welcome, Sir Siegfried, welcome; we thank you one and all.” He bent before her and she kissed him. III Far over the sea from sunny Burgundy lived Brunhilda, queen of Iceland. Fair was she of face and strong beyond compare. If a knight would woo and win her he must surpass her in three contests: leaping, hurling the spear and pitching the stone. If he failed in even one, he 12

Siegfried slays the dragon (Dielitz)

FAMOUS MEN OF THE MIDDLE AGES must forfeit his life. King Gunther resolved to wed this strange princess and Siegfried promised to help him. “But,” said Siegfried, “if we succeed, I must have as my wife thy sister Kriemhilda.” To this Gunther agreed, and the voyage to Iceland began. When Gunther and his companions neared Brunhilda’s palace the gates were opened and the strangers were welcomed. Siegfried thanked the queen for her kindness and told how Gunther had come to Iceland in hope of winning her hand. “If in three contests he gain the mastery,” she said, “I will become his wife. If not, both he and you who are with him must lose your lives.” Brunhilda prepared for the contests. Her shield was so thick and heavy that four strong men were needed to bear it. Three could scarcely carry her spear and the stone that she hurled could just be lifted by twelve. Siegfried now helped Gunther in a wonderful way. He put on his cap of darkness, so that no one could see him. Then he stood by Gunther’s side and did the fighting. Brunhilda threw her spear against the kings bright shield and sparks flew from the steel. But the unseen knight dealt Brunhilda such blows that she confessed herself conquered. In the second and third contests she fared no better, and so she had to become King Gunther’s bride. But she said that before she would leave Iceland she must tell all her kinsmen. Daily her kinsfolk came riding to the castle, and soon an army had assembled. Then Gunther and his friends feared unfair play. So Siegfried put on his cap of darkness, stepped into a boat, and went to the Nibelung land where Alberich the dwarf was guarding the wonderful Nibelung treasure. “Bring me here,” he cried to the dwarf, “a thousand Nibelung knights.” At the call of the dwarf the warriors gathered around Sir Siegfried. Then they sailed with him to Brunhilda’s isle and the queen and her kinsmen, fearing such warriors, welcomed them instead of fighting. Soon after their arrival King Gunther and his men, Siegfried and his Nibelungs, and Queen Brunhilda, with two thousand of her kinsmen set sail for King Gunther’s land. 14

INTRODUCTION As soon as they reached Worms the marriage of Gunther and Brunhilda took place. Siegfried and Kriemhilda also were married, and after their marriage went to Siegfried’s Netherlands castle. There they lived more happily than I can tell. IV Now comes the sad part of the Nibelung tale. Brunhilda and Gunther invited Siegfried and Kriemhilda to visit them at Worms. During the visit the two queens quarreled and Brunhilda made Gunther angry with Siegfried. Hagen, too, began to hate Siegfried and wished to kill him. But Siegfried could not be wounded except in one spot on which a falling leaf had rested when he bathed himself in the dragon’s blood. Only Kriemhilda knew where this spot was. Hagen told her to sew a little silk cross upon Siegfried’s dress to mark the spot, so that he might defend Siegfried in a fight. No battle was fought, but Siegfried went hunting with Gunther and Hagen one day and they challenged him to race with them. He easily won, but after running he was hot and thirsty and knelt to drink at a spring. Then Hagen seized a spear and plunged it through the cross into the hero’s body. Thus the treasure of the Nibelungs brought disaster to Siegfried. Gunther and Hagen told Kriemhilda that robbers in the wood had slain her husband, but she could not be deceived. Kriemhilda determined to take vengeance on the murderers of Siegfried, and so she would not leave Worms. There, too, stayed one thousand knights who had followed Siegfried from the Nibelung land. Soon after Siegfried’s death Kriemhilda begged her younger brother to bring the Nibelung treasure from the mountain cave to Worms. When it arrived Kriemhilda gave gold and jewels to rich and poor in Burgundy, and Hagen feared that soon she would win the love of all the people and turn them against him. So, one day, he took the treasure and hid it in the Rhine. He hoped some day to enjoy it himself. As Hagen now possessed the Nibelung treasure the name 15

The body of Siegfried is carried to Worms (Pixts)

INTRODUCTION “Nibelungs” was given to him and his companions. V Etzel, or as we call him, Attila, king of the Huns, heard of the beauty of Kriemhilda and sent one of his knights to ask the queen to become his wife. At first she refused. However, when she remembered that Etzel carried the sword of Tiew, she changed her mind, because, if she became his wife, she might persuade him to take vengeance upon Gunther and Hagen. And so it came to pass. Shortly after their marriage Etzel and Kriemhilda invited Gunther and all his court to a grand midsummer festival in the land of the Huns. Hagen was afraid to go, for he felt sure that Kriemhilda had not forgiven the murder of Siegfried. However, it was decided that the invitation should be accepted, but that ten thousand knights should go with Gunther as a bodyguard. Shortly after Gunther and his followers arrived at Attila’s court a banquet was prepared. Nine thousand Burgundians were seated at the board when Attila’s brother came into the banquet hall with a thousand well-armed knights. A quarrel arose and a fight followed. Thousands of the Burgundians were slain. The struggle continued for days. At last, of all the knights of Burgundy, Gunther and Hagen alone were left alive. Then one of Kriemhilda’s friends fought with them and overpowered both. He bound them and delivered them to Kriemhilda. The queen ordered one of her knights to cut off Gunther’s head, and she herself cut off the head of Hagen with “Balmung,” Siegfried’s wonderful sword. A friend of Hagen then avenged his death by killing Kriemhilda herself. Of all the Nibelungs who entered the land of the Huns one only ever returned to Burgundy.

Alaric the Visigoth King from 394-410 A.D. I Long before the beginning of the period known as the Middle Ages a tribe of barbarians called the Goths lived north of the River Danube in the country which is now known as Roumania. It was then a part of the great Roman Empire, which at that time had two capitals, Constantinople—the new city of Constantine—and Rome. The Goths had come from the shores of the Baltic Sea and settled on this Roman territory, and the Romans had not driven them back. During the reign of the Roman Emperor Va΄lens some of the Goths joined a conspiracy against him. Valens punished them for this by crossing the Danube and laying waste their country. At last the Goths had to beg for mercy. The Gothic chief was afraid to set foot on Roman soil, so he and Valens met on their boats in the middle of the Danube and made a treaty of peace. For a long time the Goths were at war with another tribe of barbarians called Huns. Sometimes the Huns defeated the Goths and drove them to their camps in the mountains. Sometimes the Goths came down to the plains again and defeated the Huns. At last the Goths grew tired of such constant fighting and thought they would look for new settlements. They sent some of their leading men to the Emperor Valens to ask permission to settle in some country belonging to Rome. The messengers said to the emperor: “If you will allow us to make homes in the country south of the Danube we will be friends of Rome and fight for her when she needs our help.” The emperor at once granted this request. He said to the Gothic chiefs: “Rome always needs good soldiers. Your people may cross the Danube and settle on our land. As long as you remain true to Rome we will protect you against your enemies.” These Goths were known as Visigoths, or Western Goths. Other 18

The meeting between Valens and the Gothic chief on the Danube (Knille)

FAMOUS MEN OF THE MIDDLE AGES tribes of Goths who had settled in southern Russia, were called Ostrogoths, or Eastern Goths. After getting permission from the Emperor Valens a large number of the Visigoths crossed the Danube with their families and their cattle and settled in the country now called Bulgaria. In course of time they became a very powerful nation, and in the year 394 they chose as their king one of the chiefs named Al΄a-ric. He was a brave man and a great soldier. Even when a child he took delight in war, and at the age of sixteen he fought as bravely as the older soldiers. One night, not long after he became king, Alaric had a very strange dream. He thought he was driving in a golden chariot through the streets of Rome amid the shouts of the people, who hailed him as emperor. This dream made a deep impression on his mind. He was always thinking of it, and at last he began to have the idea that he could make the dream come true. “To be master of the Roman Empire,” he said to himself, “that is indeed worth trying for; and why should I not try? With my brave soldiers I can conquer Rome, and I shall make the attempt.” So Alaric called his chiefs together and told them what he had made up his mind to do.

Alaric at Athens (Thiersch)

ALARIC THE VISIGOTH The chiefs gave a cry of delight for they approved of the kingâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s proposal. In those days fighting was almost the only business of chiefs, and they were always glad to be at war, especially when there was hope of getting rich spoils. And so the Visigoth chiefs rejoiced at the idea of war against Rome, for they knew that if they were victorious they would have the wealth of the richest city of the world to divide among themselves. Soon they got ready a great army. With Alaric in command, they marched through Thrace and Macedonia and before long reached Athens. There were now no great warriors in Athens, and the city surrendered to Alaric. The Goths plundered the homes and temples of the Athenians and then marched to the state of Elis, in the southwestern part of Greece. Here a famous Roman general named StilÎ&#x201E;icho besieged them in their camp. Alaric managed to force his way through the lines of the Romans and escaped. He marched to Epirus. This was a province of Greece that lay on the east side of the Ionian Sea. Arcadius, the Emperor of the East, now made Alaric governor of this district and a large region lying near it. The whole territory was called Eastern Illyricum and formed part of the Eastern Empire. II Alaric now set out to make an attack on Rome, the capital of the Western Empire. As soon as Honorius, Emperor of the West, learned that Alaric was approaching, he fled to a strong fortress among the mountains of North Italy. His great general Stilicho came to his rescue and defeated Alaric near Verona. But even after this Honorius was so afraid of Alaric that he made him governor of a part of his empire called Western Illyricum and gave him a large yearly income. Honorius, however, did not keep certain of his promises to Alaric, who consequently, in the year 408, marched to Rome and besieged it. The cowardly emperor fled to Ravenna, leaving his generals to make terms with Alaric. It was agreed that Alaric should withdraw from Rome upon the payment of 5,000 pounds of gold and 30,000 pounds of silver. When Honorius read the treaty he refused to sign it. Alaric then demanded that the city be surrendered to him, and the people, 21

The burial of Alaric in the bed of the river Busento at midnight (Delug)

ALARIC THE VISIGOTH terrified, opened their gates and even agreed that Alaric should appoint another emperor in place of Honorius. This new emperor, however, ruled so badly that Alaric thought it best to restore Honorius. Then Honorius, when just about to be treated so honorably, allowed a barbarian chief who was an ally of his to make an attack upon Alaric. The attack was unsuccessful, and Alaric immediately laid siege to Rome for the third time. The city was taken, and Alaricâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s dream came true. In a grand procession he rode at the head of his army through the streets of the great capital. Then began the work of destruction. The Goths ran in crowds through the city, wrecked private houses and public buildings and seized everything of value they could find. Alaric gave orders that no injury should be done to the Christian churches, but other splendid buildings of the great city were stripped of the beautiful and costly articles that they contained, and all the gold and silver was carried away from the public treasury. In the midst of the pillage Alaric dressed himself in splendid robes and sat upon the throne of the emperor, with a golden crown upon his head. While Alaric was sitting on the throne thousands of Romans were compelled to kneel down on the ground before him and shout out his name as conqueror and emperor. Then the theaters and circuses were opened, and Roman athletes and gladiators had to give performances for the amusement of the conquerors. After six days of pillage and pleasure Alaric and his army marched through the gates, carrying with them the riches of Rome. Alaric died on his way to Sicily, which he had thought to conquer also. He felt his death coming and ordered his men to bury him in the bed of the river Busento and to put into his grave the richest treasures that he had taken from Rome. This order was carried out. A large number of Roman slaves were set to work to dig a channel and turn the water of the Busento into it. They made the grave in the bed of the river, put Alaricâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s body into and closed it up. Then the river was turned back to its old channel. As soon as the grave was covered up, and the water flowed over it, the slaves who had done the work were put to death by the Visigoth chiefs. 23

Attila the Hun King from 434-453 A.D. I The fierce and warlike tribe, called the Huns, who had driven the Goths to seek new homes, came from Asia into Southeastern Europe and took possession of a large territory lying north of the River Danube. During the first half of the fifth century the Huns had a famous king named At΄ti-la. He was only twenty-one years old when he became their king. But although he was young, he was very brave and ambitious, and he wanted to be a great and powerful king. Not far from Attila’s palace there was a great rocky cave in the mountains. In this cave lived a strange man called the “Hermit of the Rocks.” No one knew his real name, or from what country he had come. He was very old, with wrinkled face and long gray hair and beard. Many persons believed that he was a fortune-teller, so people often went to him to inquire what was to happen to them. One day, shortly after he became king, Attila went to the cave to get his fortune told. “Wise man,” said he, “look into the future and tell me what is before me in the path of life.” The hermit thought for a few moments, and then said, “O King, I see you a famous conqueror, the master of many nations. I see you going from country to country, defeating armies and destroying cities until men call you the ‘Fear of the World.’ You heap up vast riches, but just after you have married the woman you love grim death strikes you down.” With a cry of horror Attila fled from the cave. For a time he thought of giving up his idea of becoming a great man. But he was young and full of spirit, and very soon he remembered only what had been said to him about his becoming a great and famous conqueror 24

ATILLA THE HUN and began to prepare for war. He gathered together the best men from the various tribes of his people and trained them into a great army of good soldiers. II About this time one of the king’s shepherds, while taking care of cattle in the fields, noticed blood dripping from the foot of one of the oxen. The shepherd followed the streak of blood through the grass and at last found the sharp point of a sword sticking out of the earth. He dug out the weapon, carried it to the palace, and gave it to King Attila. The king declared it was the sword of Tiew, the god of war. He then strapped it to his side and said he would always wear it. “I shall never be defeated in battle,” he cried, “as long as I fight with the sword of Tiew.” As soon as his army was ready he marched with it into countries which belonged to Rome. He defeated the Romans in several great battles and captured many of their cities. The Roman Emperor Theodosius had to ask for terms of peace. Attila agreed that there should be peace, but soon afterwards he found out that Theodosius had formed a plot to murder him. He was so enraged at this that he again began war. He plundered and burned cities wherever he went, and at last the emperor had to give him a large sum of money and a portion of country south of the Danube. This made peace, but the peace did not last long. In a few years Attila appeared at the head of an army of 700,000 men. With this great force he marched across Germany and into Gaul. He rode on a beautiful black horse, and carried at his side the sword of Tiew. He attacked and destroyed towns and killed the inhabitants without mercy. The people had such dread of him that he was called the “Scourge of God” and the “Fear of the World.” III Attila and his terrible Huns marched through Gaul until they came to the city of Orleans. Here the people bravely resisted the invaders. They shut their gates and defended themselves in every way 25

A Hunnic invasion (Checa)

Attila and his terrible Huns (Delauney)

FAMOUS MEN OF THE MIDDLE AGES they could. In those times all towns of any great size were surrounded by strong walls. There was war constantly going on nearly everywhere, and there were a great many fierce tribes and chiefs who lived by robbing their neighbors. So the towns and castles in which there was much money or other valuable property were not safe without high and strong walls. Attila tried to take Orleans, but soon after he began to attack the walls he saw a great army at a distance coming towards the city. He quickly gathered his forces together, marched to the neighboring plain of Champagne and halted at the place where the city of Châlons (shah-lon΄) now stands. The army which Attila saw was an army of 300,000 Romans and Visigoths. It was led by a Roman general name A-ë΄ti-us and the Visigoth king, The-od΄o-ric. The Visigoths after the death of Alaric had settled in parts of Gaul, and their king had now agreed to join the Romans against the common enemy—the terrible Huns. So the great army of the Romans and Visigoths marched up and attacked the Huns at Châlons. It was a fierce battle. Both sides fought with the greatest bravery. At first the Huns seemed to be winning. They drove back the Romans and Visigoths from the field, and in the fight Theodoric was killed. Aetius now began to fear that he would be beaten, but just at that moment Thor΄is-mond, the son of Theodoric, made another charge against the Huns. He had taken command of the Visigoths when his father was killed, and now he led them on to fight. They were all eager to have revenge for the death of their king, so they fought like lions and swept across the plain with great fury. The Huns were soon beaten on every side, and Attila himself fled to his camp. It was the first time he had ever been defeated. Thorismond, the conqueror, was lifted upon his shield on the battlefield and hailed as king of the Visigoths. When Attila reached his camp he had all his baggage and wagons gathered in a great heap. He intended to set fire to it and jump into the flames if the Romans should come there to attack him. “Here I will perish in the flames,” he cried, “rather than surrender to my enemies.” But the Romans did not come to attack him, and in a few days he 28

ATILLA THE HUN

Thorismond lifted upon the shield (Zick)

marched back to his own country. Very soon, however, he was again on the war path. This time he invaded Italy. He attacked and plundered the town of AqÎ&#x201E;ui-leÎ&#x201E;i-a, and the terrified inhabitants fled for their lives to the hills and mountains. Some of them took refuge in the islands and marshes of the Adriatic Sea. Here they founded Venice. The people of Rome and the Emperor Valentinian were greatly alarmed at the approach of the dreaded Attila. He was now near the city, and they had no army strong enough to send against him. Rome would have been again destroyed if it had not been for Pope Leo I who went to the camp of Attila and persuaded him not to attack the city. It is said that the barbarian king was awed by the majestic aspect and priestly robes of Leo. It is also told that the apostles Peter and Paul appeared to Attila in his camp and threatened him with death if he should attack Rome. He did not go away, however, without getting a large sum of money as ransom. IV Shortly after leaving Italy Attila suddenly died. Only the day before his death he had married a beautiful woman whom he loved 29

FAMOUS MEN OF THE MIDDLE AGES very much. The Huns mourned their king in a barbarous way. They shaved their heads and cut themselves on their faces with knives, so that their blood, instead of their tears, flowed for the loss of their great leader. They enclosed his body in three coffinsâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;one of gold, one of silver, and one of ironâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;and they buried him at night, in a secret spot in the mountains. When the funeral was over, they killed the slaves who had dug the grave, as the Visigoths had done after the burial of Alaric. After the death of Attila we hear little more of the Huns.

St. Leo halting Attila at the gates of Rome (Raphael)

Genseric the Vandal King from 427-477 A.D. I The Vandals were another wild and fierce tribe that came from the shores of the Baltic and invaded central and southern Europe in the later times of the Roman Empire. In the fifth century some of these people occupied a region in the south of Spain. One of their most celebrated kings was name Gen΄seric. He became king in 427, when he was but twenty-one years of age. He was lame in one leg and looked as if he were a very ordinary person. Like most of the Vandals, he was a cruel and cunning man, but he had great ability in many ways. He fought in battles even when a boy and was known far and wide for his bravery and skill as a leader. About the time that Genseric became king, the governor of the Roman province in the north of Africa, on the Mediterranean coast, was a man called Count Boniface. This Count Boniface had been a good and loyal officer of Rome; but a plot was formed against him by Aëtius, the general who had fought Attila at Châlons. The Roman emperor at the time of the plot was Valentinian III. He was then too young to act as ruler, so the affairs of government were managed by his mother Placid΄i-a. Aëtius advised Placidia to dismiss Boniface and call him home from Africa. He said the count was a traitor, and that he was going to make war against Rome. At the same time he wrote secretly to Count Boniface and told him that if he came to Rome the empress would put him to death. Boniface believed this story, and he refused to return to Rome. He also sent a letter to Genseric, inviting him to come to Africa with an army. Genseric was greatly delighted to receive the invitation from Boniface. He had long wanted to attack Rome and take from her 32

GENSERIC THE VANDAL some of the rich countries she had conquered, and now a good opportunity offered. So he got ready a great army of his brave Vandals, and they sailed across the Strait of Gibraltar to Africa. They soon gained possession of that part of the African coast on which they had landed, and marched into other parts of the coast and captured towns and cities. By this time Boniface had learned all about the wicked plot of Aëtius. He now regretted having invited the Vandals to Africa and tried to induce them to return to Spain, but Genseric sternly refused. “Never,” he said, “shall I go back to Spain until I am Placida and her son Valentinian master of Africa.” “Then,” cried Boniface, “I will drive you back.” Soon afterwards there was a battle between the Romans and Vandals, and the Romans were defeated. They were also defeated in several other battles. At last they had to flee for safety to two or three towns which the Vandals had not yet taken. One of these towns was Hippo. Genseric captured this town after a siege of thirteen months. Then he burned the churches and other buildings, and laid waste the neighboring country. This was what the Vandals did whenever they took a town, and so the word vandal came to mean a person who needlessly or wantonly destroys valuable property. A great many of the natives of Africa joined the army of Genseric. They had for a long time been ill-treated by the Romans and were 33

FAMOUS MEN OF THE MIDDLE AGES glad to see them defeated. Genseric continued his work of conquest until he took the city of Carthage, which he made the capital of his new kingdom in Africa. But he was not content with conquering merely on land. He built great fleets and sailed over the Mediterranean, capturing trading vessels. For many years he plundered towns along the coasts, so that the name of Genseric became a terror to the people of all the countries bordering the Mediterranean. II One day a Roman ship came to Carthage with a messenger from the Empress Eudoxia to Genseric. Eudoxia was the widow of Valentinian III. After ruling several years, Valentinian had just been murdered by a Roman noble named Maximus, who had at once made himself emperor. When the messenger entered the room where Genseric was, he said: “Great king, I bring you a message from the Empress Eudoxia. She begs your help. She and her two beautiful daughters are in danger in Rome. She wishes you to protect them against Maximus. She invites you to come with an army to Rome and take the city. She and her friends will help you as much as they can.” With a cry of joy Genseric sprang to his feet and exclaimed: “Tell the empress that I accept her invitation. I shall set out for Rome immediately. I shall set out for Rome immediately. I shall protect Eudoxia and her friends.” Genseric then got ready a fleet and a great army, and sailed across the Mediterranean to the mouth of the Tiber. When the Emperor Maximus heard that the Vandals were coming he prepared to flee from the city, and he advised the Senate to do the same. The people were so angry at this that they put him to death and threw his body into the river. Three days later Genseric and his army were at the gates of Rome. There was no one to oppose them, and they marched in and took possession of the city. It was only forty-five years since Alaric had been there and carried off all the valuable things he could find. But since then Rome had become again grand and wealthy, so there was 34

The Vandals in Rome (Hirschl)

FAMOUS MEN OF THE MIDDLE AGES plenty for Genseric and his Vandals to carry away. They spent fourteen days in the work of plunder. They sacked the temples and public buildings and private houses and the emperor’s palace, and they took off to their ships immense quantities of gold and silver and jewels and furniture, and destroyed hundreds of beautiful and priceless works of art. The Vandal king also put to death a number of Roman citizens and carried away many more as slaves. He took Eudoxia and her daughters with him to Carthage. One of the daughters was soon afterwards married to Genseric’s eldest son, Hunneric. III Some years after the capture of Rome by Genseric, there was a Roman emperor named Ma-jo΄ri-an. He was a good ruler and a brave man. The Vandals still continued to attack and plunder cities in Italy and other countries belonging to Rome, and Majorian resolved to punish them. So he got together a great army and built a fleet of three hundred ships to carry his troops to Carthage. But he first marched his men across the Alps, through Gaul, and down to the seaport of Carthagena in Spain, where his fleet was stationed. He took this route because he expected to add to his forces as he went along. Before sailing with his army for Carthage he wished very much to see with his own eyes what sort of people the Vandals were and whether they were so powerful at home as was generally believed. So he dyed his hair and disguised himself in other ways and went to Carthage, pretending that he was a messenger or ambassador from the Roman emperor, coming to talk about peace. Genseric received him with respect and entertained him hospitably, not knowing that he was the Emperor Majorian. Of course peace was not made. The emperor left Carthage after having got as much information as he could. But Genseric did not wait for the Roman fleet to come to attack him in his capital. When he got word that it was in the Bay of Carthagena, he sailed there with a fleet of his own and in a single day burned or sank nearly all the Roman ships. 36

GENSERIC THE VANDAL After this the Vandals became more than ever the terror of the Mediterranean and all the countries bordering upon it. Every year their ships went round the coasts from Asia Minor to Spain, attacking and plundering cities on their way and carrying off prisoners. All the efforts of the Romans failed to put a stop to these ravages. The Emperor Leo, who ruled over the eastern division of the Empire, fitted out a great fleet at Constantinople to make another attempt to suppress the pirates. There were more than a thousand ships in this fleet and they carried a hundred thousand men. The command of the expedition was given to Bas-ilÎ&#x201E;i-cus, the brother of Emperor Leoâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s wife. Basilicus sailed with his ships to Africa and landed the army not far from Carthage. Genseric asked for a truce for five days to consider terms of peace, and the truce was granted. But the cunning Vandal was not thinking of peace. He only wanted time to carry out a plan he had made to destroy the Roman fleet. One dark night, during the truce, he filled the largest of his ships with some of the bravest of his soldiers, and they sailed silently and cautiously in among the Roman ships, towing behind them large boats filled with material that would easily burn. These boats were set on fire and floated against the Roman vessels, which also were soon on fire. The flames quickly spread, and in a very short time a great part of the Roman fleet was destroyed. Basilicus fled with as many ships as he could save, and returned to Constantinople. This was the last attempt of the Romans to conquer the Vandals. Genseric lived to a good old age, and when he died, in 477, all the countries he had conquered during his life still remained parts of the Vandal dominions.

Theodoric the Ostrogoth King from 475-526 A.D. I The Ostrogoths, or East Goths, who had settled in Southern Russia, at length pushed southward and westward to the mouth of the Danube. They were continually invading countries belonging to the Romans and their warlike raids were dreaded by the emperors of the Eastern Roman Empire, who lived at Constantinople. One emperor gave them land and money, and thus stopped their invasions for a time. The most famous of the Ostrogoth kings was The-od΄or-ic the Great. He was the son of The-od΄e-mir, who was also a king of the Ostrogoths. When Theodoric was eight years old he was sent to Constantinople to be held as a hostage by Leo, the Emperor of the East. In former times, when kings made treaties with one another, it was customary for one to give to the other a pledge or security that he would fulfill the conditions of the treaty. The pledge usually given was some important person or persons, perhaps the king’s son or a number of his chief men. Persons so given as a security were called hostages. When Theodoric was a boy he was given as a hostage for his father’s good faith in carrying out a treaty with the Emperor and was sent to Constantinople to live. Here the youth was well treated by Leo. He was educated with great care and trained in all the exercises of war. Theodemir died in 475, and then Theodoric returned to his own country and became king of the Ostrogoths. At this time he was eighteen years of age. He was handsome and brave and people loved him, for in those days a man who was tall and strong and brave was liked by everybody.

THEODORIC THE OSTROGOTH II For some years after he became king Theodoric had frequent wars with other Gothic kings and also with the Roman Emperor Ze΄no. He was nearly always successful in battle, and at last Zeno began to think it would be better to try to make friends with him. So he gave Theodoric some rich lands and made him commander of the Imperial Guard of Constantinople. But the Emperor soon became tired of having the Ostrogoth king at his court, and to get rid of him he agreed that Theodoric should go with his army to Italy, and take that country from O-do-a΄-cer. Theodoric was delighted at the proposal and began at once to make his preparations. Odoacer was at that time king of Italy. Before he became king he had been a general in the army of Romulus Augustulus, the Western Roman Emperor. The soldiers of the army were not satisfied with their pay, and when they asked for more they did not get it. Then they drove Romulus Augustulus from the throne, and chose Odoacer to succeed him. But Odoacer would not take the name of emperor. He was called the “patrician” of Italy, and he ruled the country well. Theodoric started for Italy, not only with a great army, but with all the people of his country. He meant to take Italy and be its king and settle in it with all his Ostrogoths. When he set out he had with him two hundred and fifty thousand persons—men, women, and children—with a great number of horses and wagons to carry them and their things. He had also an army of sixty thousand brave soldiers. It was a long and weary journey from the shores of the Black Sea overland to the foot of the Alps Mountains and across the Alps into Italy. Here and there on the way they met savage tribes that tried to stop them, but Theodoric defeated the savages and took a great many of them prisoners. He made these prisoners, women as well as men, help carry the baggage and do other work. The journey took months, but at last the Ostrogoths reached the top of the Alps. Then they could see, stretched out before them, the beautiful land of Italy. They were all delighted. They shouted and danced with joy, and Theodoric cried out: “There is the country which shall be our home. Let us march on. 39

FAMOUS MEN OF THE MIDDLE AGES

Invasion of barbarians (Guillonet)

It certainly shall be ours.” Then they passed quickly down, and soon they were in Italy. Odoacer had heard of their coming and he got ready an army to drive them away. Theodoric also got his fighting men ready. The two armies met, and there was a great battle near the town of Aquileia. Odoacer was defeated. Then he tried to get Theodoric to leave Italy by offering him a large sum of money. “I will give you,” said he, “thousands of pounds of gold and silver if you agree to go back to your own country.” But Theodoric would not go. He said he had as good a right to be king of Italy as Odoacer, and he would remain and conquer the country and be its king. Soon after there was another battle, near Verona, and Odoacer was again defeated. Theodoric came very near being killed in battle. He was saved only by the courage of his mother. She was in his camp, and at one time she saw a number of the Ostrogoths running away from that part of the battlefield where her son was fighting, thus leaving him without support. The mother rushed forward and stopped the fleeing men. She made them feel that it was a shame for them to desert their leader, and they at once returned to the field and fought beside their king until the battle was won. 40

THEODORIC THE OSTROGOTH After the battle of Verona, Odoacer went with his army to the city of Ravenna, and remained there for some time. Theodoric followed with his Ostrogoths and tried to take the city, but there was a very strong wall around it, and the Ostrogoths could not capture it. Although Theodoric was not able to take Ravenna, he did not remain idle. He marched off to other parts of the country, and took possession of towns and districts wherever he went. After a while Odoacer got together a better army than he had before, and made another effort to defeat Theodoric. But he again failed. Theodoric defeated him in another great battle, which was fought on the banks of the River Adda. After this battle Odoacer again fled to Ravenna. Theodoric followed again and laid siege to the city. This time his army surrounded it and kept provisions from being sent in, and at last, when there was no food in the city for the soldiers or the people to eat, Odoacer had to surrender. A treaty was then made between the two kings and both agreed that they should rule together over Italy, each to have equal power. But a few days afterwards Theodoric murdered Odoacer while sitting at a banquet, and then made himself the sole king of Italy. He divided one-third of the land of the country among his own followers. So the Ostrogoths settled in Italy, and Ostrogoths, Romans, and Visigoths were governed by Theodoric as one people. Theodoric died at the age of seventy-one after ruling Italy for thirty-three years.

Clovis King from 481-511 A.D. I While the power of the Roman Empire was declining there dwelt on the banks of the River Rhine a number of savage Teuton tribes called Franks. The word Frank means free, and those tribes took pride in being known as Franks or freemen. The Franks occupied the east bank of the Rhine for about two hundred years. Then many of the tribes crossed the river in search of new homes. The region west of the river was at that time called Gaul. Here the Franks established themselves and became a powerful people. From their name the country was afterwards called France. Each tribe of the Franks had its own king. The greatest of all these kings was Chlodwig, or Clovis, as we call him, who became ruler of his tribe in the year 481, just six years after Theodoric became king of the Ostrogoths. Clovis was then only sixteen years of age. But though he was so young he proved in a very short time that he could govern as well as older men. He was intelligent and brave. No one ever knew him to be afraid of anything even when he was but a child. His father, who was named Chil΄der-ic, often took him to wars which the Franks had with neighboring tribes, and he was very proud of his son’s bravery. The young man was also a bold and skillful horseman. He could tame and ride the most fiery horse. When Clovis became king of the Franks a great part of Gaul still belonged to Rome. This part was then governed by a Roman general, named Sy-ag΄ri-us. Clovis resolved to drive the Romans out of the country, and he talked over the matter with the head men of his army. “My desire,” said he, “is that the Franks shall have possession of every part of this fair land. I shall drive the Romans and their friends away and make Gaul the empire of the Franks.” 42

CLOVIS II At this time the Romans had a great army in Gaul. It was encamped near the city of Soissons (swah-son΄) and was commanded by Syagrius. Clovis resolved to attack it and led his army at once to Soissons. When he came near the city he summoned Syagrius to surrender. Syagrius refused and asked for an interview with the commander of the Franks. Clovis consented to meet him, and an arrangement was made that the meeting should take place in the open space between the two armies. When Clovis stepped out in front of his own army, accompanied by some of his savage warriors, Syagrius also came forward. But the moment he saw the king of the Franks he laughed loudly and exclaimed: “A boy! A boy has come to fight me! The Franks with a boy to lead them have come to fight the Romans.” Clovis was very angry at this insulting language and shouted back: “Ay, but this boy will conquer you.” Then both sides prepared for battle. The Romans thought that they would win the victory easily, but they were mistaken. Every time that they made a charge upon the Franks they were beaten back by the warriors of Clovis. The young king himself fought bravely at the head of his men and with his own sword struck down a number of the Romans. He tried to find Syagrius and fight with him; but the Roman commander was nowhere to be found. Early in the battle he had fled from the field, leaving his men to defend themselves as best they could. The Franks gained a great victory. With their gallant boy king leading them on they drove the Roman’s before them, and when the battle was over they took possession of the city of Soissons. Clovis afterwards conquered all the other Frankish chiefs and made himself king of all the Franks. III Not very long after Clovis became king he heard of a beautiful young girl, the niece of Gon΄de-baud, king of Burgundy, and he thought he would like to marry her. Her name was Clo-tilde΄, and she 43

FAMOUS MEN OF THE MIDDLE AGES

Crossing the Rhine (Zick)

was an orphan, for her wicked uncle Gondebaud had killed her father and mother. Clovis sent one of his nobles to Gondebaud to ask her for his wife. At first Gondebaud thought of refusing to let the girl go. He feared that she might have him punished for the murder of her parents if she became the wife of so powerful a man as Clovis. But he was also afraid that by refusing he would provoke the anger of Clovis; so he permitted the girl to be taken to the court of the king of the Franks. Clovis was delighted when he saw her; and they were immediately married. Clotilde was a devout Christian, and she wished very much to convert her husband, who, like most of his people, was a worshiper of the heathen gods. But Clovis was not willing to give up his own religion. Nevertheless Clotilde continued to do every thing she could to persuade him to become a Christian. Soon after his marriage Clovis had a war with a tribe called the Alemanni. This tribe had crossed the Rhine from Germany and taken possession of some of the eastern provinces of Gaul. Clovis speedily got his warriors together and marched against them. A battle was fought at a place called Tolbiac, not far from the present city of Cologne. In this battle the Franks were nearly beaten, for the 44

The baptism of Clovis (Blanc)

FAMOUS MEN OF THE MIDDLE AGES Alemanni were fierce and brave men and skillful fighters. When Clovis saw his soldiers driven back several times he began to lose hope, but at that moment he thought of his pious wife and of the powerful God of whom she had so often spoken. Then he raised his hands to heaven and earnestly prayed to that God. “O God of Clotilde,” he cried, “help me in this my hour of need. If thou wilt give me victory now I will believe in thee.” Almost immediately the course of the battle began to change in favor of the Franks. Clovis led his warriors forward once more, and this time the Alemanni fled before them in terror. The Franks gained a great victory, and they believed it was in answer to the prayer of their king. When Clovis returned home he did not forget his promise. He told Clotilde how he had prayed to her God for help and how his prayer had been heard, and he said he was now ready to become a Christian. Clotilde was very happy on hearing this, and she arranged that her husband should be baptized in the church of Rheims on the following Christmas day. Meanwhile Clovis issued a proclamation to his people declaring that he was a believer in Christ, and giving orders that all the images and temples of the heathen gods should be destroyed. This was immediately done, and many of the people followed his example and became Christians. Clovis was a very earnest and fervent convert. One day the bishop of Rheims, while instructing him in the doctrines of Christianity, described the death of Christ. As the bishop proceeded Clovis became much excited, and at last jumped up from his seat and exclaimed: “Had I been there with my brave Franks I would have avenged His wrongs.” On Christmas day a great multitude assembled in the church at Rheims to witness the baptism of the king. A large number of his fierce warriors were baptized at the same time. The service was performed with great ceremony by the bishop of Rheims, and the title of “Most Christian King” was conferred on Clovis by the Pope. This title was ever afterwards borne by the kings of France. Like most of the kings and chiefs of those rude and barbarous times, Clovis often did cruel and wicked things. When Rheims was 46

CLOVIS

Clovis finds fault with the soldier (Knille)

captured, before he became a Christian, a golden vase was taken by some soldiers from the church. The bishop asked Clovis to have it returned, and Clovis bade him wait until the division of spoils. All the valuable things taken by soldiers in war were divided among the whole army, each man getting his share according to rank. Such things were called spoils. When the next time came for dividing spoils Clovis asked that he might have the vase over and above his regular share, his intention being to return it to the bishop. But one of the soldiers objected, saying that the king should have no more than his fair share, and at the same time shattered the vase with his ax. Clovis was very angry, but at the time said nothing. Soon afterwards, however, there was the usual examination of the arms of the soldiers to see that they were in proper condition for active service. Clovis himself took part in the examination, and when he came to the soldier who had broken the 47

FAMOUS MEN OF THE MIDDLE AGES vase he found fault with the condition of his weapons and with one blow of his battle-ax struck the man dead. IV The next war that Clovis engaged in was with some tribes of the Goths who occupied the country called Aquitaine lying south of the River Loire. He defeated them and added Aquitaine to the kingdom of the Franks. Clovis afterwards made war upon other people of Gaul and defeated them. At last all the provinces from the lower Rhine to the Pyrenees Mountains were compelled to acknowledge him as king. He then went to reside at the city of Paris, which he made the capital of his kingdom. He died there A.D. 511. The dynasty or family of kings to which he belonged is known in history as the Merovingian dynasty. It was so called from Me-rovĂŚÎ&#x201E;us, the father of Childeric and grandfather of Clovis.

Justinian the Great Emperor from 527-565 A.D. I In the time of Clovis the country now called Bulgaria was inhabited by Goths. One day a poor shepherd boy, about sixteen years of age, left his mountain home in that country to go to the city of Constantinople, which was many miles away. The boy had no money to pay the expenses of the journey, but he was determined to go, even though he should have to walk every step of the road and live on fruits that he could gather by the way. He was a bright, clever boy who had spent his life hitherto in a village, but was now eager to go out into the world to seek his fortune. Some years before, this boy’s uncle, who was named Justin, had gone to Constantinople and joined the Roman army. He was so brave and so good a soldier that he soon came to be commander of the imperial guard which attended the emperor. The poor shepherd boy had heard of the success of his uncle, and this was the reason why he resolved to set off for the big city. So he started down the mountain and trudged along the valley in high hope, feeling certain that he would reach the end of his journey in safety. It was a difficult and dangerous journey, and it took him several weeks, for he had to go through dark forests and to cross rivers and high hills; but at last one afternoon in midsummer he walked through the main gate of Constantinople, proud and happy that he had accomplished his purpose. He had no trouble in finding his Uncle Justin; for everybody in Constantinople knew the commander of the emperor’s guards. And when the boy appeared at the great man’s house and told who he was, his uncle received him with much kindness. He took him into his own family, and gave him the best education that could be had in the city. As the boy was very talented and eager for knowledge he soon 49

The court of Justinian the Great (Constant)

JUSTINIAN THE GREAT became an excellent scholar. He grew up a tall, good-looking man, with black eyes and curly hair, and he was always richly dressed. He was well liked at the emperorâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s court, and was respected by everybody on account of his learning. II One day a great change came for both uncle and nephew. The emperor died; and the people chose Justin to succeed him. He took the title of Jus-tiÎ&#x201E;nus I, and so the young scholar, who had once been a poor shepherd boy, was now nephew of an emperor. After some years Justinus was advised by his nobles to take the young man, who had adopted the name of Justinian, to help him in ruling the empire. Justinus agreed to this proposal, for he was now old and in feeble health, and not able himself to attend to the important affairs of government. He therefore called the great lords of his court together and in their presence he placed a crown on the head of his nephew, who thus became joint emperor with his uncle. The uncle died only a few months after, and then Justinian was declared emperor. This was in the year 527. Justinian reigned for nearly forty years and did so many important things that he was afterwards called Justinian the Great. He had many wars during his reign, but he himself did not take part in them. He was not experienced as a soldier, for he had spent most of his time in study. He was fortunate enough, however, to have two great generals to lead his armies. One of them was named Belisarius and the other Narses. Belisarius was one of the greatest soldiers that ever lived. He gained wonderful victories for Justinian, and conquered some of the old Roman provinces that had been lost for many years. The victories of these two generals largely helped to make the reign of Justinian remarkable in history. Many years before he ascended the throne the Vandals, as you have read, conquered the northern part of Africa and established a kingdom there with Carthage as its capital. The Vandal king in the time of Justinian was named GelÎ&#x201E;i-mer, and he lived in Carthage. Justinian resolved to make war on this king in order to recover 51

FAMOUS MEN OF THE MIDDLE AGES

The battle at Carthage (Fritsche)

Northern Africa and make it again a part of the Empire. So Belisarius was sent to Africa with an army of thirty-five thousand men and five thousand horses, that were carried on a fleet of six hundred ships. It took this fleet three months to make the voyage from Constantinople to Africa. The same voyage may now be made in a very few days. But in the time of Belisarius there were no steamships, and nothing was known of the power of steam for moving machinery. The ships or galleys were sailing vessels; and when there was no wind they could make no progress except by rowing. When Belisarius reached Africa he left five men as a guard in each vessel, and with the body of his army he marched for some days along the coast. The people received him in a friendly way, for they had grown tired of the rule of the Vandals, and preferred to be under the government of the Romans. About ten miles from Carthage he met a large army led by the brother of Gelimer. A battle immediately took place, and the Vandals were utterly defeated. Gelimerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s brother was killed, and the king himself, who had followed with another army and joined the fight, was also defeated and fled from the field. Belisarius then proceeded to Carthage and took possession of the city. 52

JUSTINIAN THE GREAT Soon afterwards Gelimer collected another army and fought the Romans in another battle, twenty miles from Carthage; but Belisarius again defeated him and the Vandal king again fled. This was the end of the Vandal king in Africa. In a short time Gelimer gave himself up to Belisarius, who took him to Constantinople. Justinian set apart an estate for him to live upon, and the conquered king passed the rest of his life in peaceful retirement. After conquering the Vandals Justinian resolved to conquer Italy, which was then held by the Ostrogoths. A large army was got together and put under the command of Belisarius and Narses, who immediately set out for Italy. When they arrived there they marched straight to Rome, and after some fighting took possession of the city. But in a few months, VitÎ&#x201E;i-ges, king of the Goths, appeared with an army before the gates and challenged Belisarius and Narses to come out and fight. The Roman generals, however, were not then ready to fight, and so the Ostrogoth king laid siege to the city, thinking that he would compel the Romans to surrender. But instead of having any thought of surrender, Belisarius was preparing his men for fight, and when they were ready he attacked Vitiges and defeated him. Vitiges retired to Ravenna, and Belisarius quickly followed, and made such an assault on the city that it was compelled to surrender. The Ostrogoth army was captured, and Vitiges was taken to Constantinople a prisoner. Belisarius and Narses then went to Northern Italy, and, after a long war, conquered all the tribes there. Thus the power of Justinian was established throughout the whole country, and the city of Rome was again under the dominion of a Roman emperor. While his brave generals were winning these victories for the Empire, Justinian himself was busy in making improvements of various kinds at the capital. He erected great public buildings, which were not only useful but ornamental to the city. The most remarkable of them was the very magnificent cathedral of St. So-phiÎ&#x201E;a, for a long time the grandest church structure in the world. The great temple still exists in all its beauty and grandeur, but is now used as a Mohammedan mosque. But the most important thing that Justinian didâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;the work for 53

FAMOUS MEN OF THE MIDDLE AGES

Belisarius besieges Ravenna (Poynter)

which he is most celebrated—was the improving and collecting of the laws. He made many excellent new laws and reformed many of the old laws, so that he became famous as one of the greatest of the world’s legislators. For a long time the Roman laws had been difficult to understand. There was a vast number of them, and different writers differed widely as to what the laws really were and what they meant. Justinian employed a great lawyer, named Trib-o΄ni-an, to collect and simplify the principal laws. The collection which he made was called the Code of Justinian. It still exists, and is the model according to which most of the countries of Europe have made their laws. Justinian also did a great deal of good by establishing a number of manufactures in Constantinople. It was he who first brought silkworms into Europe. To the last year of his life Justinian was strong and active and a hard worker. He often worked or studied all day and all night without eating or sleeping. He died in 565 at the age of eighty-three years. 54

Mohammed Lived from 570-632 A.D. I A great number of people in Asia and Africa and much of those in Turkey in Europe profess the Mo-ham΄me-dan religion. They are called Mohammedans, Mus΄sul-mans or Moslems; and the proper name for their religion is “Islam,” which means obedience, or submission. The founder of this religion was a man named Mo-ham΄med, or Ma-hom΄et. He was born in the year 570, in Mecca, a city of Arabia. His parents were poor people, though, it is said, they were descended from Arabian princes. They died when Mohammed was a child, and his uncle, a kind-hearted man named A΄bu-Ta-lïb΄, took him home and brought him up. When the boy grew old enough he took care of his uncle’s sheep and camels. Sometimes he went on journeys with his uncle to different parts of Arabia, to help him in his business as a trader. On these journeys Mohammed used to ride on a camel, and he soon became a skillful camel-driver. Mohammed was very faithful and honest in all his work. He always spoke the truth and never broke a promise. “I have given my promise,” he would say, “and I must keep it.” He became so well known in Mecca for being truthful and trustworthy that people gave him the name of El Amin, which means “the truthful.” At this time he was only sixteen years of age; but the rich traders had so much confidence in him that they gave him important business to attend to, and trusted him with large sums of money. He often went with caravans to a port on the shore of the Red Sea, sixty-five miles from Mecca, and sold there the goods carried by the camels. Then he guided the long line of camels back to Mecca, and faithfully paid over to the owners of the goods the money he had received. Mohammed had no school education. He could neither read nor 55

FAMOUS MEN OF THE MIDDLE AGES write. But he was not ignorant. He knew well how to do the work intrusted to him, and was a first-rate man of business. II One day, when Mohammed was about twenty-five years old, he was walking through the bazaar or marketplace, of Mecca when he met the chief camel-driver of a wealthy woman named Kha-dï΄jah. This woman was a widow, who was carrying on the business left her by her husband. As soon as the camel-driver saw Mohammed he stopped him and said: “My mistress wishes to see you before noon. I think she intends to engage you to take charge of her caravans.” Mohammed waited to hear no more. As quickly as possible he went to the house of Khadijah; for he was well pleased at the thought of being employed in so important a service. The widow received him in a very friendly way. She said: “I have heard much of you among the traders. They say that though you are so young you are a good caravan manager and can be trusted. Are you willing to take charge of my caravans and give your whole time and service to me?” Mohammed was delighted. “I accept your offer,” said he, “and I shall do all I can to serve and please you.” Khadijah then engaged him as the manager of her business; and he served her well and faithfully. She thought a great deal of him, and he was much attracted to her, and soon they came to love one another and were married. As he was now the husband of a rich woman he did not need to work very hard. He still continued to attend to his wife’s business; but he did not make so many journeys as before. He spent much of his time in thinking about religion. He learned all that he could about Judaism and Christianity; but he was not satisfied with either of them. At that time most of the people of Arabia worshiped idols. Very few of them were Christians. Mohammed was very earnest and serious. In a cave on Mount Hira, near Mecca, he spent several weeks every year in prayer and religious meditation. He declared that, while praying in his cave, he often had visions of God and heaven. He said that many times the 56

MOHAMMED angel Gabriel appeared to him and revealed to him the religion which he afterwards taught his followers. As he himself could not write, he committed to memory all that the angel told him, and had it written in a book. This book is called the “Koran,” which means, like our own word Bible, the “Book.” The Koran is the Bible of Mohammedans. III When Mohammed returned home after the angel had first spoken to him, he told his wife of what he had seen and heard. She at once believed and so became a convert to the new religion. She fell upon her knees at the feet of her husband and cried out: “There is but one God. Mohammed is God’s prophet.” Mohammed then told the story to other members of his family. Some of them believed and became his first followers. Soon afterwards he began to preach to the people. He spoke in the market and other public places. Most of those who heard him laughed at what he told them; but some poor people and a few slaves believed him and adopted the new religion. Others said he was a dreamer and a fool. Mohammed, however, paid no heed to the insults he received. He went on telling about the appearance of Gabriel and preaching

Mohammed preaching to his followers in the desert (Gentz)

FAMOUS MEN OF THE MIDDLE AGES the doctrines which he said the angel had ordered him to teach the people. Often while speaking in public Mohammed had what he called a “vision of heavenly things.” At such times his face grew pale as death, his eyes became red and staring, he spoke in a loud voice, and his body trembled violently. Then he would tell what he had seen in his vision. After a time the number of his followers began to increase. People came from distant parts of Arabia and from neighboring countries to hear him. One day six of the chief men of Me-dï΄na, one of the largest cities of Arabia, listened earnestly to his preaching and were converted. When they returned home they talked of the new religion to their fellow-citizens, and a great many of them became believers. But the people of Mecca, Mohammed’s own home, were nearly all opposed to him. They would not believe what he preached, and they called him an impostor. The people of the tribe to which he himself belonged were the most bitter against him. They even threatened to put him to death as an enemy of the gods. About this time Mohammed’s uncle and wife died, and he had then hardly any friends in Mecca. He therefore resolved to leave that city and go to Medina. Numbers of the people there believed his doctrines and wished him to come and live among them. So he secretly left his native town and fled from his enemies. With a few faithful companions he made his escape to Medina. It was in the year of our Lord 622 that Mohammed fled from Mecca. This event is very important in Mohammedan history. It is called “the flight of the prophet,” or “the Hej΄i-ra,” a word which means flight. The Hejira is the beginning of the Mohammedan era; and so in all countries where the rulers and people are Mohammedans, the years are counted from the Hejira instead of from the birth of Christ. On his arrival in Medina the people received Mohammed with great rejoicing. He lived there the remainder of his life. A splendid church was built for him in Medina. It was called a mosque, and all Mohammedan churches, or places of worship, are called by this name. It means a place for prostration or prayer. 58

MOHAMMED

The Mosque of Ahmedieh and the Obelisk at Constantinople IV Mohammed thought that it was right to spread his religion by force, and to make war on â&#x20AC;&#x153;unbelieversâ&#x20AC;?, as he called all people who did not accept his teaching. He therefore got together an army and fought battles and unbelievers. He gained many victories. He marched against Mecca with an army of ten thousand men, and the city surrendered with little resistance. The people then joined his religion and destroyed their idols. Before very long all the inhabitants of Arabia and many of the people of the neighboring countries became Mohammedans. Mohammed died in Medina in the year of our Lord 632, or year 11 of the Hejira. He was buried in the mosque in which he had held religious services for so many years; and Medina has ever since been honored, because it contains the tomb of the Prophet. It is believed by his followers that the body still lies in the coffin in the same state as when it was first buried. There is also a story that the coffin of Mohammed rests somewhere between heaven and earth, suspended 59

Mohammed entering Mecca, preaching the unity of God (MĂźller)

MOHAMMED

Pilgrims marching through the desert to Mecca (From a painting by L. Belly)

in the air. But this fable was invented by enemies to bring ridicule on the prophet and his religion. The tomb of Mohammed is visited every year by people from all Mohammedan countries. Mecca, the birthplace of the prophet, is also visited by vast numbers of pilgrims. Every Mussulman is bound by his religion to make a visit or pilgrimage to Mecca at least once in his life. Whenever a Mussulman prays, no matter in what part of the world he may be, he turns his face towards Mecca, as if he were always thinking of going there. Good Mohammedans pray five times every day, and there is a church officer called a mu-ez΄zin, who gives them notice of the hour for prayer. This he does by going on the platform, or balcony, of the minaret, or tower, of the mosque and chanting in a loud voice such words as these: “Come to prayer, come to prayer. There is no god but God. He giveth life, and he dieth not. I praise his perfection. God is great.” In Mecca there is a mosque called the Great Mosque. It is a large enclosure in the form of a quadrangle, or square, which can hold 35,000 persons. It is enclosed by arcades with pillars of marble and granite, and has nineteen gates, each with a minaret or pointed tower above it. Within this enclosure is a famous building called the “Ká΄a-ba,” or cube. It is nearly a cube in shape. It its wall, at one corner, is the 61

FAMOUS MEN OF THE MIDDLE AGES celebrated “Black Stone.” Moslems regard this stone with the greatest reverence. They say that it came down from heaven. It is said to have been once white, but has become dark from being wept upon and touched by so many millions of pilgrims. It really is reddish-brown in color. Before the time of Mohammed the Ká΄a-ba was a pagan temple; but when he took possession of Mecca he made the old temple the centre of worship for his own religion. After Mohammed died a person was appointed to be his successor as head of the Moslem church. He was called the caliph, a word which means successor; and this title has been borne ever since by the religious chief of the Mohammedans. In modern times the sultans or rulers of Turkey have been commonly regarded as the caliphs. Arab scholars, however, say that really the she-rïf, i.e., the governor of Mecca, is entitled by the Koran to hold this position. A Muezzin calling to prayer

Charles Martel, 714-741 A.D. and Pepin, 741-768 A.D. I After the death of Mohammed the Saracens, as Mohammedans are also called, became great warriors. They conquered many countries and established the Mohammedan religion in them. In 711 the Saracens invaded and conquered a great part of Spain and founded a powerful kingdom there, which lasted about seven hundred years. They intended to conquer the land of the Franks next, and then all Europe. They thought it would be easy to conquer the Franks, because the Frankish king at that time was a very weak man. He was one of a number of kings who were called the “Do-nothings.” They reigned from about 638 to 751. They spent all their time in amusements and pleasures, leaving the affairs of the government to be managed by persons called mayors of the palace. The mayors of the palace were officers who at first managed the king’s household. Afterwards they were made guardians of kings who came to the throne when very young. So long as the king was under age the mayor of the palace acted as chief officer of the government in his name. And as several of the young kings, even when they were old enough to rule, gave less attention to business than to pleasure, the mayors continued to do all the business, until at last they did everything that the king ought to have done. They made war, led armies in battle, raised money and spent it, and carried on the government as they pleased, without consulting the king. The “Do-nothings” had the title of king, but nothing more. In fact, they did not desire to have any business to do. The things they cared for were dogs, horses and sport. One of the most famous of the mayors was a man named Pep΄in. Once a year, it is said, Pepin had the king dressed in his finest clothes 63

Charles Martel at Tours (Puvis de Chavannes)

CHARLES MARTEL AND PEPIN and paraded through the city of Paris, where the court was held. A splendid throng of nobles and courtiers accompanied the king, and did him honor as he went along the streets in a gilded chariot drawn by a long line of beautiful horses. The king was cheered by the people, and he acknowledged their greetings most graciously. After the parade the king was escorted to the great hall of the palace, which was filled with nobles. Seated on a magnificent throne, he saluted the assemblage and made a short speech. The speech was prepared beforehand by Pepin, and committed to memory by the king. At the close of the ceremony the royal “nobody” retired to his country house and was not heard of again for a year. II Pepin died in 714 A.D., and his son Charles, who was twenty-five years old at that time, succeeded him as mayor of the palace. This Charles is known in history as Charles Martel. He was a brave young man. He had fought in many of his father’s battles and so had become a skilled soldier. His men were devoted to him. While he was mayor of the palace he led armies in several wars against the enemies of the Franks. The most important of his wars was one with the Saracens, who came across the Pyrenees from Spain and invaded the land of the Franks, intending to establish Mohammedanism there. Their army was led by Abd-er-Rah΄man, the Saracen governor of Spain. On his march through the southern districts of the land of the Franks Abd-er-Rahman destroyed many towns and villages, killed a number of the people, and seized all the property he could carry off. He plundered the city of Bordeaux (bor-do΄), and, it is said, obtained so many valuable things that every soldier “was loaded with golden vases and cups and emeralds and other precious stones.” But meanwhile Charles Martel was not idle. As quickly as he could he got together a great army of Franks and Germans and marched against the Saracens. The two armies met between the cities of Tours and Poitiers (pwaw-te-ay) in October, 732. For six days there was nothing but an occasional skirmish between small parties from both sides; but on the seventh day a great battle took place. 65

FAMOUS MEN OF THE MIDDLE AGES Both Christians and Mohammedans fought with terrible earnestness. The fight went on all day, and the field was covered with the bodies of the slain. But towards evening, during a resolute charge made by the Franks, Abd-er-Rahman was killed. Then the Saracens gradually retired to their camp. It was not yet known, however, which side had won; and the Franks expected that the fight would be renewed in the morning. But when Charles Martel, with his Christian warriors, appeared on the field at sunrise there was no enemy to fight. The Mohammedans had fled in the silence and darkness of the night and had left behind them all their valuable spoils. There was now no doubt which side had won. The battle of Tours, or Poitiers, as it should be called, is regarded as one of the decisive battles of the world. It decided that Christians, and not Moslems, should be the ruling power in Europe. Charles Martel is especially celebrated as the hero of this battle. It is said that the name Martel was given to him because of his bravery during the fight. Marteau (mar-toÎ&#x201E;) is the French word for hammer, and one of the old French historians says that as a hammer breaks and crushes iron and steel, so Charles broke and crushed the power of his enemies in the battle of Tours. But though the Saracens fled from the battlefield of Tours, they did not leave the land of the Franks; and Charles had to fight other battles with them, before they were finally defeated. At last, however, he drove them across the Pyrenees, and they never again attempted to invade Frankland. After his defeat of the Saracens Charles Martel was looked upon as the great champion of Christianity; and to the day of his death, in 741, he was in reality, though not in name, the king of the Franks. III Charles Martel had two sons, Pepin and Carloman. For a time they ruled together, but Carloman wished to lead a religious life, so he went to a monastery and became a monk. Then Pepin was sole ruler. Pepin was quite low in stature, and therefore was called Pepin the 66

CHARLES MARTEL AND PEPIN Short. But he had great strength and courage. A story is told of him, which shows how fearless he was. One day he went with a few of his nobles to a circus to see a fight between a lion and a bull. Soon after the fight began, it looked as though the bull was getting the worst of it. Pepin cried out to his companions: “Will one of you separate the beasts?” But there was no answer. None of them had the courage to make the attempt. Then Pepin jumped from his seat, rushed into the arena, and with a thrust of his sword killed the lion. In the early years of Pepin’s rule as mayor of the palace the throne was occupied by a king named Chil΄der-ic III. Like his father and the other “do-nothing” kings, Childeric cared more for pleasures and amusements than for affairs of government. Pepin was the real ruler, and after a while he began to think that he ought to have the title of king, as he had all the power and did all the work of governing and defending the kingdom. So he sent some friends to Rome to consult the Pope. They said to His Holiness: “Holy father, who ought to be the king of France— the man who has the title, or the man who has the power and does all the duties of king?” “Certainly,” replied the Pope, “the man who has the power and does the duties.” “Then, surely,” said they, “Pepin ought to be the king of the Franks; for he has all the power.” The Pope gave his consent, and Pepin was crowned king of the Franks; and thus the reign of Childeric ended and that of Pepin began. During nearly his whole reign Pepin was engaged in war. Several times he went to Italy to defend the Pope against the Lombards. These people occupied certain parts of Italy, including the province still called Lombardy. Pepin conquered them and gave as a present to the Pope that part of their possessions which extended for some distance around Rome. This was called “Pepin’s Donation.” It was the beginning of what is known as the “temporal power” of the Popes, that is, their power as rulers of part of Italy. Pepin died in 768. 67

Charlemagne King from 768-814 A.D. I Pepin had two sons Charles and Carloman. After the death of their father they ruled together, but in a few years Carloman died, and then Charles became sole king. This Charles was the most famous of the kings of the Franks. He did so many great and wonderful things that he is called Charlemagne (shar-le-main΄) which means Charles the Great. He was a great soldier. For thirty years he carried on a war against the Saxons. Finally he conquered them, and their great chief, Wittekind, submitted to him. The Saxons were a people of Germany, who then lived near the land of the Franks. They spoke the same language and were of the same race as the Franks, but had not been civilized by contact with the Romans. They were still pagans, just as the Franks had been before Clovis became a Christian. They actually offered human sacrifices. After Charlemagne conquered them he made their lands part of his kingdom. A great number of them, among whom was Wittekind, then became Christians and were baptized; and soon they had churches and schools in many parts of their country. Another of Charlemagne’s wars was against the Lombards. Pepin, as you have read, had defeated the Lombards and given to the Pope part of the country held by them. The Lombard king now invaded the Pope’s lands and threatened Rome itself; so the Pope sent to Charlemagne for help. Charlemagne quickly marched across the Alps and attacked the Lombards. He drove them out of the Pope’s lands and took possession of their country. After he had conquered the Lombards he carried on war, in 778, in Spain. A large portion of Spain was then held by the Moorish Saracens. But a Mohammedan leader from Damascus had invaded 68

The baptism of Wittekind (Thumann)

FAMOUS MEN OF THE MIDDLE AGES their country, and the Moors invited Charlemagne to help them. He therefore led an army across the Pyrenees. He succeeded in putting his Moorish friends in possession of their lands in Spain and then set out on his return to his own country. On the march his army was divided into two parts. The main body was led by Charlemagne himself. The rear guard was commanded by a famous warrior named Roland. While marching through the narrow pass of Roncesvalles (ron-thes-val΄yes), among the Pyrenees, Roland’s division was attacked by a tribe called the Basques (basks), who lived on the mountain slopes of the neighboring region. High cliffs walled in the pass on either side. From the tops of these cliffs the Basques hurled down rocks and trunks of trees upon the Franks, and crushed many of them to death. Besides this, the wild mountaineers descended into the pass and attacked them with weapons. Roland fought bravely; but at last he was overpowered, and he and all his men were killed. Roland had a friend and companion named Oliver, who was as brave as himself. Many stories and songs have been written telling of the wonderful adventures they were said to have had and of their wonderful deeds in war. The work of Charlemagne in Spain was quickly undone; for Abder-Rahman, the leader of the Mohammedans who had come from Damascus, soon conquered almost all the territory south of the Pyrenees. For more than forty years Charlemagne was king of the Franks; but a still greater dignity was to come to him. In the year 800 some of the people in Rome rebelled against the Pope, and Charlemagne went with an army to put down the rebellion. He entered the city with great pomp and soon conquered the rebels. On Christmas day he went to the church of St. Peter, and as he knelt before the altar the Pope placed a crown upon his head, saying: “Long live Charles Augustus, Emperor of the Romans.” The people assembled in the church shouted the same words; and so Charlemagne was now emperor of the Western Roman Empire, as

CHARLEMAGNE well as king of the Franks. 1 Charlemagne built a splendid palace at Aix-la-Chapelle (aks-lashap-elÎ&#x201E;), a town in Germany, where perhaps he was born. Charlemagne was a tall man, with long, flowing beard, and of noble appearance. He dressed in very simple style; but when he went into battle he wore armor, as was the custom for kings and nobles, and often for ordinary soldiers in his day. Armor was made of leather or iron, or both together. There was a helmet of iron for the head, and a breastplate to cover the breast, or a coat of mail to cover the body. The coat of mail was made of small iron or steel rings linked together, or fastened on to a leather shirt. Coverings for the legs and feet were often attached to the coat. II Charlemagne was a great king in may other ways besides the fighting of battles. He did much for the good of his people. He made many excellent laws and appointed judges to see that the laws were carried out. He established schools and placed good teachers in charge of them. He had a school in his palace for his own children, and he employed as their teacher a very learned Englishman named Alcuin (alÎ&#x201E;kwin). In those times few people could read or write. There were not many schools anywhere, and in most places there were none at all. Even the kings had little education. Indeed, few of them could write their own names, and most of them did not care about sending their children to school. They did not think that reading or writing was of much use; but thought that it was far better for boys to learn to be good soldiers, and for girls to learn to spin and weave. Charlemagne had a very different opinion. He was fond of learning; and whenever he heard of a learned man, living in any foreign country, he tried to get him to come and live in Frankland. The fame of Charlemagne as a great warrior and a wise emperor The emperors of Constantinople still called themselves Roman Emperors, and still claimed Italy, Germany and France as parts of their empire, though really their authority had not been respected in these countries for more than 300 years. 1

Roland in the battle of Roncesvalles (Guesnet)

The Pope crowning Charlemagne (Levy)

FAMOUS MEN OF THE MIDDLE AGES spread all over the world. Many kings sent messengers to him to ask his friendship, and bring him presents. Harun-al-Rashid (hah-roonÎ&#x201E; al rashÎ&#x201E;-eed), the famous caliph, who lived at Bagdad, in Asia, sent him an elephant and a clock which struck the hours. The Franks were much astonished at the sight of the elephant; for they had never seen one before. They also wondered much at the clock. In those days there were in Europe no clocks such as we have; but water-clocks and hour-glasses were used in some places. The water-clock was a vessel into which water was allowed to trickle. It contained a float which pointed to a scale of hours at the side of the vessel. The float gradually rose as the water trickled in. The hourglasses measured time by the falling of fine sand from the top to the bottom of a glass vessel made with a narrow neck in the middle for the sand to go through. They were like the little glasses called egg-timers, which are used for measuring the time for boiling eggs. Charlemagne died in 814. He was buried in the church which he had built at Aix-la-Chapelle. His body was placed in the tomb, seated upon a grand chair, dressed in royal robes, with a crown on the head, a sword at the side, and a Bible in the hands. This famous emperor is known in history as Charlemagne, which is Charlemagne the French word for the (Guesnet) German name Karl der 74

CHARLEMAGNE Grosse (Charles the Great), the name by which he was called at his own court during his life. The German name would really be a better name for him; for he was a German, and German was the language that he spoke. The common name of his favorite residence, Aix-laChapelle, also is French, but he knew the place as Aachen (ä΄chen). The great empire which Charlemagne built up held together only during the life of his son. Then it was divided among his three grandsons. Louis took the eastern part, Lo-thaire΄ took the central part, with the title of emperor, and Charles took the western part.

Harun-al-Rashid Caliph from 786-809 A.D. I The most celebrated of all Mohammedan caliphs was Harun-alRashid, which means, in English, Aaron the Just. Harun is the hero of several of the stories of the “Arabian Nights,” a famous book, which perhaps you have read. There are many curious and wonderful tales in it. When Harun was only eighteen years old he showed such courage and skill as a soldier that his father, who was then caliph, allowed him to lead an army against the enemies of the Mohammedans; and he won many great victories. He afterwards commanded an army of ninety-five thousand Arabs and Persians, sent by his father to invade the Eastern Roman Empire, which was then ruled by the Empress Irene (i-re΄ne). After defeating Irene’s famous general, Nicetas (ni-ce΄tas), Harun marched his army to Chrys-op΄o-lis, now Scutari (skoo΄ta-re), on the Asiatic coast, opposite Constantinople. He encamped on the heights, in full view of the Roman capital. The Empress saw that the city would certainly by taken by the Moslems. She therefore sent ambassadors to Harun to arrange terms; but he sternly refused to agree to anything except immediate surrender. Then one of the ambassadors said, “The Empress has heard much of your ability as a general. Though you are her enemy, she admires you as a soldier.” These flattering words were pleasing to Harun. He walked to and fro in front of his tent and then spoke again to the ambassadors. “Tell the Empress,” he said, “that I will spare Constantinople if she will pay me seventy thousand pieces of gold as a yearly tribute. If the tribute is regularly paid Constantinople shall not be harmed by any Moslem force.” 76

HARUN-AL-RASHID The Empress had to agree to these terms. She paid the first yearâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s tribute; and soon the great Moslem army set out on its homeward march. When Harun was not quite twenty-one years old he became caliph. He began his reign by appointing very able ministers, who carried on the work of the government so well that they greatly improved the condition of the people. Harun built a palace in Bagdad, far grander and more beautiful than that of any caliph before him. Here he established his court and lived in great splendor, attended by hundreds of courtiers and slaves. He was very anxious that his people should be treated justly by the officers of the government; and he was determined to find out whether any had reason to complain. So he sometimes disguised himself at night and went about through the streets and bazaars, listening to the talk of those whom he met and asking them questions. In this way he learned whether the people were contented and happy, or not. In those times Bagdad in the east and the Mohammedan cities of Spain in the west were famed for their schools and learned men. Arabian teachers first introduced into Western Europe both algebra and the figures which we use in arithmetic. It is for this reason that we call these figures the â&#x20AC;&#x153;Arabic numerals.â&#x20AC;? Harun-al-Rashid gave great encouragement to learning. He was a scholar and poet himself and whenever he heard of learned men in his own kingdom, or in neighboring countries, he invited them to his court and treated them with respect. The name of Harun, therefore, became known throughout the world. It is said that a correspondence took place between him and Charlemagne and that, as you have learned, Harun sent the great emperor a present of a clock and an elephant. The tribute of gold that the Empress Irene agreed to pay Harun was sent regularly for many years. It was always received at Bagdad with great ceremony. The day on which it arrived was made a holiday. The Roman soldiers who came with it entered the gates in procession. Moslem troops also took part in the parade. When the gold had been delivered at the palace, the Roman 77

FAMOUS MEN OF THE MIDDLE AGES

The presents from Harun-al-Rashid (Zick)

soldiers were hospitably entertained, and were escorted to the main gate of the city when they set out on their journey back to Constantinople. II In 802 Ni-ceph΄o-rus usurped the throne of the Eastern Empire. He sent ambassadors with a letter to Harun to tell him that the tribute would no longer be paid. The letter contained these words: “The weak and faint-hearted Irene submitted to pay you tribute. She ought to have made you pay tribute to her. Return to me all that she paid you; else the matter must be settled by the sword.” 78

Harun-al-Rashid

FAMOUS MEN OF THE MIDDLE AGES As soon as Harun had read these words the ambassadors threw a bundle of swords at his feet. The caliph smiled, and drawing his own sword, or cimeter (sim΄e-ter), he cut the Roman swords in two with one stroke without injuring the blade, or even turning the edge of his weapon. Then he dictated a letter to Nicephorus, in which he said: “Harun-al-Rashid, Commander of the Faithful to Nicephorus, the Roman dog: I have read thy letter. Thou shalt not hear, thou shalt see my reply.” Harun was as good as his word. He started that day with a large army to punish the emperor. As soon as he reached Roman territory he ravaged the country and took possession of everything valuable that he found. He laid siege to Her-a-cle΄a, a city on the shores of the Black Sea, and in a week forced it to surrender. Then he sacked the place. Nicephorus was now forced to agree to pay the tribute. Scarcely, however, had the caliph reached his palace in Bagdad when the emperor again refused to pay. Harun, consequently, advanced into the Roman province of Phrygia, in Asia Minor, with an army of 15,000 men. Nicepherus marched against him with 125,000 men. In the battle which followed the emperor was wounded, and 40,000 of his men were killed. After this defeat Nicephorus again promised payment of the tribute, but again failed to keep his promise. Harun now vowed that he would kill the emperor if he should ever lay hands upon him. But as he was getting ready to march once more into the Roman provinces a revolt broke out in one of the cities of his own kingdom; and while on his way to suppress it the great caliph died of an illness which had long given him trouble.

Egbert the Saxon King from 802-837 A.D. I Egbert the Saxon lived at the same time as did Harun-al-Rashid and Charlemagne. He was the first king who ruled all England as one kingdom. Long before his birth the people who are known to us as Britons lived there, and they gave to the island the name Britain. But Britain was invaded by the Romans under Julius CĂŚsar and his successors, and all that part of it which we now call England was added to the Empire of Rome. The Britons were driven into Wales and Cornwall, the western sections of the island. The Romans kept possession of the island for nearly four hundred years. They did not leave it until 410, the year that Alaric sacked the city of Rome. At this time the Roman legions were withdrawn from Britain. Some years before this the Saxons, Angles and Jutes, German tribes, had settled near the shores of the North Sea. They learned much about Britain; for trading vessels, even at that early day, crossed the Channel. Among other things, the men from the north learned that Britain was crossed with good Roman roads, and dotted with houses of brick and stone; that walled cities had taken the place of tented camps, and that the country for miles round each city was green every spring with waving wheat, or white with orchard blossoms. After the Roman legions had left Britain, the Jutes, led, it is said, by two great captains named Hengist and Horsa, landed upon the southeastern coast and made a settlement. Britain proved a pleasant place to live in, and soon the Angles and Saxons also left the North Sea shores and invaded the beautiful island. The new invaders met with brave resistance. The Britons were headed by King Arthur, about whom many marvelous stories are told. 81

FAMOUS MEN OF THE MIDDLE AGES

Hengist and Horsa landing in England (Deygas)

His court was held at Caerleon (cär΄le-on), in North Wales, where his hundred and fifty knights banqueted at their famous “Round Table.” The British king and his knights fought with desperate heroism. But they could not drive back the Saxons and their companions and were obliged to seek refuge in the western mountainous parts of the island, just as their forefathers had done when the Romans invaded Britain. Thus nearly all England came into the possession of the three invading tribes. II Arthur and his knights were devoted Christians. For the Romans had not only made good roads and built strong walls and forts in Britain, but they had also brought the Christian religion into the island. And at about the time of the Saxon invasion St. Patrick was founding churches and monasteries in Ireland, and was baptizing whole clans of the Irish at a time. It is said that he baptized 12,000 persons with his own hand. Missionaries were sent out by the Irish Church to convert the wild Picts of Scotland and at a later day the 82

EGBERT THE SAXON distant barbarians of Germany and Switzerland. The Saxons, Angles, and Jutes believed in the old Norse gods, and Tiew and Woden, Thor and Friga, or Frija, were worshiped on the soil of Britain for more than a hundred years. The Britons tried to convert their conquerors, but the invaders did not care to be taught religion by those whom they had conquered; so the British missionaries found the work unusually hard. Aid came to them in a singular way. At some time near the year 575 A.D., the Saxons quarreled and fought with their friends, the Angles. They took some Angles prisoners and carried them to Rome to be sold in the great slave-market there. A monk named Gregory passed one day through the market and saw these captives. He asked the dealer who they were. “Angles,” was the answer. “Oh,” said the monk, “they would be angels instead of Angles if they were only Christians; for they certainly have the faces of angels.” Years after, when that monk was the Pope of Rome, he remembered this conversation and sent the monk Au-gus΄tine to England to teach the Christian religion to the savage but angel-faced Angles. Augustine and the British missionaries converted the AngloSaxons two hundred years before the German Saxons were converted. Still, though both Angles and Saxons called themselves Christians, they were seldom at peace; and for more than two hundred years they frequently fought. Various chiefs tried to make themselves kings; and at length there came to be no less than seven small kingdoms in South Britain. In 784 Egbert claimed to be heir of the kingdom called Wessex; but the people elected another man and Egbert had to flee for his life. He went to the court of Charlemagne, and was with the great king of the Franks in Rome on Christmas Day, 800, when the Pope placed the crown on Charles’ head and proclaimed him emperor. Soon after this a welcome message came to Egbert. The mind of the people in Wessex had changed and they had elected him king. So bidding farewell to Charlemagne, he hurried to England. Egbert had seen how Charlemagne had compelled the different quarreling tribes of Germany to yield allegiance to him and how after uniting his empire he had ruled it well. 83

St. Patrick baptizing Irish princesses (Etchverry)

EGBERT THE SAXON Egbert did in England what Charlemagne had done in Germany. He either persuaded the various petty kingdoms of the Angles, the Saxons and the Jutes to recognize him as their ruler, or forced them to do so; and thus under him all England became one united kingdom. But Egbert did even better than this. He did much to harmonize the different tribes by his wise conciliation. The name “England” is a memorial of this; for though Egbert himself was a Saxon, he advised that to please the Angles the country should be called An΄gli-a, that is, Angleland or England, the land of the Angles, instead of Sax-oni΄a, or Saxonland.

Rollo the Viking Died 931 A.D. I For more than two hundred years during the Middle Ages the Christian countries of Europe were attacked on the southwest by the Saracens of Spain, and on the northwest by the Norsemen, or Northmen. The Northmen were so called because they came into Middle Europe from the north. Sometimes they were called ViÎ&#x201E;kings, or pirates, because they were adventurous sea-robbers who plundered all countries which they could reach by sea. Their ships were long and swift. In the center was placed a single mast, which carried one large sail. For the most part, however, the Norsemen depended on rowing, not on the wind, and sometimes there were twenty rowers in one vessel. The Vikings were a terror to all their neighbors; but the two regions that suffered most from their attacks were the Island of Britain and that part of Charlemagneâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s empire in which the Franks were settled. Nearly fifty times in two hundred years the lands of the Franks were invaded. The Vikings sailed up the large rivers into the heart of the region which we now call France and captured and pillaged cities and towns. Some years after Charlemagneâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s death they went as far as his capital, Aix (aks), took the place, and stabled their horses in the cathedral which the great emperor had built. In the year 860 they discovered Iceland and made a settlement upon its shores. A few years later they sailed as far as Greenland, and there established settlements which existed for about a century. These Vikings were the first discoverers of the continent on which we live. Ancient books found in Iceland tell the story of the discovery. It is related that a Viking ship was driven during a storm to a strange coast, which is thought to have been that part of America now known as Labrador. 86

Marauding expedition of Northmen (Vogel)

FAMOUS MEN OF THE MIDDLE AGES When the captain of the ship returned home he told what he had seen. His tale so excited the curiosity of a young Viking prince, called Leif the Lucky, that he sailed to the newly discovered coast. Going ashore, he found that the country abounded in wild grapes; and so he called it Vinland, or the land of Vines. Vinland is thought to have been a part of what is now the Rhode Island coast. The Vikings were not aware that they had found a great unknown continent. No one in the more civilized parts of Europe knew anything about their discovery; and after a while the story of the Vinland voyages seems to have been forgotten, even among the Vikings themselves. So it is not to them that we owe the discovery of America, but to Columbus; because his discovery, though nearly five hundred years later than that of the Norsemen, actually made known to all Europe, for all time, the existence of the New World. II The Vikings had many able chieftains. One of the most famous was Rollo the Walker, so called because he was such a giant that no horse strong enough to carry him could be found, and therefore he always had to walk. However, he did on foot what few could do on horseback. In 885 seven hundred ships, commanded by Rollo and other Viking chiefs, left the harbors of Norway, sailed to the mouth of the Seine (san), and started up the river to capture the city of Paris. Rollo and his men stopped on the way at Rouen (rĂś-onÎ&#x201E;), which also was on the Seine, but nearer its mouth. The citizens had heard of the giant, and when they saw the river covered by his fleet they were dismayed. However, the bishop of Rouen told them that Rollo could be as noble and generous as he was fierce; and he advised them to open their gates and trust to the mercy of the Viking chief. This was done, and Rollo marched into Rouen and took possession of it. The bishop had given good advice, for Rollo treated the people very kindly. Soon after capturing Rouen he left the place, sailed up the river to Paris, and joined the other Viking chiefs. And now for six long 88

ROLLO THE VIKING miles the beautiful Seine was covered with Viking vessels, which carried an army of thirty thousand men. A noted warrior named Eudes (ude) was Count of Paris, and he had advised the Parisians to fortify the city. So not long before the arrival of Rollo and his companions, two walls with strong gates had been built round Paris. It was no easy task for even Vikings to capture a strongly walled city. We are told that Rollo and his men built a high tower and rolled it on wheels up to the walls. At its top was a floor well manned with soldiers. But the people within the city shot hundreds of arrows at the besiegers, and threw down rocks, or poured boiling oil and pitch upon them. The Vikings thought to starve the Parisians, and for thirteen months they encamped round the city. At length food became very scarce, and Count Eudes determined to go for help. He went out through one of the gates on a dark, stormy night, and rode post-haste to the king. He told him that something must be done to save the people of Paris. So the king gathered an army and marched to the city. No battle was foughtâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;the Vikings seemed to have been afraid to risk one. They gave up the siege, and Paris was relieved. Rollo and his men went to the Duchy of Burgundy, where, as now, the finest crops were raised and the best of wines were made. III Perhaps after a time Rollo and his Vikings went home; but we do not know what he did for about twenty-five years. We do know that he abandoned his old home in Norway in 911. Then he and his people sailed from the icy shore of Norway and again went up the Seine in hundreds of Viking vessels. Of course, on arriving in the land of the Franks, Rollo at once began to plunder towns and farms. Charles, then king of the Franks, although his people called him the Simple, or Senseless, had sense enough to see that this must be stopped. So he sent a message to Rollo and proposed that they should have 89

FAMOUS MEN OF THE MIDDLE AGES

A Viking ship a talk about peace. Rollo agreed and accordingly they met. The king and his troops stood on one side of a little river, and Rollo with his Vikings stood on the other. Messages passed between them. The king asked Rollo what he wanted. “Let me and my people live in the land of the Franks; let us make ourselves home here, and I and my Vikings will become your vassals,” answered Rollo. He asked for Rouen and the neighboring land. So the king gave him that part of Francia; and ever since it has been called Normandy, the land of the Northmen. When it was decided that the Vikings should settle in Francia and be subjects of the Frankish king, Rollo was told that he must kiss the foot of Charles in token that he would be the king’s vassal. The haughty Viking refused. “Never,” said he, “will I bend my knee before any man, and no man’s foot will I kiss.” After some persuasion, however, he ordered one of his men to perform the act of homage for him. The king was on horseback and the Norseman, standing by the side of the horse, suddenly seized the king’s foot and drew it up to his lips. This almost made the king fall from his horse, to the great amusement of the Norsemen. Becoming a vassal to the king meant that if the king went to war 90

ROLLO THE VIKING Rollo would be obliged to join his army and bring a certain number of armed men—one thousand or more. Rollo now granted parts of Normandy to his leading men on condition that they would bring soldiers to his army and fight under him. They became his vassals, as he was the king’s vassal. The lands granted to vassals in this way were called feuds, and this plan of holding lands was called the Feudal System. It was established in every country of Europe during the Middle Ages. The poorest people were called serfs. They were almost slaves and were never permitted to leave the estate to which they belonged. They did all the work. They worked chiefly for the landlords, but partly for themselves. Having been a robber himself, Rollo knew what a shocking thing it was to ravage and plunder, and he determined to change his people’s habits. He made strict laws and hanged robbers. His duchy thus became one of the safest parts of Europe. The Northmen learned the language of the Franks and adopted their religion. The story of Rollo is especially interesting to us, because Rollo was the forefather of that famous Duke of Normandy who, less than a hundred and fifty years later, conquered England and brought into that country the Norman nobles with their French language and customs.

Alfred the Great King from 871-901 A.D. I The Danes were neighbors of the Norwegian Vikings, and like them were fond of the sea and piracy. They plundered the English coasts for more than a century; and most of northern and eastern England became for a time a Danish country with Danish kings. What saved the rest of the country to the Saxons was the courage of the great Saxon king, Alfred. Alfred was the son of Ethelwulf, king of the West Saxons. He had a loving mother who brought him up with great care. Up to the age of twelve, it is said, he was not able to read well, in spite of the efforts of his mother and others to teach him. When Alfred was a boy there were no printed books. The wonderful art of printing was not invented until about the year 1440— nearly six hundred years later than Alfred’s time. Moreover, the art of making paper had not yet been invented. Consequently the few books in use in Alfred’s time were written by skillful penmen, who wrote generally on leaves of parchment, which was sheepskin carefully prepared so that it might retain ink. One day Alfred’s mother showed him and his elder brothers a beautiful volume which contained a number of the best Saxon ballads. Some of the words in this book were written in brightly colored letters, and upon many of the leaves were painted pictures of gailydressed knights and ladies. “Oh, what a lovely book!” exclaimed the boys. “Yes, it is lovely,” replied the mother. “I will give it to whichever of you children can read it the best in a week.” Alfred began at once to take lessons in reading, and studied hard day after day. His brothers passed their time in amusements and made fun of Alfred’s efforts. They thought he could not learn to read as well as they could, no matter how hard he should try. 92

ALFRED THE GREAT At the end of the week the boys read the book to their mother, one after the other. Much to the surprise of his brothers, Alfred proved to be the best reader and his mother gave him the book. While still very young Alfred was sent by his father to Rome to be anointed by His Holiness, the Pope. It was a long and tiresome journey, made mostly on horseback. With imposing, solemn ceremony he was anointed by the Holy Father. Afterwards he spent a year in Rome receiving religious instruction. II In the year 871, when Alfred was twenty-two years old, the Danes invaded various parts of England. Some great battles were fought, and Alfred’s elder brother Ethelred, king of the West Saxons, was killed. Thus Alfred became king. The Danes still continued to fight the Saxons, and defeated Alfred in a long and severe struggle. They took for themselves the northern and eastern parts of England. Moreover, Danes from Denmark continued to cross the sea and ravage the coast of Saxon England. They kept the people in constant alarm. Alfred therefore determined to meet the pirates on their own element, the sea. So he built and equipped the first English navy, and in 875 gained the first naval victory ever won by the English. A few years after this, however, great numbers of Danes from the northern part of England came pouring into the Saxon lands. Alfred himself was obliged to flee for his life. For many months he wandered through forests and over hills to avoid being taken by the Danes. He sometimes made his home in caves and in the huts of shepherds and cowherds. Often he tended the cattle and sheep and was glad to get a part of the farmer’s dinner in pay for his services. Once, when very hungry, he went into the house of a cowherd and asked for something to eat. The cowherd’s wife was baking cakes and she said she would give him some when they were done. “Watch the cakes and do not let them burn, while I go across the field to look after the cows,” said the woman, as she hurried away. 93

Invasion of England by the Danes (MertĂŠ)

ALFRED THE GREAT Alfred took his seat on the chimney-corner to do as he was told. But soon his thoughts turned to his troubles and he forgot about the cakes. When the woman came back she cried out with vexation, for the cakes were burned and spoiled. “You lazy, good-for-nothing man!” she said, “I warrant you can eat cakes fast enough; but you are too lazy to help me bake them.” With that she drove the poor hungry Alfred out of her house. In his ragged dress he certainly did not look like a king, and she had no idea that he was anything but a poor beggar. III Some of Alfred’s friends discovered where he was hiding and joined him. In a little time a body of soldiers came to him and a strong fort was built by them. From this fort Alfred and his men went out now and then and gave battle to small parties of the Danes. Alfred was successful and his army grew larger and larger. One day he disguised himself as a wandering minstrel and went into the camp of the Danes. He strolled here and there, playing on a harp and singing Saxon ballads. At last, Guth΄rum, the commander of the Danes, ordered the minstrel to be brought to his tent. Alfred went. “Sing to me some of your charming songs,” said Guthrum. “I never heard more beautiful music.” So the kingly harper played and sang for the Dane, and went away with handsome presents. But better than that, he had gained information that was of the greatest value. In a week he attacked the Danish forces and defeated them with great slaughter in a battle which lasted all day and far into the night. Guthrum was taken prisoner and brought before Alfred. Taking his harp in his hands, Alfred played and sang one of the ballads with which he had entertained Guthrum in the camp. The Dane started in amazement and exclaimed: “You, then, King Alfred, were the wandering minstrel?” “Yes,” replied Alfred, “I was the musician whom you received so kindly. Your life is now in my hands; but I will give you your liberty if you will become a Christian and never again make war on my 95

Alfred the Great in the Danish camp (MertĂŠ)

ALFRED THE GREAT people.” “King Alfred,” said Guthrum, “I will become a Christian, and so will all my men if you will grant liberty to them as to me; and henceforth, we will be your friends.” Alfred then released the Danes, and they were baptized as Christians. An old road running across England from London to Chester was then agreed upon as the boundary between the Danish and Saxon kingdoms; and the Danes settled in East Anglia, as the eastern part of England was called. Years of peace and prosperity followed for Alfred’s kingdom. During these years the king rebuilt the towns that had been destroyed by the Danes, erected new forts, and greatly strengthened his army and navy. He also encouraged trade; and he founded a school like that established by Charlemagne. He himself translated a number of Latin books into Saxon, and probably did more for the cause of education than any other king that ever wore the English crown.

Henry the Fowler King from 919-936 A.D. I About a hundred years had passed since the death of Charlemagne, and his great empire had fallen to pieces. Seven kings ruled where he had once been sole emperor. West of the Rhine, where the Germans lived, the last descendant of Charlemagne died when he was a mere boy. The German nobles were not willing for any foreign prince to govern them, and yet they saw that they must unite to defend their country against the invasions of the barbarians called Magyars (ma-järz΄). So they met and elected Conrad, duke of Franconia, to be their king. However, although he became king in name, Conrad never had much power over his nobles. Some of them refused to recognize him as king and his reign was disturbed by quarrels and wars. He died in 919, and on his death-bed he said to his brother, “Henry, Duke of Saxony, is the ablest ruler in the empire. Elect him king, and Germany will have peace.” A few months after Conrad’s death, the nobles met at Aix-laChapelle and elected Henry to be their king. At this time it was the custom in Europe to hunt various birds, such as the wild duck and partridge, with falcons. The falcons were long-winged birds of prey, resembling hawks. They were trained to perch on their master’s wrist and wait patiently until they were told to fly. Then they would swiftly dart at their prey and bear it to the ground. Henry was very fond of falconry and hence was known as Henry the Fowler, or Falconer. As soon as the other dukes had elected him king a messenger was sent to Saxony to inform him of the honor done him. After a search of some days he was at last found, far up in the Hartz Mountains, hunting with his falcons. Kneeling at his feet, the messenger said: “God save you, Henry of Saxony. I come to announce the death of 98

The crown of Germany is offered to Henry the Fowler (Thumann)

FAMOUS MEN OF THE MIDDLE AGES King Conrad and to tell you that the nobles have elected you to succeed him as king of the Germans.” For a moment the duke was speechless with amazement. Then he exclaimed: “Elected me king? I cannot believe it. I am a Saxon, and King Conrad was a Frank and a bitter enemy to me.” “It is true,” replied the messenger. “Conrad, when dying, advised that the nobles should choose you as his successor.” Henry was silent for while and then he said, “King Conrad was a good man. I know it now; and I am sorry that I did not understand him better when he was alive. I accept the position offered to me and I pray that I may be guided by Heaven in ruling his people.” So Henry the Fowler left the chase to take up his duties as king of the Germans. II In proper time Henry was proclaimed king of Germany; but he was hardly seated on the throne when the country was invaded by thousands of Magyars, from the land which we now know as Hungary. As soon as possible Henry gathered an army and marched to meet the barbarians. He came upon a small force under the command of the son of the Magyar king. The Germans easily routed the Magyars and took the king’s son prisoner. This proved to be a very fortunate thing, because it stopped the war for a long term of years. When the Magyar king learned that his son was a prisoner in the hands of King Henry he was overwhelmed with grief. He mourned for his son day and night and at last sent to the German camp a Magyar chief with a flag of truce, to beg that the prince might be given up. “Our king says that he will give whatever you demand for the release of his son,” said the chief to the German monarch. “I will give up the prince on this condition only,” was the reply, “the Magyars must leave the soil of Germany immediately and promise not to war on us for nine years. During those years I will pay to the king yearly five thousand pieces of gold.” “I accept the terms in the king’s name,” responded the chief. The 100

HENRY THE FOWLER prince was, therefore, given up and the Magyars withdrew. During the nine years of truce King Henry paid great attention to the organization of an army. Before this the German soldiers had fought chiefly on foot, not, as the Magyars did, on horseback. For this reason they were at a great disadvantage in battle. The king now raised a strong force of horsemen and had them drilled so thoroughly that they became almost invincible. The infantry also were carefully drilled. Besides this, Henry built a number of forts in different parts of his kingdom and had all the fortified cities made stronger. The following year the Magyar chief appeared at the German court and demanded a tenth payment. “Not a piece of gold will be given you,” replied King Henry. “Our truce is ended.” In less than a week a vast body of Magyars entered Germany to renew the war. Henry held his army in waiting until lack of food compelled the barbarians to divide their forces into two separate bodies. One division was sent to one part of the country, the other to another part. Henry completely routed both divisions, and the power of the Magyars in Germany was broken. The Danes also invaded Henry’s kingdom, but he defeated them and drove them back. Henry reigned for eighteen years; and when he died all Germany was peaceful and prosperous. His son Otto succeeded him. He assumed the title of “Emperor,” which Charlemagne had borne more than a hundred years before. From that time on, for nearly one thousand years, all the German emperors claimed to be the successors of Charlemagne. They called their domain “the Holy Roman Empire,” and took the title “Emperor” or “Emperor of the Romans,” until the year 1806, when Francis II resigned it.

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Canute the Great King from 1014-1035 I The Danes, you remember, had the eastern and northern parts of England in the time of Alfred. Alfred’s successors drove them farther and farther north, and at length the Danish kingdom in England came to an end for a time. But the Danes in Denmark did not forget that there had been such a kingdom and in the year 1013 Sweyn (swane), King of Denmark, invaded England and defeated the Anglo-Saxons. Ethelred, their king, fled to Normandy. Sweyn now called himself the king of England; but in a short time he died and his son Canute succeeded to his throne. Canute was nineteen years old. He had been his father’s companion during the war with the Anglo-Saxons, and thus had had a good deal of experience as a soldier. After the death of Sweyn some of the Anglo-Saxons recalled King Ethelred and revolted against the Danes. Canute, however, went to Denmark and there raised one of the largest armies of Danes that had ever been assembled. With this powerful force he sailed to England. When he landed Northumberland and Wessex acknowledged him as king. Shortly after this Ethelred died. Canute now thought he would find it easy to get possession of all England. This was a mistake. Ethelred left a son named Edmund Ironside who was a very brave soldier. He became, by his father’s death, the king of Saxon England and at once raised an army to defend his kingdom. A battle was fought and Edmund was victorious. This was the first of five battles that were fought in one year. In none of them could the Danes do more than gain a slight advantage now and then. However, the Saxons were at last defeated in a sixth battle 102

Danes embarking for the invasion of England (von Urlaub)

FAMOUS MEN OF THE MIDDLE AGES through the act of a traitor. Edric, a Saxon noble, took his men out of the fight and his treachery so weakened the Saxon army that Edmund Ironside had to surrender to Canute. But the young Dane had greatly admired Edmund for the way in which he had fought against heavy odds, so he now treated him most generously. Canute took certain portions of England and the remainder was given to Edmund Ironside. Thus for a short time the Anglo-Saxon people had at once a Danish and a Saxon monarch. II Edmund died in 1016 and after his death Canute became sole ruler. He ruled wisely. He determined to make his Anglo-Saxon subjects forget that he was a foreign conqueror. To show his confidence in them he sent back to Denmark the army he had brought over the sea, keeping on a part of his fleet and a small body of soldiers to act as guards at his palace. He now depended on the support of his Anglo-Saxon subjects and he won their love. Although a king—and it is generally believed that kings like flattery—Canute is said to have rebuked his courtiers when they flattered him. On one occasion, when they were talking about his achievements, one of them said to him: “Most noble king, I believe you can do anything.” Canute sternly rebuked the courtier for these words and then said: “Come with me, gentlemen.” He led them from the palace grounds to the sea-shore where the tide was rising, and had his chair placed at the edge of the water. “You say I can do anything,” he said to the courtiers. “Very well, I who am king and the lord of the ocean now command these rising waters to go back and not dare wet my feet.” But the tide was disobedient and steadily rose and rose, until the feet of the king were in the water. Turning to his courtiers, Canute said: “Learn how feeble is the power of earthly kings. None is worthy the name of king but He whom heaven and earth and sea obey.” 104

Canute rebukes his courtiers (de Neuville)

FAMOUS MEN OF THE MIDDLE AGES During Canuteâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s reign England had peace and prosperity and the English people have ever held his memory dear.

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The Cid Late one sunny afternoon one and twenty knights were riding along the highway in the northern part of Spain. As they were passing a deep mire they heard cries for help, and turning, saw a poor leper who was sinking in the mud. One of the knights, a handsome young man, was touched by the cries. He dismounted, rescued the poor fellow, took him upon his own horse, and thus the two rode to the inn. The other knights wondered at this. When they reached the inn where they were to stop for the night, they wondered still more, for their companion gave the leper a seat next to himself at the table. After supper the knight shared his own bed with the leper. If the knight had not done this, the leper would have been driven out of the town, with nothing to eat and no place in which to sleep. At midnight, while the young man was fast asleep, the leper breathed upon his back. This awakened the knight, who turned quickly in his bed and found that the leper was gone. The knight called for a light and searched, but in vain. While he was wondering about what had happened, a man in shining garments appeared before him and said, “Rodrigo, art thou asleep or awake?” The knight answered, “I am awake, but who art thou that bringest such brightness?” The vision replied, “I am St. Lazarus, the leper to whom thou wast so kind. Because I have breathed upon thee thou shalt accomplish whatever thou shalt undertake in peace or in battle. All shall honor thee. Therefore, go on and evermore do good.” With that the vision vanished. The promise of St. Lazarus was fulfilled. In time young Rodrigo became the great hero of Spain. The Spaniards called him Cam-peä-dor΄, or Champion. The Saracens called him “The Cid,” or Lord. His real name was Rodrigo Diaz de Bivar, but he is usually spoken of as “The Cid.” The Goths, after the death of Alaric, had taken Spain away from the Romans. The Saracens, or, as they were usually called, the Moors, had crossed the sea from Africa and in turn had taken Spain from the 107

FAMOUS MEN OF THE MIDDLE AGES Goths. In the time of Charles Martel the Goths had lost all Spain except the small mountain district in the northern part. In the time of the Cid the Goths, now called Spaniards, had driven the Moors down to about the middle of Spain. War went on all the time between the two races, and many men spent their lives in fighting. The Spanish part of the country then comprised the kingdoms of Castile, Leon, Aragon and others. The Cid was a subject of Fernando of Castile. Fernando had a dispute with the king of Aragon about a city which each claimed. They agreed to decide the matter by a combat. Each was to choose a champion. The champions were to fight, and the king whose champion won was to have the city. Fernando chose the Cid, and though the other champion was called the bravest knight in Spain, the youthful warrior vanquished him. When Alfonzo, a son of Fernando, succeeded to the throne, he became angry with the Cid without just cause and banished him from Christian Spain. The Cid was in need of some money, so he filled two chests with sand and sent word to two wealthy money lenders that he wished to borrow six hundred Spanish marks (about $2,000), and would put into their hands his treasures of silver and gold which were packed in two chests, but the money lenders must solemnly swear not to open the chests until a full year had passed. To this they gladly agreed. They took the chests and loaned him six hundred marks. The Cid was now ready for his journey. Three hundred of his knights went into banishment with him. They crossed the mountains and entered the land of the Moors. Soon they reached the town of Alcocer, and after a siege captured it and lived in it. Then the Moorish king of Valencia ordered two chiefs to take three thousand horsemen, recapture the town and bring the Cid alive to him. So the Cid and his men were shut up in Alcocer and besieged. Famine threatened them and they determined to cut their way through the army of the Moors. Suddenly and swiftly they poured from the gate of Alcocer, and a terrible battle was fought. The two Moorish chiefs were taken prisoners and thirteen hundred of their men were killed in the battle. The Cid then became a vassal of the 108

THE CID Moorish king of Saragossa. After a while Alfonzo recalled the Cid from banishment and gave him seven castles and the lands adjoining them. He needed the Cidâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s help in the greatest of all his plans against the Moors. He was determined to capture Toledo. He attacked it with a large army in which there were soldiers from many foreign lands. The Cid is said to have been the commander. After a long siege the city fell and the victorious army marched across the great bridge built by the Moors, which you would cross to-day if you went to Toledo. Valencia was one of the largest and richest cities in Moorish Spain. It was strongly fortified, but the Cid determined to attack it. The plain about the city was irrigated by streams that came down from the neighboring hills. To prevent the Cidâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s army from coming near the city the Saracens flooded the plain. But the Cid camped on high ground above the plain and The Gate of the Sun at Toledo from that point be(From a photograph) sieged the city. Food became very scarce in Valencia. Wheat, barley and cheese were all so dear that none but the rich could buy them. People ate horses, dogs, cats and mice, until in the whole city only three horses and a mule were left alive. Then on the fifteenth of June, 1094, the governor went to the camp of the Cid and delivered to him the keys of the city. The Cid placed his men in all the forts and took the citadel as his own 109

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Bridge at Toledo (From a photograph)

dwelling. His banner floated from the towers. He called himself the Prince of Valencia. When the king of Morocco heard of this he raised an army of fifty thousand men. They crossed from Africa to Spain and laid siege to Valencia. But the Cid with his men made a sudden sally and routed them and pursued them for miles. It is said that fifteen thousand soldiers were drowned in the river Gua-dal-qui-vir΄ which they tried to cross. The Cid was now at the height of his power and lived in great magnificence. One of the first things he did was to repay the two friends who had lent him the six hundred marks. He was kind and just to the Saracens who had become his subjects. They were allowed to have their mosques and to worship God as they thought right. In time the Cid’s health began to fail. He could lead his men forth to battle no more. He sent an army against the Moors, but it was so completely routed that few of his men came back to tell the tale. It is said by a Moorish writer that “when the runaways reached him the Cid died of rage” (1099). There is a legend that shortly before he died he saw a vision of St. 110

THE CID Peter, who told him that he should gain a victory over the Saracens after his death. So the Cid gave orders that his body should be embalmed. It was so well preserved that it seemed alive. It was clothed in a coat of mail, and the sword that had won so many battles was placed in the hand. Then it was mounted upon the Cidâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s favorite horse and fastened into the saddle, and at midnight was borne out of the gate of Valencia with a guard of a thousand knights. All silently they marched to a spot where the Moorish king, with thirty-six chieftains, lay encamped, and at daylight the knights of the Cid made a sudden attack. The king awoke. It seemed to him that there were coming against him full seventy thousand knights, all dressed in robes as white as snow, and before them rode a knight, taller than all the rest, holding in his left hand a snow-white banner and in the other a sword which seemed of fire. So afraid were the Moorish chief and his men that they fled to the sea, and twenty thousand of them were drowned as they tried to reach their ships. There is a Latin inscription near the tomb of the Cid which may be translated: Brave and unconquered, famous in triumphs of war, Enclosed in this tomb lies Roderick the Great of Bivar.

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Edward the Confessor King from 1042-1066 I The Danish kings who followed Canute were not like him. They were cruel, unjust rulers and all the people of England hated them. So when in the year 1042 the last of them died, Edward, the son of the Saxon Ethelred, was elected king. He is known in history as Edward the Confessor. He was a man of holy life and after his death was made a saint by the Church, with the title of “the Confessor.” Though born in England, he passed the greater part of his life in Normandy as an exile from his native land. He was thirty-eight years old when he returned from Normandy to become king. As he had lived so long in Normandy he always seemed more like a Norman than one of English birth. He generally spoke the French language and he chose Normans to fill many of the highest offices in his kingdom. For the first eight years of his reign there was perfect peace in his kingdom, except in the counties of Kent and Essex, where pirates from the North Sea made occasional attacks. These pirates were mostly Norwegians, whose leader was a barbarian named Kerdic. They would come sweeping down upon the Kentish coast in many ships, make a landing where there were no soldiers, and fall upon the towns and plunder them. Then, as swiftly and suddenly as they had come, they would sail away homeward, before they could be captured. One day Kerdic’s fleet arrived off the coast, and as no opposing force was visible, the pirates landed and started toward the nearest town to plunder it. By a quick march a body of English soldiers reached the town before the pirates, and when the latter arrived they found a strong 112

Norwegian pirates on the coast of Kent (Wergeland)

FAMOUS MEN OF THE MIDDLE AGES force drawn up to give them battle. A short struggle took place. More than half of the pirates were slain and the remainder were taken prisoners. After the prisoners had been secured the English ships that were stationed on the coast attacked the pirate fleet and destroyed it. II Edward took part in the events upon which Shakespeare, five hundred years later, founded his famous tragedy of “Macbeth.” There lived in Scotland during his reign an ambitious nobleman named Macbeth, who invited Duncan, the King of Scotland, to his castle and murdered him. He tried to make it appear that the murder had been committed by Duncan’s attendants and he caused the king’s son and heir, Prince Malcolm, to flee from the land. He then made himself king of Scotland. Malcolm hastened to England and appealed to King Edward for help. When the king was told the number of soldiers Malcolm would probably need he gave orders for double that number to march into Scotland. Malcolm with this support attacked Macbeth, and after several well-fought battles drove the usurper from Scotland and took possession of the throne. Edward did a great deal during his reign to aid the cause of Christianity. He rebuilt the ancient Westminster Abbey in London and erected churches and monasteries in different parts of England. Edward was long supposed to have made many just laws, and years after his death the English people, when suffering from bad government, would exclaim, “Oh, for the good laws and customs of Edward the Confessor!” What he really did was to have the old laws faithfully carried out. He died in 1066 and was buried in Westminster Abbey.

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William the Conqueror King from 1066-1087 I On the death of Edward the Confessor the throne of England was claimed by William, Duke of Normandy. When Edward took refuge in Normandy after the Danes conquered England, he stayed at the palace of William. He was very kindly treated there, and William said that Edward had promised in gratitude that William should succeed him as king of England. One day in the year 1066 when William was hunting with a party of his courtiers in the woods near Rouen, a noble came riding rapidly toward him shouting, “Your Highness, a messenger has just arrived from England, bearing the news that King Edward is dead and that Harold, the son of Earl Godwin, has been placed on the English throne.” William at once called his nobles together and said to them, “I must have your consent that I enforce my claim to England’s throne by arms.” The barons gave their consent. So an army of sixty thousand men was collected and a large fleet of ships was built to carry this force across the channel. During the months of preparation William sent an embassy to the English court to demand of Harold that he give up the throne. Harold refused. Soon all England was startled by the news that William had landed on the English coast at the port of Hastings with a large force. Harold immediately marched as quickly as possible from the north to the southern coast. In a week or so he arrived at a place called Senlac nine miles from Hastings, in the neighborhood of which town the Norman army was encamped. He took his position on a low range of hills and awaited the attack of William. His men were tired with their march, but he encouraged them and bade them prepare for 115

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Harold receiving news of the Norman invasion battle. On the morning of October 14, 1066, the two armies met. The Norman foot-soldiers opened the battle by charging on the English stockades. They ran over the plain to the low hills, singing a war-song at the top of their voices; but they could not carry the stockades although they tried again and again. They therefore attacked another part of the English forces. William, clad in complete armor, was in the very front of the 116

WILLIAM THE CONQUEROR fight, urging on his troops. At one time a cry arose in his army that he was slain and a panic began. William drew off his helmet and rode along the lines, shouting, “I live! I live! Fight on! We shall conquer yet!” The battle raged from morning till night. Harold himself fought on foot at the head of his army and behaved most valiantly. His men, tired as they were from their forced march, bravely struggled on hour after hour. But at last William turned their lines and threw them into confusion. As the sun went down Harold was killed and his men gave up the fight. From Hastings William marched toward London. On the way he received the surrender of some towns and burned others that would not surrender. London submitted and some of the nobles and citizens came forth and offered the English crown to the Norman duke. On the 25th of December, 1066, the “Conqueror,” as he is always called, was crowned in Westminster Abbey by Archbishop Ealdred. Both English and Norman people were present. When the question was asked by the Archbishop, “Will you have William, Duke of Normandy, for your king?” all present answered, “We will.” II At first William ruled England with moderation. The laws and customs were not changed, and in a few months after the battle of Hastings the kingdom was so peaceful that William left it in charge of his brother and went to Normandy for a visit. While he was gone many of the English nobles rebelled against him, and on his return he made very severe laws and did some very harsh things. He laid waste an extensive territory, destroying all the houses upon it and causing thousands of persons to die from lack of food and shelter, because the people there had not sworn allegiance to him. He made a law that all lights should be put out and fires covered with ashes at eight o’clock every evening, so that the people would have to go to bed then. A bell was rung in all cities and towns throughout England to warn the people of the hour. The bell was 117

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Death of the William the Conqueror (Maignan)

called the “curfew,” from the French words “couvre feu,” meaning to cover fire. To find out about the lands of England and their owners, so that everybody might be made to pay taxes, he appointed officers in all the towns to report what estates there were, who owned them, and what they were worth. The reports were copied into two volumes, called the “Domesday Book.” This book showed that England at that time had a population of a little more than a million. William made war on Scotland, and conquered it. During a war with the king of France the city of Mantes (mont) was burned by William’s soldiers. As William rode over the ruins his horse stumbled and the king was thrown to the ground and injured. He was borne to Rouen, where he lay ill for six weeks. His sons and even his attendants abandoned him in his last hours. It is said that in his death struggle he fell from his bed to the floor, where his body was found by his servants.

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Peter the Hermit About 1050-1115 I During the Middle Ages the Christians of Europe used to go to the Holy Land for the purpose of visiting the tomb of Christ and other sacred places. Those who made such a journey were called “pilgrims.” Every year thousands of pilgrims—kings, nobles and people of humbler rank—went to the Holy Land. While Jerusalem was in the hands of the Arabian caliphs who reigned at Bagdad, the Christian pilgrims were generally well treated. After about 1070, when the Turks took possession of the city, outrages became so frequent that it seemed as if it would not be safe for Christians to visit the Savior’s tomb at all. About the year 1095 there lived at Amiens (ä-me-an΄) France, a monk named Peter the Hermit. Peter was present at a council of clergy and people held at Clermont in France when his Holiness, Pope Urban II, made a stirring speech. He begged the people to rescue the Holy Sepulchre and other sacred sites from the Mohammedans. The council was so roused by his words that they broke forth into loud cries, “God wills it! God wills it!” “It is, indeed, His will,” said the Pope, “and let these words be your war-cry when you meet the enemy.” Peter listened with deep attention. Immediately after the council he began to preach in favor of a war against the Turks. With head and feet bare, and clothed in a long, coarse robe tied at the waist with a rope, he went through Italy from city to city, riding on a donkey. He preached in churches, on the streets—wherever he could secure an audience. When Peter had gone over Italy he crossed the Alps and preached to the people of France, Germany, and neighboring countries. Everywhere he kindled the zeal of the people, and multitudes 119

Peter the Hermit preaching the First Crusade (Vanaije)

PETER THE HERMIT enlisted as champions of the cross. Thus began the first of seven wars known as the “Crusades” or “Wars of the Cross,” waged to rescue the Holy Land from the Mohammedans. It is said that more than 100,000 men, women and children went on the first Crusade. Each wore on the right shoulder the emblem of the cross. Peter was in command of one portion of this great multitude. His followers began their journey with shouts of joy and praise. But they had no proper supply of provisions. So when passing through Hungary they plundered the towns and compelled the inhabitants to support them. This roused the anger of the Hungarians. They attacked the Crusaders and killed a great many of them. After long delays about seven thousand of those who had started on the Crusade reached Constantinople. They were still enthusiastic and sounded their war-cry, “God wills it!” with as much fervor as when they first joined Peter’s standard. Leaving Constantinople, they went eastward into the land of the Turks. A powerful army led by the sultan met them. The Crusaders fought heroically all day long but at length were badly beaten. Only a few escaped and found their way back to Constantinople. Peter the Hermit had left the Crusaders before the battle and returned to Constantinople. He afterwards joined the army of Godfrey of Bouillon. Godfrey’s army was composed of six divisions, each commanded by a soldier of high rank and distinction. It was a well organized and disciplined force and numbered about half a million men. It started only a few weeks after the irregular multitude which followed Peter the Hermit, and was really the first Crusading army, for Peter’s undisciplined throng could hardly be called an army. After a long march Godfrey reached Antioch and laid siege to it. It was believed that this Moslem stronghold could be taken in a short time; but the city resisted the attacks of the Christians for seven months. Then it surrendered. And now something happened that none of the Crusaders had dreamed of. An army of two hundred thousand Persians arrived to help the Moslems. They laid siege to Antioch and shut up the 121

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Entry of the Crusaders into Jerusalem (Delacroix)

Crusaders within its walls for weeks. However, after a number of engagements in which there was great loss of life, the Turks and Persians were at last driven away. The way was now opened to Jerusalem. But out of the half million Crusaders who had marched from Europe less than fifty thousand were left. They had won their way at a fearful cost. Still onward they pushed with brave hearts, until on a bright summer morning they caught the first glimpse of the Holy City in the distance. For two whole years they had toiled and suffered in the hope of reaching Jerusalem. Now it lay before them. But it had yet to be taken. For more than five weeks the Crusaders carried on the siege. Finally, on the 15th of July, 1099, the Turks surrendered. The Moslem flag was hauled down and the banner of the cross floated over the Holy City. A few days after the Christians had occupied Jerusalem Godfrey of Bouillon was chosen king of the Holy Land. “I will accept the office,” he said, “but no crown must be put on my head and I must never be called king. I cannot wear a crown of gold where Christ wore one of thorns nor will I be called king in the 122

PETER THE HERMIT land where once lived the King of Kings.â&#x20AC;? Peter the Hermit is said to have preached an eloquent sermon on the Mount of Olives. He did not, however, remain long in Jerusalem, but after the capture of the city returned to Europe. He founded a monastery in France and within its walls passed the rest of his life.

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Frederick Barbarossa Emperor from 1152-1190 I Frederick I was one of the most famous of German emperors. He was a tall, stalwart man of majestic appearance. He had a long red beard and so the people called him Barbarossa, or Red-Beard. He came to the throne in 1152. At that time the province of Lombardy in northern Italy was a part of the German empire. In 1158 Milan (mĂŻ-lanÎ&#x201E;), the chief city of Lombardy, revolted. Then over the Alps came an army of a hundred thousand German soldiers, with Frederick at their head. After a long siege the city surrendered. But soon it revolted again. The emperor besieged it once more and once more it surrendered. Its fortifications were destroyed and many of its buildings ruined. But even then the spirit of the Lombards was not broken. Milan and the other cities of Lombardy united in a league and defied the emperor. He called upon the German dukes to bring their men to his aid. All responded except Henry the Lion, duke of Saxony, Frederickâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s cousin, whom he had made duke of Bavaria also. Frederick is said to have knelt and implored Henry to do his duty, but in vain. In his campaign against the Lombards Frederick was unsuccessful. His army was completely defeated and he was compelled to grant freedom to the cities of Lombardy. Everybody blamed Henry the Lion. The other dukes charged him with treason and he was summoned to appear before a meeting of the nobles. He failed to come and the nobles thereupon declared him guilty and took from him everything that he had, except the lands he had inherited from his father. Frederick now devoted himself to making Germany a united 124

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Frederick at the feet of Henry the Lion (Foltz)

nation. Two of his nobles had been quarreling for a long time and as a punishment for their conduct each was condemned, with ten of his counts and barons, to carry dogs on his shoulders from one country to another. Frederick finally succeeded in keeping the nobles in the different provinces of Germany at peace with one another, and persuaded them to work together for the good of the whole empire. He had no more trouble with them and for many years his reign was peaceful and prosperous. II After the Christians had held Jerusalem for eighty-eight years, it was recaptured by the Moslems under the lead of the famous SalÎ&#x201E;adin, in the year 1187. There was much excitement in Christendom, and the Pope proclaimed another Crusade. Frederick immediately raised an army of Crusaders in the German Empire and with one hundred and fifty thousand men started for 125

FAMOUS MEN OF THE MIDDLE AGES Palestine. He marched into Asia Minor, attacked the Moslem forces, and defeated them in two great battles. But before the brave old warrior reached the Holy Land his career was suddenly brought to an end. One day his army was crossing a small bridge over a river in Asia Minor. At a moment when the bridge was crowded with troops Frederick rode up rapidly. He was impatient to join his son, who was leading the advance guard; and when he found that he could not cross immediately by the bridge, he plunged into the river to swim his horse across. Both horse and rider were swept away by the current. Barbarossa’s heavy armor made him helpless and he was drowned. His body was recovered and buried at Antioch. Barbarossa was so much loved by his people that it was said, “Germany and Frederick Barbarossa are one in the hearts of the Germans.” His death caused the greatest grief among the German

Nobles carrying dogs (Zimmer)

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FREDERICK BARBAROSSA Crusaders. They had now little heart to fight the infidels and most of them at once returned to Germany. In the Empire the dead hero was long mourned and for many years the peasants believed that Frederick was not really dead, but was asleep in a cave in the mountains of Germany, with his gallant knights around him. He was supposed to be sitting in his chair of state, with the crown upon his head, his eyes half-closed in slumber, his beard as white as snow and so long that it reached the ground. “When the ravens cease to fly round the mountain,” said the legend, “Barbarossa shall awake and restore Germany to its ancient greatness.”

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Henry the Second 1154-1189 and His Sons 1189-1216 I In 1154, while Barbarossa was reigning in Germany, Henry II, one of England’s greatest monarchs, came to the throne. Henry was the son of Geoffrey Plan-tag΄e-net, Count of Anjou in France, and Matilda, daughter of King Henry I and granddaughter of William the Conqueror. Count Geoffrey used to wear in his hat a sprig of the broom plant, which is called in Latin planta genista. From this he adopted the name Plantagenet, and the kings who descended from him and ruled England for more than three hundred years are called the Plantagenets. Henry II inherited a vast domain in France and managing this in addition England kept him very busy. One who knew him well said, “He never sits down; he is on his feet from morning till night.” His chief assistant in the management of public affairs was Thomas Becket, whom he made chancellor of the kingdom. Becket was fond of pomp and luxury, and lived in a more magnificent manner than even the king himself. The clergy had at this time become almost independent of the king. To bring them under his authority Henry made Becket Archbishop of Canterbury, thus putting him at the head of the Church in England. The king expected that Becket would carry out all his wishes. Becket, however, refused to do that which the king most desired and a quarrel arose between them. At last, to escape the king’s anger, Becket fled to France and remained there for six years. At the end of this time Henry invited him to come back to England. Not long after, however, the old quarrel began again. One day while Henry was sojourning in France, he cried out in a moment of passion, while surrounded by a group of knights, “Is there no one 128

HENRY II AND HIS SONS who will rid me of this turbulent priest?” Four knights who heard him understood from this angry speech that he desired the death of Becket, and they went to England to murder the Archbishop. When they met Becket they first demanded that he should do as the king wished, but he firmly refused. At dusk that same day they entered Canterbury Cathedral, again seeking for him. “Where is the traitor, Thomas Becket?” one of them cried. Becket boldly answered, “Here am I—no traitor, but a priest of god.” As he finished speaking the knights rushed upon him and killed him. The people of England were horrified by this brutal murder. Becket was called a martyr and his tomb became a place of pious pilgrimage. The Pope canonized him and for years he was the most venerated of English saints. King Henry was in Normandy when the murder occurred. He declared that he had had nothing whatever to do with it and he punished the murderers. But from this time Henry had many troubles. His own sons rebelled against him, his barons were unfriendly, and conspiracies

The murdered Archbishop (Dawant)

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FAMOUS MEN OF THE MIDDLE AGES were formed. Henry thought that God was punishing him for the murder of Becket and so determined to do penance at the tomb of the saint. For some distance before he reached Canterbury Cathedral where Becket was buried he walked over the road with bare head and feet. After his arrival he fasted and prayed a day and a night. The next day he put scourges into the hands of the cathedral monks and said, “Scourge me as I kneel at the tomb of the saint.” The monks did as he bade them and he patiently bore the pain. Henry finally triumphed over his enemies and had some years of peace, which he devoted to the good of England. In the last year of his life, however, he had trouble again. The king of France and Henry’s son Richard took up arms against him. Henry was defeated and was forced to grant what they wished. When he saw a list of the barons who had joined the French king he found among them the name of his favorite son John, and his heart was broken. He died a few days later. II Henry’s eldest surviving son, Richard, was crowned at Westminster Abbey in 1190. He took the title of Richard I but is better known as “Cœur de Lion” (the lion-hearted), a name which was given him on account of his bravery. He had wonderful strength and his brave deeds were talked about all over the land. With such a man for their king, the English people became devoted to chivalry, and on every field of battle brave men vied with another in brave deeds. Knighthood was often the reward of valor. Then, as now, knighthood was usually conferred upon a man by his king or queen. A part of the ceremony consisted in the sovereign’s touching the kneeling subject’s soldier with the flat of a sword and saying, “Arise, Sir Knight.” This was called “the accolade.” Richard did not stay long in England after his coronation. In 1191 he went with Philip of France on a Crusade. The French and English Crusaders together numbered more than one hundred thousand men. They sailed to the Holy Land and joined an army of Christian soldiers encamped before the city of Acre. The 130

The accolade (Leighton)

FAMOUS MEN OF THE MIDDLE AGES besiegers had despaired of taking the city but when reinforced they gained fresh courage. Cœur de Lion now performed deeds of valor which gave him fame throughout Europe. He was the terror of the Saracens. In every attack on Acre he led the Christians and when the city was captured he planted his banner in triumph on its walls. So great was the terror inspired everywhere in the Holy Land by the name of Richard that Moslem mothers are said to have made their children quiet by threatening to send for the English king. Every night when the Crusaders encamped, the heralds blew their trumpets, and cried three times, “Save the Holy Sepulchre!” And the Crusaders knelt and said, “Amen!” The great leader of the Saracens was Saladin. He was a model of heroism and the two leaders, one the champion of the Christians and the other the champion of the Mohammedans, vied with each other in knightly deeds. Just before one battle Richard rode down the Saracen line and boldly called for any one to step forth and fight him alone. No one responded to the challenge, for the most valiant of the Saracens did not dare to meet the lion-hearted king. After the capture of Acre Richard took As΄ca-lon. Then he made a truce with Saladin, by which the Christians acquired the right for three years to visit the Holy City without paying for the privilege. III Richard now set out on his voyage home. He was wrecked, however, on the Adriatic Sea near Trieste. To get to England he was obliged to go through the lands of Leopold, duke of Austria, one of his bitterest enemies. So he disguised himself as a poor pilgrim returning from the Holy Land. But he was recognized by a costly ring that he wore and was taken prisoner at Vienna by Duke Leopold. His people in England anxiously awaited his return, and when after a long time he did not appear they were sadly distressed. There is a legend that a faithful squire named Blondel went in search of him, as a wandering minstrel traveled for months over central Europe, vainly seeking for news of his master. 132

Richard CĹ&#x201C;ur de Lion and Saladin, Ruler of the Faithful, entering Jerusalem (Mucha)

FAMOUS MEN OF THE MIDDLE AGES At last one day, while singing one of Richard’s favorite songs near the walls of the castle where the king was confined, he heard the song repeated from a window. He recognized the voice of Richard. From the window Richard told him to let the English people and the people of Europe know where he was confined, and the minstrel immediately went upon his mission. Soon Europe was astounded to learn that brave Richard of England, the great champion of Christendom, was imprisoned. The story of Blondel is probably not true, but what is true is that England offered to ransom Richard; that the Pope interceded for him; and that finally it was agreed that he should be given up on the payment of a very large sum of money. The English people quickly paid the ransom and Richard was freed. The king of France had little love for Richard, and Richard’s own brother John had less. Both were sorry that Cœur de Lion was at liberty. John had taken charge of the kingdom during his brother’s absence, and hoped that Richard might pass the rest of his days in the prison castle of Leopold. As soon as Richard was released, the French king sent word to John, “The devil is loose again.” And a very disappointed man was John when all England rang with rejoicing at Richard’s return. IV Upon the death of Richard, in 1199, Arthur, the son of his elder brother Geoffrey, was the rightful heir to the throne. John, however, seized the throne himself and cast Arthur into prison. There is a legend that he ordered Arthur’s eyes to be put out with red hot irons. The jailor, however, was touched by the boy’s prayer for mercy and spared him. But Arthur was not to escape his uncle long. It is said that one night the king took him out upon the Seine in a little boat, murdered him and cast his body into the river. Besides being a king of England, John was duke of Normandy, and Philip, king of France, now summoned him to France to answer for the crime of murdering Arthur. John would not answer the summons and this gave the king of France an excuse for taking possession of 134

Prince Arthur pleads with his jailer (Putt)

FAMOUS MEN OF THE MIDDLE AGES Normandy. He did so, and thus this great province was lost forever to England. Nothing in France was left to John except A-qui-taine΄, which had come to him through his mother. John’s government was unjust and tyrannical, and the bishops and barons determined to preserve their rights and the rights of the people. They met on a plain called Runnymeade, and there forced John to sign the famous “Magna Carta” (Great Charter). Magna Carta is the most valuable charter ever granted by any sovereign to his people. In it King John names all the rights which belong to the citizens under a just government, and he promises that no one of these rights shall ever be taken away from any subjects of the English king. For violating this promise one English king lost his life and another lost the American colonies. Magna Carta was signed in 1215. A year after he signed it the king died. His son, Henry III, John signing the Magna Carta succeeded him. (Chappel)

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Louis IX King from 1226-1270 I After the time of Barbarossa and Richard Cœur de Lion lived another great Crusading king. This was a grandson of Philip II, named Louis IX, who became sovereign of France in 1226. He was then only eleven years old, so for some years his mother ruled the kingdom. A few years after he had begun to reign Louis decided to make his brother Alphonse the governor of a certain part of France. The nobles of the region refused to have Alphonse as governor and invited Henry III of England to help them in a revolt. Henry crossed to France with an army to support the rebellious nobles. He was duke of Aquitaine and Gascony; so that although he was the king in England he had to do homage to the king of France for his possessions in that country, and fight for him if called upon to do so. Louis gathered an army and hastened to meet the English troops. He drove Henry from place to place, until at last he forced him to make terms of peace. The rebellious nobles who had invited the English king to France soon after swore allegiance to Louis and afterwards he had little trouble in his kingdom. Once Louis was dangerously ill and his life was despaired of. Finally he was believed to be dying and his wife and chief officials gathered round his bed to await the end. Suddenly he roused himself and said in a feeble voice, “The cross! The cross!” They laid the cross upon his heart and he clasped it fervently. For a while he slumbered. When he awoke he appeared much better. In a day or two he was entirely well. He then made a solemn vow that in thankfulness for his restoration he would go on a Crusade to the Holy Land. Louis lived at a time when everybody was full of the Crusading spirit. A few years before he was born even the children in France 137

The child king, Louis the Ninth, bestowing alms (Lesur)

LOUIS IX and Germany started out upon a Crusade of their own. It is called in history the “Children’s Crusade.” Several thousand left their homes and marched toward the Mediterranean. They thought that God would open a pathway to the Holy Land for them through its waters. A number of them died of cold and hunger when trying to cross the Alps. Some reached Rome, and when the Pope saw them he told them to return home and not think of going on a Crusade until they were grown up. It is easy to understand how in such an age people flocked to Louis’ banner when he asked for volunteers to go with him on another Crusade. In a few months forty thousand Crusaders assembled at a French port on the Mediterranean Sea. On a bright day in August, 1248, they went on board the fleet which was ready to sail. The king called to the Crusaders, “Sing in the name of God. Shout forth his praises as we sail away.” Then quickly, on ship after ship, shouts of praise burst from the lips of thousands and amid the grand chorus the fleet began its voyage. The Crusaders went to Dam-i-et΄ta, in Egypt. Louis was so eager to land that he jumped into water up to his waist and waded ashore. He captured the city without striking a blow. He had resolved to make war on the Moslems in Egypt rather than in the Holy Land, so when he left Damietta he marched southward. He supposed there would be no strong force to stop his progress. However, he was mistaken, for he had not marched forty miles toward Cairo when he was attacked by a Moslem army led by the sultan of Egypt. A great battle was fought. The Crusaders were commanded by King Louis and throughout the battle showed the utmost bravery, but they were outnumbered. Thousands were slain and the survivors retreated toward Damietta. The Moslems pursued them and the Crusaders were obliged to surrender. Out of the forty thousand men who had left France only about six thousand now remained. Many had died of disease as well as in battle. King Louis was among the prisoners, and the sultan of Egypt 139

The Childrenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Crusade

LOUIS IX agreed to release him only upon the payment of a large ransom. When the ransom had been paid a truce was made for ten years between Louis and the sultan, and the good king left Egypt. He then went to the Holy Land, and for four years worked to deliver Crusaders who were in Moslem prisons. II During the time that Louis was in the Holy Land his mother ruled France as regent. When she died he returned immediately to his kingdom and devoted himself to governing it. In 1252 he took part in the founding of the Sorbonne, the most famous theological college of Europe from the days of St. Louis down to the time of the French Revolution. He ruled his people so wisely and justly that it is hard to find any better king or even one equally as good in the whole line of French kings. He never wronged any man himself, or knowingly allowed any man to be wronged by others. Near his palace there was a grand oak with wide-spreading branches, under which he used to sit on pleasant days in summer. There he received all persons who had complaints to make, rich and poor alike. Every one who came was allowed to tell his story without hindrance. For hours Louis would listen patiently to all the tales of wrongdoing, of hardships and misery that were told him, and he would do what he could to right the wrongs of those who suffered. When news came of some more dreadful persecutions of Christians by the Moslems in Palestine, Louis again raised an army of Crusaders and started with them for Tunis, although he was sick and feebleâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;so sick, indeed, that he had to be carried on a litter. Upon his arrival at Tunis he was attacked by fever and died in a few days. He is better known to the world as Saint Louis than as Louis IX, because some years after his death Pope Boniface VIII canonized him on account of his pious life and his efforts to rescue the Holy Land from the Turks.

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The founding of the Sorbonne (Cabanel)

Robert Bruce King from 1306-1329 I The most famous king that Scotland ever had was Robert Bruce. He lived in the days when Edward I, Edward II, and Edward III were kings of England. During the reign of Edward I the king of Scotland died and thirteen men claimed the throne. Instead of fighting to decide which of them should be king they asked Edward to settle the question. When he met the Scottish nobles and the rivals, each of whom thought that next day he would be wearing the crown, Edward told them that he would himself be their king. Just then an English army marched up. What could the nobles do but kneel at the feet of Edward and promise to be his vassals? This they did; and so Scotland became a part of Edwardâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s kingdom and BaÎ&#x201E;li-ol, one of the rivals who claimed the Scottish throne, was made the vassal king. Some time after this Edward ordered Baliol to raise an army and help him fight the French. Baliol refused to do this, so Edward marched with an army into Scotland and took him prisoner. He was determined that the Scotch should have no more kings of their own. So he carried away the sacred stone of Scone (scoon), on which all kings of Scotland had to sit when they were crowned, and put it in Westminster Abbey in London, and there it is to this day. It is underneath the chair on which the sovereigns of England always sit when the crown of England, Scotland, and Ireland is placed upon their heads. It is said to have been the very stone that Jacob used for a pillow on the night that he saw, in his dream, angels ascending and descending on the ladder that reached from earth to heaven. Edward now supposed, as he had this sacred stone and had put King Baliol in prison, that Scotland was conquered. But the men whom he appointed to govern the Scotch ruled unwisely and nearly all the people were discontented. Suddenly an 143

FAMOUS MEN OF THE MIDDLE AGES army of Scots was raised. It was led by Sir William Wallace, a knight who was almost a giant in size. Wallace’s men drove the English out of the country and Wallace was made the “Guardian of the Realm.” Edward then led a great army against him. The Scottish soldiers were nearly all on foot. Wallace arranged them in hollow squares— spearmen on the outside, bowmen within. The English horsemen dashed vainly against the walls of spear-points. But King Edward now brought his archers to the front. Thousands of arrows flew from their bows and thousands of Wallace’s men fell dead. The spears were broken and the Scotch were defeated. Wallace barely escaped with his life. He was afterwards betrayed to Edward, who cruelly put him to death. II But the Scotch had learned what they could do and they still went on fighting for freedom, under two leaders named Robert Bruce and John Comyn. Edward marched against them with another large army. He won a great victory, and the nobles once more swore to obey him. But in spite of this oath, Bruce meant to free Scotland if he could, and win the crown. He was privately crowned king of Scotland in the Abbey of Scone in 1306. He said to his wife, “Henceforth you are the queen and I am the king of our country.” “I fear,” said his wife, “that we are only playing at being king and queen, like children in their games.” “Nay, I shall be king in earnest,” said Bruce. The news that Bruce had been crowned roused all Scotland and the people took up arms to fight under him against the English. But again King Edward defeated the Scotch and Bruce himself fled to the Grampian Hills. For two months he was closely pursued by the English who used bloodhounds to track him. He and his followers had many narrow escapes. Once he had to scramble barefoot up some steep rocks, and another time all the party would have been captured had not Bruce awakened just in time to hear the approach of the enemy. He and his 144

Scots in the Battle of Bannockburn (Mann)

FAMOUS MEN OF THE MIDDLE AGES men lived by hunting and fishing. However, many brave patriots joined them, until after a while Bruce had a small army. Five times he attacked the English, and five times he was beaten. After his last defeat he fled from Scotland and took refuge in a wretched hut on an island off the north coast of Ireland. Here he stayed all alone during one winter. III It is said that one day, while he was very down-hearted, he saw a spider trying to spin a web between two beams of his hut. The little creature tried to throw a thread from one beam to another, but failed. Not discouraged, it tried four times more without success. “Five times has the spider failed,” said Bruce. “That is just the number of times the English have defeated me. If the spider has courage to try again, I also will try to free Scotland!” He watched the spider. It rested for a while as if to gain strength, and then threw its slender thread toward the beam. This time it succeeded. “I thank God!” exclaimed Bruce. “The spider has taught me a lesson. No more will I be discouraged.” About this time Edward I died and his son, Edward II, succeeded to the throne of England. For about two years the new king paid little attention to Scotland. Meantime Bruce captured nearly all the Scotch castles that were held by the English, and the nobles and chiefs throughout the country acknowledged him as their king. At last Edward II marched into Scotland at the head of a hundred thousand men. Bruce met him at Bannockburn on June 24, 1314, with thirty thousand soldiers. Before the battle began Bruce rode along the front of his army to encourage his men. Suddenly an English knight, Henry de Bohun, galloped across the field and tried to strike him down with a spear. Bruce saw his danger in time and with a quick stroke of his battle-axe cleft the knight’s skull. The Scotch army shouted again and again at this feat of their commander, and they went into the battle feeling sure that the 146

ROBERT BRUCE victory would be theirs. They rushed upon the English with fury and although outnumbered three to one, completely defeated them. Thousands of the English were slain and a great number captured. In spite of this terrible blow Edward never gave up his claim to the Scottish crown. But his son Edward III, in 1328, recognized Scotlandâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s independence and acknowledged Bruce as her king.

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Marco Polo Lived from 1254-1324 I Some years before St. Louis led his last Crusade there was born in Venice a boy named Marco Polo. His father was a wealthy merchant who often went on trading journeys to distant lands. In 1271, when Marco was seventeen years old, he accompanied his father and uncle on a journey through the Holy Land, Persia and Tartary, and at length to the Empire of China—then called Ca-thay΄. It took the travelers three years to reach Cathay. The emperor of Cathay was a monarch named Kublai Khan (koo΄ bli-kän΄), who lived in Peking. Marco’s father and uncle had been in Cathay once before and had entertained Kublai Khan by telling him about the manners and customs of Europe. So when the two Venetian merchants again appeared in Peking, Kublai Khan was glad to see them. He was also greatly pleased with the young Marco, whom he invited to the palace. Important positions at the Chinese court were given to Marco’s father and uncle, and so they and Marco lived in the country for some years. Marco studied the Chinese language, and it was not very long before he could speak it. When he was about twenty-one Kublai Khan sent him on very important business to a distant part of China. He did the work well and from that time was often employed as an envoy of the Chinese monarch. His travels were sometimes in lands never before visited by Europeans and he had many strange adventures among the almost unknown tribes of Asia. Step by step he was promoted. For several years he was governor of a great Chinese city. Finally he and his father and uncle desired to return to Venice. They had all served Kublai Khan faithfully and he had appreciated it and given them rich rewards; but he did not wish to let them go. 148

MARCO POLO While the matter was being talked over an embassy arrived in Peking from the king of Persia. This monarch desired to marry the daughter of Kublai Khan, the Princess Cocachin, and he had sent to ask her father for her hand. Consent was given, and Kublai Khan fitted out a fleet of fourteen ships to carry the wedding party to Persia. The Princess Cocachin was a great friend of Marco Polo, and urged her father to allow him to go with the party. Finally Kublai Khan gave his consent. Marco’s father and uncle were also allowed to go, and the three Venetians left China. The fleet with the wedding party on board sailed southward on the China Sea. It was a long and perilous voyage. Stops were made at Borneo, Sumatra, Ceylon and other places, until the ships entered the Persian Gulf and the princess was safely landed. After they reached the capital of Persia the party, including the three Venetians, was entertained by the Persians for weeks in a magnificent manner and costly presents were given to all. At last the Venetians left their friends, went to the Black Sea and took ship for Venice. They had been away so long and were so much changed in appearance that none of their relations and old friends knew them when they arrived in Venice. As they were dressed in Tatar costume and sometimes spoke the Chinese language to one another, they found it hard to convince people that they were members of the Polo family. At length, on order to show that they were the men that they declared themselves to be, they gave a dinner to all their relations and old friends. When the guests arrived they were greeted by the travelers, arrayed in gorgeous Chinese robes of crimson satin. After the first course they appeared in crimson damask; after the second, they changed their costumes to crimson velvet; while at the end of the dinner they appeared in the usual garb of wealthy Venetians. “Now, my friends,” said Marco, “I will show you something that will please you.” He then brought into the room the rough Tatar coats which he and his father and uncle had worn when they reached Venice. Cutting open the seams, he took from inside the lining packets filled with rubies, emeralds and diamonds. It was the finest collection of jewels ever seen in Venice. 149

Venetian ships (Marchetti)

MARCO POLO The guests were now persuaded that their hosts were indeed what they claimed to be. II Eight hundred years before Marco Polo’s birth, some of the people of North Italy had fled before the Attila to the muddy islands of the Adriatic and founded Venice upon them. Since then the little settlement had become the most wealthy and powerful city of Europe. Venice was the queen of the Adriatic and her merchants were princes. They had vessels to bring the costly wares of the East to their wharves; they had warships to protect their rich cargoes from the pirates of the Mediterranean; they carried on wars. At the time when Marco Polo returned from Cathay they were at war with Gen΄o-a. The two cities were fighting for the trade of the world. In a great naval battle the Venetians were completely defeated. Marco Polo was in the battle and with many of his countrymen was captured by the enemy. For a year he was confined in a Genoese prison. One of his fellow-prisoners was a skillful penman and Marco dictated to him an account of his experiences in China, Japan, and other Eastern countries. This account was carefully written out. Copies of the manuscript exist to this day. One of these is in a library in Paris. It was carried into France in the year 1307. Another copy is preserved in the city of Berne. It is said that the book was translated into many languages, so that people in all parts of Europe learned about Marco’s adventures. About a hundred and seventy-five years after the book was written, the famous Genoese, Christopher Columbus, planned his voyage across the Atlantic. It is believed that he had read Marco’s description of Java, Sumatra and other East India Islands, which he thought he had reached when he discovered Hai΄ti and Cuba. So Marco Polo may have suggested to Columbus the voyage which led to the discovery of America.

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Edward the Black Prince Lived from 1330-1376 I One of the most famous warriors of the Middle Ages was Edward the Black Prince. He was so called because he wore black armor in battle. The Black Prince was the son of Edward III who reigned over England from 1327 to 1377. He won his fame as a soldier in the wars which his father carried on against France. You remember that the early kings of England, from the time of William the Conqueror, had possessions in France. Henry II, William’s grandson, was the duke of Normandy and lord of Brittany and other provinces, and when he married Eleanor of Aquitaine she brought him that province also. Henry’s son John lost all the French possessions of the English crown except a part of Aquitaine, and Edward III inherited this. So when Philip of Valois (val-wah΄) became king of France, about a year after Edward had become king of England, Edward had to do homage to Philip. To be king of England and yet to do homage to the king of France—to bend the knee before Philip and kiss his foot—was something Edward did not like. He thought it was quite beneath his dignity, as his ancestor Rollo had thought when told that he must kiss the foot of King Charles. So Edward tried to persuade the nobles of France that he himself ought by right to be the king of France instead of being only a vassal. Philip of Valois was only a cousin of the late French King Charles IV. Edward was the son of his sister. But there was a curious old law in France, called the Salic Law, which forbade that daughters should inherit lands. This law barred the claim of Edward, because his claim came through his mother. Still he determined to win the French throne by force of arms. 152

EDWARD THE BLACK PRINCE A chance came to quarrel with Philip. Another of Philip’s vassals rebelled against him, and Edward helped the rebel. He hoped by doing so to weaken Philip and more easily overpower him. Philip at once declared that Edward’s possessions in France were forfeited. Then Edward raised an army of thirty thousand men, and with it invaded France. The Black Prince was now only about sixteen years of age, but he had already shown himself brave in battle, and his father put him in command of one of the divisions of the army. Thousands of French troops led by King Philip were hurried from Paris to meet the advance of the English; and on the 26th of August, 1346, the two armies fought a hard battle at the village of Crécy. During the battle the division of the English army commanded by the Black Prince had to bear the attack of the whole French force. The prince fought so bravely and managed his men so well that King Edward, who was overlooking the field of battle from a windmill on the top of a hill, sent him words of praise for his gallant work. Again and again the prince’s men drove back the French in splendid style. But at last they seemed about to give way before a very fierce charge, and the earl of Warwick hastened to Edward to advise him to send the prince aid. “Is my son dead or unhorsed or so wounded that he cannot help himself?” asked the king. “No, Sire,” was the reply; “but he is hard pressed.” “Return to your post, and come not to me again for aid so long as my son lives,” said the king. “Let the boy prove himself a true knight and win his spurs.” The earl went to the prince and told him what his father had said. “I will prove myself a true knight,” exclaimed the prince. “My father is right. I need no aid. My men will hold their post as long as they have strength to stand.” Then he rode where the battle was still furiously raging, and encouraged his men. The king of France led his force a number of times against the prince’s line, but could not break it and was at last compelled to retire. The battle now went steadily against the French, although they 153

The Black Prince at the dead body of the King of Bohemia (MertĂŠ)

EDWARD THE BLACK PRINCE far outnumbered the English. Finally, forty thousand of Philip’s soldiers lay dead upon the field and nearly all the remainder of his army was captured. Philip gave up the struggle and fled. Among those who fought on the side of the French at Crécy was the blind king of Bohemia, who always wore three white feathers in his helmet. When the battle was at its height the blind king had his followers lead him into the thick of the fight, and he dealt heavy blows upon his unseen foes until he fell mortally wounded. The three white feathers were taken from his helmet by the Black Prince, who ever after wore them himself. As soon as he could King Edward rode over the field to meet his son. “Prince,” he said, as he greeted him, “you are the conqueror of the French.” Turning to the soldiers, who had gathered around him, the king shouted, “Cheer, cheer for the Black Prince! Cheer for the hero of Crécy!” What cheering then rose on the battlefield! The air rang with the name of the Black Prince. Soon after the battle of Crécy King Edward laid siege to Calais; but the city resisted his attack for twelve months. During the siege the Black Prince aided his father greatly. After the capture of Calais, it was agreed to stop fighting for seven years, and Edward’s army embarked for England. II In 1355 Edward again declared war against the French. The Black Prince invaded France with an army of sixty thousand men. He captured rich towns and gathered a great deal of booty. While he was preparing to move on Paris, the king of France raised a great army and marched against him. The Black Prince had lost so many men by sickness that he had only about ten thousand when he reached the city of Poitiers. Suddenly, near the city, he was met by the French force of about fiftyfive thousand, splendidly armed and commanded by the king himself. “God help us!” exclaimed the prince, when he looked at the long lines of the French as they marched on a plain before him. Early on the morning of September 14, 1356, the battle began. 155

FAMOUS MEN OF THE MIDDLE AGES The English were few in number, but they were determined to contest every inch of the ground and not surrender while a hundred of them remained to fight. For hours they withstood the onset of the French. At last a body of English horsemen charged furiously on one part of the French line, while the Black Prince attacked another part. This sudden movement caused confusion among the French. Many of them fled from the field. When the Black Prince saw this he shouted to his men, â&#x20AC;&#x153;Advance, English banners, in the name of God and St. George!â&#x20AC;? His army rushed forward and the French were defeated. Thousands of prisoners were taken, including the king of France and many of his nobles. The king was sent to England, where he was treated with the greatest kindness. When, some time afterwards there was a splendid procession in London to celebrate the victory of Poitiers, he was allowed to ride in the procession on a beautiful white horse, while the Black Prince rode on a pony at his side. The Black Prince died in 1376. He was sincerely mourned by the English people. They felt that they had lost a prince who would have made a great and good king.

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William Tell and Arnold von Winkelried 1300-1386 I Far up among the Alps, in the very heart of Switzerland, are three districts, or cantons, as they are called, which are known as the Forest Cantons and are famous in the worldâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s history. About two thousand years ago the Romans found in these cantons a hardy race of mountaineers, who, although poor, were free men and proud of their independence. They became the friends and allies of Rome, and the cantons were for many years a part of the Roman Empire, but the people always had the right to elect their own officers and to govern themselves. When Goths and the Vandals and the Huns from beyond the Rhine and the Danube overran the Roman Empire, these three cantons were not disturbed. The land was too poor and rocky to attract men who were fighting for possession of the rich plains and valleys of Europe, and so it happened that for century after century, the mountaineers of these cantons lived on in their old, simple way, undisturbed by the rest of the world. In a canton in the valley of the Rhine lived the Hapsburg family, whose leaders in time grew to be very rich and powerful. They became dukes of Austria and some of them were elected emperors. One of the Hapsburgs, Albert I, claimed that the land of the Forest Cantons belonged to him. He sent a governor and a band of soldiers to those cantons and made the people submit to his authority. In one of the Forest Cantons at this time lived a famous mountaineer named William Tell. He was tall and strong. In all Switzerland no man had a foot so sure as his on the mountains or a hand so skilled in the use of a bow. He was determined to resist the Austrians. Secret meetings of the mountaineers were held and all took a solemn oath to stand by each other and fight for their freedom; but they had no arms and were simple shepherds who had never been 157

FAMOUS MEN OF THE MIDDLE AGES trained as soldiers. The first thing to be done was to get arms without attracting the attention of the Austrians. It took nearly a year to secure spears, swords, and battle-axes and distribute them among the mountains. Finally this was done, and everything was ready. All were waiting for a signal to rise. The story tells us that just at this time Gessler, the Austrian governor, who was a cruel tyrant, hung a cap on a high pole in the marketplace in the village of Altorf, and forced everyone who passed to bow before it. Tell accompanied by his little son, happened to pass through the marketplace. He refused to bow before the cap and was arrested. Gessler offered to release him if he would shoot an apple from the head of his son. The governor hated Tell and made this offer hoping that the mountaineerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s hand would tremble and that he would kill his own son. It is said that Tell shot the apple from his sonâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s head but that Gessler still refused to release him. That night as Tell was being carried across the lake to prison a storm came up. In the midst of the storm he sprang from the boat to an over-hanging rock and made his escape. It is said that he killed the tyrant. Some people do not believe this story, but the Swiss do, and if you go to Lake Lucerne some day they will show you the very rock upon which Tell stepped when he sprang from the boat. That night the signal fires were lighted on every mountain and by the dawn of day the village of Altorf was filled with hardy mountaineers, armed and ready to fight for their liberty. A battle followed and the Austrians were defeated and driven from Altorf. This victory was followed by others. A few years later, the duke himself came with a large army, determined to conquer the mountaineers. He had to march through a narrow pass, with mountains rising abruptly on either side. The Swiss were expecting him and hid along the heights above the pass, as soon as the Austrians appeared in the pass, rocks and trunks of trees were hurled down upon them. Many were killed and wounded. Their army was defeated, and the duke was forced to recognize the independence of the Forest Cantons. This was the beginning of the Republic of Switzerland. In time five other cantons joined them in a compact for liberty. 158

Tell shoots the apple from his son’s head (Schwörer)

Tell’s leap (Schwörer)

WILLIAM TELL AND ARNOLD VON WINKELRIED II About seventy years later the Austrians made another attempt to conquer the patriots. They collected a splendid army and marched into the mountains. The Swiss at once armed themselves and met the Austrians at a place called Sempach. In those times powder had not been invented, and men fought with spears, swords, and battle-axes. The Austrian soldiers stood shoulder to shoulder, each grasping a long spear whose point projected far in front of him. The Swiss were armed with short swords and spears and it was impossible for them to get to the Austrians. For a while their cause looked hopeless, but among the ranks of the Swiss was a brave man from one of the Forest Cantons. His name was Arnold von Win΄kel-ried. As he looked upon the bristling points of the Austrian spears, he saw that his comrades had no chance to win unless an opening could be made in that line. He determined to make such an opening even at the cost of his life. Extending his arms as far as he could, he rushed toward the Austrian line and gathered within his arms as many spears as he could grasp. “Make way for liberty!” he cried— Then ran, with arms extended wide, As if his dearest friend to clasp; Ten spears he swept within his grasp. “Make way for liberty!” he cried— Their keen points met from side to side. He bowed among them like a tree, And thus made way for liberty. Pierced through and through Winkelried fell dead, but he had made a gap in the Austrian line, and into this gap rushed the Swiss patriots. Victory was theirs and the Cantons were free.

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“Make way for liberty!” (Avec)

Tamerlane Lived from 1333-1405 I Tamerlane was the son of the chief of a Mongolian tribe in Central Asia. His real name was Timour, but as he was lamed in battle when a youth he was generally called Timour the Lame, and this name was gradually changed to Tamerlane. He was born in 1333, so that he lived in the time of the English king, Edward III, when the Black Prince was winning his victories over the French. He was a descendant of a celebrated Tatar soldier, Genghis (jen΄ghis) Khan, who conquered Persia, China, and other countries of Asia. When twenty-four years old Tamerlane became the head of his tribe, and in a few years he made himself the leader of the whole Mongolian race. He was a tall, stern-looking man, of great strength, and, although lame in his right leg, could ride a spirited horse at full gallop and do all the work of an active soldier. He was as brave as a lion—and as cruel. He chose the ancient city of Sa-mar-cand΄, in Tur-kis-tan΄, for his capital; and here he built a beautiful marble palace, where he lived in the greatest luxury. After he had enjoyed for some time the honors which fell to him as chief ruler of the Mongolians, he began to desire further conquests. He determined to make himself master of all the countries of Central Asia. “As there is but one God in heaven,” he said, “there ought to be but one ruler on the earth.” So he gathered an immense army from all parts of his dominion, and for weeks his subjects were busy making preparations for war. At length he started for Persia in command of a splendid army. After gaining some brilliant victories he forced the Persian king to flee from his capital. All the rich country belonging to Persia, from the Tigris to the 163

FAMOUS MEN OF THE MIDDLE AGES Euphrates, submitted to the Mongolian conqueror. Tamerlane celebrated his Persian conquest by magnificent festivities which continued for a week. Then orders were given to march into the great Tatar empire of the North. Here Tamerlane was victorious over the principal chiefs and made them his vassals. In pursuing the Tatars he entered Russia and sacked and burned some of the Russian cities. He did not, however, continue his invasion of this country, but turned in the direction of India. At last his army stood before the city of Delhi, and after a fierce assault Tamerlane forced it to surrender. (Gérôme) Other cities of India were taken and the authority of Tamerlane was established over a large extent of the country. II Baj-a-zet΄, sultan of Turkey, now determined to stop Tamerlane’s eastward march. News of this reached the conqueror’s ears. Leaving India, he marched to meet the sultan. Bajazet was a famous warrior. He was so rapid in his movements in war that he was called “the lightning.” Tamerlane entered the sultan’s dominions and devastated them. He stormed Bagdad, and after capturing the place killed thousands of the inhabitants. At length the rivals and their armies faced each other. A great battle followed. It raged four or five hours and then the Turks were 164

TAMERLANE totally defeated. Bajazet was captured. Tamerlane then ordered a great iron cage to be made and forced the sultan to enter it. The prisoner was chained to the iron bars of the cage and was thus exhibited to the Mongol soldiers, who taunted him as he was carried along the lines. As the army marched from place to place the sultan in his cage was shown to the people. How long the fallen monarch had to bear this humiliating punishment is not known. Tamerlaneâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s dominions now embraced a large part of Asia. He retired to his palace at Samarcand and for several weeks indulged in festivities. He could not, however, long be content away from the field of battle. So he made up his mind to invade the Empire of China. At the head of a great army of two hundred thousand soldiers he marched from the city of Samarcand towards China. He had gone about three hundred miles on the way when, in February, 1405, he was taken sick and died. His army was disbanded and all thought of invading China was given up. Thus passed away one of the greatest conquerors of the Middle Ages. He was a soldier of genius but he cannot be called a truly great man. His vast empire speedily fell to pieces after his death. Since his day there has been no leader like him in that part of Asia.

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Henry V King from 1413-1422 I Of all the kings that England ever had Henry V was perhaps the greatest favorite among the people. They liked him because he was handsome and brave and, above all, because he conquered France. In his youth, Prince Hal, as the people called him, had a number of merry companions who sometimes got themselves into trouble by their pranks. Once one of them was arrested and brought before the chief justice of the kingdom. Prince Hal was not pleased because sentence was given against his companion and he drew his sword, threatening the judge. Upon this the judge bravely ordered the prince to be arrested and put into prison. Prince Hal submitted to his punishment with good grace and his father is reported to have said, â&#x20AC;&#x153;Happy is the monarch who has so just a judge, and a son so willing to obey the law.â&#x20AC;? One of Prince Halâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s companions was a fat old knight named Sir John Falstaff. Once Falstaff was boasting that he and three men had beaten and almost killed two men in buckram suits who had attacked and tried to rob them. The prince led him on and gave him a chance to brag as much as he wanted to, until finally Falstaff swore that there were at least a hundred robbers and that he himself fought with fifty. Then Prince Hal told their companions that only two men had attacked Falstaff and his friends, and that he and another man who was present were those two. And he said that Falstaff, instead of fighting, had run as fast as his legs could carry him. There was real goodness as well as merriment in Prince Hal. And so the people found; for when he became king on the death of his father he told his wild companions that the days of his wildness were over; and he advised them to lead better lives in future. As Henry V, Prince Hal made himself famous in English history 166

King Henry V rejects his early companions (Grutzner)

FAMOUS MEN OF THE MIDDLE AGES by his war with France. Normandy, you remember, had belonged to Henry’s ancestor, William the Conqueror. It had been taken from King John of England by the French king, Philip Augustus, in 1203. Soon after his coronation Henry sent a demand to the French king that Normandy should be restored, and he made the claim which his great-grandfather, Edward III, had made that he was by right the king of France. Of course, the king of France would not acknowledge this. Henry therefore raised an army of thirty thousand men and invaded France. Before he began to attack the French he gave strict orders to his men that they were to harm no one who was not a soldier and to take nothing from the houses or farms of any persons who were not fighting. Sickness broke out among Henry’s troops after they landed, so that their number was reduced to about fifteen thousand. Fifty or sixty thousand Frenchmen were encamped on the field of Agincourt (äzh-an-koor΄) to oppose this little army. The odds were greatly against Henry. The night before the battle one of his officers said he wished that the many thousand brave soldiers who were quietly sleeping in their beds in England were with the king. “I would not have a single man more,” said Henry. “If God give us victory, it will be plain we owe it to His grace. If not, the fewer we are the less loss for England.” The men drew courage from their king. The English archers poured arrows into the ranks of their opponents; and although the French fought bravely, they were completely routed. Eleven thousand Frenchmen fell. Among the slain were more than a hundred of the nobles of the land. II Agincourt was not the last of Henry’s victories. He brought a second army of forty thousand men over to France. Town after town was captured, and at last Henry and his victorious troops laid siege to Rouen, which was then the largest and richest city in France. 168

Charge of the French at the Battle of Agincourt (Woodville)

FAMOUS MEN OF THE MIDDLE AGES The fortifications were so strong that Henry could not storm them, so he determined to take the place by starving the garrison. He said, “War has three handmaidens—fire, blood, and famine. I have chosen the meekest of the three.” He had trenches dug round the town and placed soldiers in them to prevent citizens from going out of the city for supplies, and to prevent the country people from taking provisions in. A great number of the country people had left their homes when they heard that the English army was marching towards Rouen, and had taken refuge within the city walls. After the siege had gone on for six months there was so little food left in the place that the commander of the garrison ordered these poor people to go back to their homes. Twelve thousand were put outside the gates, but Henry would not allow them to pass through his lines; so they starved to death between the walls of the French and the trenches of the English. As winter came on the suffering of the citizens was terrible. At last they determined to set fire to the city, open their gates, and make a last desperate attack on the English. Henry wished to preserve the city and offered such generous terms of surrender that the people accepted them. Not only Rouen but the whole of Normandy, which the French had held for two hundred years, was now forced to submit to Henry. The war continued for about two years more, and the English gained possession of such a large part of France that at Christmas Henry entered Paris itself in triumph. But, strange to say, the king against whom he had been fighting and over whom he was triumphing sat by his side as he rode through the streets. What did this mean? It meant that the French were so terrified by the many victories of Henry that all—king and people— were willing to give him whatever he asked. A treaty was made that as the king was feeble Henry should be regent of the kingdom and that when the king died Henry should succeed him as king of France. In the treaty the French king also agreed to give to Henry his daughter, the Princess Katherine, in marriage. She became the mother of the English King, Henry VI. The arrangement that an English sovereign should be king of 170

HENRY V France was never put into effect; for in less than two years after the treaty was signed the reign of the great conqueror came to an end. Henry died. In the reign of his son all his work in gaining French territory was undone. By the time that Henry VI was twenty years old England, as you will read in the story of Joan of Arc, had nothing left of all that had been won by so many years of war except the single town of Calais.

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Joan of Arc Lived from 1412-1431 I In the long wars between the French and English not even the Black Prince or King Henry V gained such fame as did a young French peasant girl, Joan of Arc. She was born in the little village of Domremy (dom-re-me΄). Her father had often told her of the sad condition of France—how the country was largely in the possession of England, and how the French king did not dare to be crowned. And so the thought came to be ever in her mind, “How I pity my country!” She brooded over the matter so much that by and by she began to have visions of angels and heard strange voices, which said to her, “Joan, you can deliver the land from the English. Go to the relief of King Charles.” At last these strange visions and voices made Joan’s vision the young girl believe (Lenepveu) 172

JOAN OF ARC that she had a mission from God, and she determined to try to save France. When she told her father and mother of her purpose, they tried to persuade her that the visions of angels and the voices telling her of the divine mission were but dreams. “I tell thee, Joan,” said her father, “it is thy fancy. Thou hadst better have a kind husband to take care of thee, and do some work to employ thy mind.” “Father, I must do what God has willed, for this is no work of my choosing,” she replied. “Mother, I would far rather sit and spin by your side than take part in war. My mission is no dream. I know that I have been chosen by the Lord to fulfill His purpose and nothing can prevent me from going where He purposes to send me.” The village priest, her young companions, even the governor of the town, all tried to stop her, but it was in vain. To the governor she said, “I must do the work my Lord has laid out for me.” Little by little people began to believe in her mission. At last all stopped trying to discourage her and some who were wealthy helped her to make the journey to the town of Chinon (she-non΄), where the French king, Charles the Seventh, was living. II When Joan arrived at Chinon, a force of French soldiers was preparing to go to the south of France to relieve the city of Orleans which the English were besieging. King Charles received Joan kindly and listened to what she had to say with deep attention. The girl spoke modestly, but with a calm belief that she was right. “Gracious King,” she said, “my name is Joan. God has sent me to deliver France from her enemies. You shall shortly be crowned in the cathedral of Rheims (remz). I am to lead the soldiers you are about to send for the relief of Orleans. So God has directed and under my guidance victory will be theirs.” The king and his nobles talked the matter over and finally it was decided to allow Joan to lead an army of about five thousand men against the English at Orleans. 173

The capture of Orleans by Joan of Arc (Lenepveu)

JOAN OF ARC When she left Chinon at the head of her soldiers, in April, 1429, she was in her eighteenth year. Mounted on a fine war-horse and clad in white armor from head to foot, she rode along past the cheering multitude, “seeming rather,” it has been said, “of heaven than earth.” In one hand she carried an ancient sword that she had found near the tomb of a saint, and in the other a white banner embroidered with lilies. The rough soldiers who were near her left off their oaths and coarse manners, and carefully guarded her. She inspired the whole army with courage and faith as she talked about her visions. When she arrived at the besieged city of Orleans she fearlessly rode round its walls, while the English soldiers looked on in astonishment. She was able to enter Orleans, despite the efforts of the besiegers to prevent her. She aroused the city by her cheerful, confident words and then led her soldiers forth to give battle to the English. Their success was amazing. One after another the English forts were taken. When only the strongest remained and Joan was leading the attacking force, she received a slight wound and was carried out of the battle to be attended by a surgeon. Her soldiers began to retreat. “Wait,” she commanded, “eat and drink and rest; for as soon as I recover I will touch the walls with my banner and you shall enter the fort.” In a few minutes she mounted her horse again and riding rapidly up to the fort, touched it with her banner. Her soldier almost instantly carried it. The very next day the enemy’s troops were forced to withdraw from before the city and the siege was at end. The French soldiers were jubilant at the victory and called Joan the “Maid of Orleans.” By this name she is known in history. Her fame spread everywhere, and the English as well as the French thought she had more than human power. She led the French in several other battles, and again and again her troops were victorious. At last the English were driven far to the north of France. Then Charles, urged by Joan, went to Rheims with twelve thousand soldiers, and there, with splendid ceremonies, was crowned king. Joan holding her white banner, stood near Charles during the coronation. 175

The coronation of Charles II at Rheims (Lenepveu)

JOAN OF ARC When the ceremony was finished, she knelt at his feet and said, “O King, the will of God is done and my mission is over! Let me now go home to my parents.” But the king urged her to stay a while longer, as France was not entirely freed from the English. Joan consented, but she said, “I hear the heavenly voices no more and I am afraid.” However, she took part in an attack upon the army of the Duke of Burgundy, but was taken prisoner by him. For a large sum of money the duke delivered her into the hands of the English, who put her in prison in Rouen. She lay in prison for a year, and finally was charged with sorcery and brought to trial. It was said that she was under the influence of the Evil One. She declared to her judges her innocence of the charge and said, “God has always been my guide in all that I have done. The devil has never had power over me.” Her trial was long and tiresome. At its close she was doomed to be burned at the stake. So in the marketplace at Rouen the English soldiers fastened her to a stake surrounded by a great pile of fagots. A soldier put into her hands a rough cross, which he had made from a stick that he held. She thanked him and pressed it to her bosom. Then a good priest, standing near the stake, read to her the prayers for the dying, and another mounted the fagots and held towards her a crucifix, which she clasped with both hands and kissed. When the cruel flames burst out around her, the noble girl uttered the word “Jesus,” and expired. A statue of her now stands on the spot where she suffered. Among all the men of her time none did nobler work than Joan. And hence it is that we put the story of her life among the stories of the lives of the great men of the Middle Ages, although she was only a simple peasant girl.

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Joan of Arc bound to the stake (Lenepveu)

Gutenberg Lived from 1400-1468 I While Joan of Arc was busy rescuing France from the English, another wonderful worker was busy in Germany. This was John Gutenberg, who was born in Mainz. The Germans—and most other people—think that he was the inventor of the art of printing with movable types. And so in the cities of Dresden and Mainz his countrymen have put up statues in his memory. Gutenberg’s father was a man of good family. Very likely the boy was taught to read. But the books from which he learned were not like ours; they were written by hand. A better name for them than books is “manuscripts,” which means hand-writings. While Gutenberg was growing up a new way of making books came into use, which was a great deal better than copying by hand. It was what is called block-printing. The printer first cut a block of hard wood the size of the page that he was going to print. Then he cut out every word of the written page upon the smooth face of his block. This had to be very carefully done. When it was finished the printer had to cut away the wood from the sides of every letter. This left the letters raised, as the letters are in books now printed for the blind. The block was now ready to be used. The letters were inked, paper was laid upon them and pressed down. With blocks the printer could make copies of a book a great deal faster than a man could write them by hand. But the making of the blocks took a long time, and each block would print only one page. Gutenberg enjoyed reading the manuscripts and block books that his parents and their wealthy friends had; and he often said it was a pity that only rich people could own books. Finally he determined to contrive some easy and quick way of printing. 179

FAMOUS MEN OF THE MIDDLE AGES He did a great deal of his work in secret, for he thought it was much better that his neighbors should know nothing of what he was doing. So he looked for a workshop where no one would be likely to find him. He was now living in Strasburg, and there was in that city a ruined old building where, long before his time, a number of monks had lived. There was one room of the building which needed only a little repairing to make it fit to be used. So Gutenberg got the right to repair that room and use it as his workshop. All his neighbors wondered what became of him when he left home in the early morning, and where he had been when they saw him coming back late in the twilight. Some felt sure that he must be a wizard, and that he had meetings somewhere with the devil, and that the devil was helping him to do some strange business. Gutenberg did not care much what people had to say, and in his quiet room he patiently tried one experiment after another, often feeling very sad and discouraged day after day because his experiments did not succeed. At last the time came when he had no money left. He went back to his old home, Mainz, and there met a rich goldsmith named Fust (or Faust). Gutenberg told him how hard he had tried in Strasburg to find some way of making books cheaply, and how he had now no more money to carry on his experiments. Fust became greatly interested and gave Gutenberg what money he needed. But as the experiments did not at first succeed Fust lost patience. He quarreled with Gutenberg and said that he was doing nothing but spending money. At last he brought suit against him in the court, and the judge decided in favor of Fust. So everything in the world that Gutenberg had, even the tools with which he worked, came into Fustâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s possession. II But though he had lost his tools, Gutenberg had not lost his courage. And he had not lost all his friends. One of them had money, and he bought Gutenberg a new set of tools and hired a workshop for 180

GUTENBERG

Gutenberg at work him. And now at last Gutenbergâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s hopes were fulfilled. First of all it is thought that he made types of hard wood. Each type was a little block with a single letter at one end. Such types were a great deal better than block letters. The block letters were fixed. They could not be taken out of the words of which they were parts. The new types were movable so they could be set up to print one page, then taken apart and set up again and again to print any number of pages. But type made of wood did not always print the letters clearly and distinctly, so Gutenberg gave up wood types and tried metal types. Soon a Latin Bible was printed. It was in two volumes, each of which had three hundred pages, while each of the pages had forty-two lines. The letters were sharp and clear. They had been printed from movable types of metal. III The Dutch claim that Lorenz Coster, a native of Harlem, in the Netherlands, was the first person who printed with movable type. 181

FAMOUS MEN OF THE MIDDLE AGES They say that Coster was one day taking a walk in a beech forest not far from Harlem, and that he cut bark from one of the trees and shaped it with his knife into letters. Not long after this the Dutch say Coster had made movable types and was printing and selling books in Harlem. The news that books were being printed in Mainz by Gutenberg went all over Europe, and before he died printing-presses like his were at work making books in all the great cities of the continent. About twenty years after his death, when Venice was the richest of European cities, a man named Al΄-dus Ma-nu΄tius established there the most famous printing house of that time. He was at work printing books two years before Columbus sailed on his first voyage. The descendants of Aldus continued the business after his death for about one hundred years. The books published by them were called “Aldine,” from Aldus. They were the most beautiful that had ever come from the press. They are admired and valued to this day.

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Warwick the Kingmaker Lived from 1428-1471 I The earl of Warwick, known as the “kingmaker,” was the most famous man in England for many years after the death of Henry V. He lived in a great castle with two towers higher than most church spires. It is one of the handsomest dwellings in the world and is visited every year by thousands of people. The kingmaker had a guard of six hundred men. At his house in London meals were served to so many people that six fat oxen were eaten at breakfast alone. He had a hundred and ten estates in different parts of England and no less than 30,000 persons were fed daily at his board. He owned the whole city of Worcester, and besides this and three islands, Jersey, Guernsey and Alderney, so famed in our time for their cattle, belonged to him. He had a cousin of whom he was as fond as if he were a brother. This was Richard, duke of York, who was also own cousin to King Henry VI, the son of Henry V. One evening as the sun was setting, and the warders were going to close the gates of the city of York for the night, a loud blast of a horn was heard. It was made by the sentry on the wall near the southern gate. An armed troop was approaching. When they drew near the gate their scarlet coats embroidered with the figure of a boar proved them to be the men of the earl of Warwick. The earl himself was behind them. The gate was opened. Passing through it and on to the castle, the earl and his company were soon within its strong stone walls. “Cousin,” said the earl of Warwick to the duke of York as they sat talking before a huge log fire in the great room of the castle, “England will not long endure the misrule of a king who is half the time out of his mind.” The earl spoke the truth. Every now and then Henry VI lost his reason, and the duke of York, or some other nobleman, had to govern 183

FAMOUS MEN OF THE MIDDLE AGES the kingdom for him. The earl of Warwick added: “You are the rightful heir to the throne. The claim of Henry VI comes through Lancaster, the fourth son of Edward III—yours through Lionel, the second. His claim comes through his father only—yours through both your father and mother. It is a better claim and it is a double claim.” “That is true, my cousin of Warwick,” replied the duke of York, “but we must not plunge England into war.” “Surely not if we can help it,” replied the earl. “Let us first ask for reform. If the king heeds our petition, well and good. If not I am determined, cousin of York, that you shall sit on the throne of England instead of our insane sovereign.” A petition was soon drawn up and signed and presented to Henry. It asked that Henry would do something which would make the people contented. The king paid no attention to it. Then a war began. It was the longest and most terrible that ever took place in England. It lasted for thirty years. Those who fought on the king’s side were called Lancastrians, because Henry’s ancestor, John of Gaunt, was the duke of Lancaster. The friends of Richard were called Yorkists, because he was duke of York. The Lancastrians took a red rose for their badge; the Yorkists a white one. For this reason the long struggle has always been called the “War of the Roses.” In the first great battle the Red Rose party was defeated and the king himself was taken prisoner. The victors now thought that the duke of York ought to be made king at once. However, a parliament was called to decide the question, and it was agreed that Henry should be king as long as he lived, but that at his death the crown should pass to the duke of York. II Most people though this was a wise arrangement; but Queen Margaret, Henry’s wife, did not like it at all, because it took from her son the right to reign after his father’s death. So she went to Scotland and the North of England, where she had many friends, and raised 184

Margaret entrusts her son to the robber (Zick)

FAMOUS MEN OF THE MIDDLE AGES an army. She was a brave woman and led her men in a battle in which she gained the victory. The duke of York was killed, and the queen ordered some of her men to cut off his head, put upon it a paper crown in mockery, and fix it over one of the gates of the city of York. Warwick attacked the queen again as soon as he could; but again she was victorious and captured from Warwick her husband, the king, whom the earl had held prisoner for some time past. This was a great triumph for Margaret, for Henry became king once more. But the people were still discontented. The York party was determined that Edward, the son of the old duke of York, should be made king. So thousands flocked to the White Rose standard and Warwick marched to London at their head. The queen saw that her only safety was in flight. She left London and the kingmaker entered the city in triumph. The citizens had been very fond of the old duke of York, and when his party proclaimed his handsome young son King Edward IV, the city resounded with the cry “God save King Edward.” Brave Queen Margaret was completely defeated in another battle. The story is told that after this she fled into a forest with her young son. A robber met them, but Margaret, with wonderful courage, said to him, “I am your queen and this is your prince. I entrust him to your care.” The man was pleased with the confidence that she showed. He took her and the young prince to a safe hiding place, and helped them to escape from England in a sailing vessel. III Edward IV now seemed to be seated securely upon the throne. But trouble was near. Warwick wished him to follow his advice. Edward thought he could manage without any advice. Then the king and the kingmaker quarreled, and at last became open enemies and fought one another on the field of battle. The end of it was that Warwick was defeated, and driven out of the country. He sailed across the channel and sought refuge in France. 186

WARWICK THE KINGMAKER There whom should he meet but his old enemy, Queen Margaret. She had beaten him in battle, and had beheaded his cousin Richard, duke of York; he had beaten her and driven her from her kingdom; and twice he had made her husband prisoner and taken from him his crown. In spite of all this the two now became fast friends, and the kingmaker agreed to make war upon Edward and restore Henry to the throne. He asked assistance from Louis XI, king of France, who supplied him with men and money. So with an army of Frenchmen the kingmaker landed on the shores of England. Thousands of Englishmen who were tired of Edward flocked to Warwickâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s standard, and when he reached London he had an army of sixty thousand men. Edward fled without waiting for a battle and escaped to the Netherlands in a sailing-vessel. The kingmaker had now no one to resist him. The gates of London were opened to him, and the citizens heartily welcomed him. Marching to the Tower, he brought out the old king and placed him once more upon the throne. But though Edward had fled, he was not discouraged. He The princes in the tower followed the example (Millais)

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FAMOUS MEN OF THE MIDDLE AGES of the kingmaker and asked aid from foreign friends. The duke of Burgundy supplied him with money and soldiers, and he was soon back in England. His army grew larger and larger every day. People had been very much dissatisfied with Edward and had rejoiced to get rid of him and have Henry for king, because if Henry was not clever he was good. But in a short time they had found out that England needed a king who was not only good but capable. So when Edward and his French soldiers landed most people in England welcomed them. The king-maker was now on the wrong side. Edward met him in battle at a place called Barnet, and completely defeated him. Warwick was killed and Henry once more became prisoner. In another battle both Margaret and her son were made prisoners. The son was brutally murdered in the presence of King Edward. Margaret was placed in the Tower, and King Henry, who died soon after the battle of Tewksbury, was probably poisoned by order of Edward. In 1438, after a reign of twenty-two years, Edward died, leaving two sons. Both were boys, so Edward’s brother, Richard, duke of Gloucester, was made regent until young Edward V, the older of the two, should come of age. But Richard was determined to make himself king. So he put both the young princes in the Tower. He then hired ruffians to murder them. One night, when the little princes were asleep, the murderers smothered them with pillows and buried their bodies at the foot of a stairway in the Tower, and there, after many years, their bones were found. After Richard had murdered his two nephews, he was crowned king, as Richard III, much pleased that his plans had succeeded so well. He thought that now nobody could lay claim to the throne. But he was mistaken. One person did claim it. This was Henry Tudor, earl of Richmond. Henry’s father, Edmund Tudor, was only a Welsh gentleman, but was the half-brother of Henry VI through their mother Queen Katherine. Henry’s mother was descended from John of Gaunt, 188

WARWICK THE KINGMAKER fourth son of Edward III, and thus through his mother he was of royal blood and a Lancastrian. When Richard III by his wickedness and cruelty had made all England hate him, the Red Rose party gathered about Henry Tudor, raised an army, and fought against the king in the battle of Bosworth. Richard was a bad man, but he was brave, and he fought like a lion. However, it was all in vain. He was defeated and killed. His body was thrown on the back of a horse, carried to a church near the field of battle and buried. The battered crown which Richard had worn was picked up and placed on Henry’s head and the whole Lancastrian army shouted, “Long live King Henry!” Parliament now voted that Henry Tudor and his heirs should be kings of England. Not long afterwards Henry married the heiress of the house of York, and thus both the Red Roses and the White were satisfied, as the king was a Lancastrian and the queen a Yorkist. So the long and terrible Wars of the Roses came to an end. THE END.

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Famous Men of Modern Times By J. H. Haaren and A. B. Poland

PREFACE It should be carefully noted that this little volume is the fourth and last in a series written for the express purpose of creating a deeper interest in the study of History. These four volumes are entitled respectively “Famous Men of Greece;” “Famous Men of Rome;” “Famous Men of the Middle Ages;” and “Famous Men of Modern Times.” The very titles of these books convey at once, both to the teacher and the pupil, that the method of teaching History here pursued is by approaching it through the realm of Biography; and it is not too much to say that, in this respect, the previous volumes have been eminently successful. There is something in life that makes its own personal appeal to life. The living man—be he soldier, sailor, statesman or hero—forms a fixed and abiding center around which the pupil can gather the prominent events of the country to which the man belongs. The Conquest of Granada, without the presence and interest of Ferdinand and Isabella; the Discovery of America, without the life story of Christopher Columbus; the splendid achievements of Galileo and Newton, apart from the thrilling incidents in the lives of the men who made them; or the mere record of the winning of Italian Independence or of our own Civil War, without some knowledge of Garibaldi and Lincoln; these will not long endure in the mind of the average pupil. But when coupled with the story of the sufferings and struggles, the sorrows and the joys, of the men who were the living heart and soul of these movements, the narratives become infinitely more fascinating, and take a deeper hold upon the mind, memory and heart of each individual student; and this holds true throughout the entire series. It has been forcibly pointed out in the preface to the earlier volumes of this series, that “the child almost unconsciously identifies himself with these great heroes of the past, finds himself imagining 193

FAMOUS MEN OF MODERN TIMES what he would do if placed in a like position, and living their lives over again in his own.â&#x20AC;? There can be no quicker method of gaining the pupilâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s attention, and no surer way of holding it, than that which is here attempted; and this is but another way of saying that there is not, and cannot be, any truer or better method of acquainting young people with the great facts of history than that which gives to them a knowledge of the men by whom the history has been made. The numerous and beautiful illustrations running through all these books will also be of real help in this respect. The study of history through biography is as natural as is the attainment of growth and strength through the use of proper and nourishing food. The one is the logical outcome of the other. To feel the thrill of life in history destroys all the dryness and tedium of the study, and is a valuable help to teacher and pupil alike. These books, following the recommendations of the foremost educators of our times, have been prepared with this end in view; and it is both hoped and believed that they will serve this useful purpose. Acknowledgments are due from the authors to the Rev. W. F. Markwick, D. D., for valuable assistance in editing and revising the manuscript and in reading the proofs.

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Lorenzo the Magnificent 1449-1492 The thousand years between the downfall of the Roman Empire and the Discovery of America are called the Middle Agesâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;which means the ages between ancient and modern times. This was a very stormy period. In the early part, the barbarians overran Europe and destroyed almost every sign of civilization. They were brought under some control through the efforts of the Church, and, as time advanced, there was progress in the arts of civilized life. Schools were established in monasteries, and here and there in large cities, but there was no general popular education as we consider it now. This is not so strange, for there were no printed books. The printing press had not been invented; all books at that time were manuscripts, that is they were written by hand, for that is what the word manuscript means. They were written on parchment, which was sheepskin specially prepared so that it would take ink. Of course books written by hand were expensive, for it took a great deal of time to write them. Most of the people in Europe, therefore, lived and died without ever having a book in their hands. In only a few of the largest cities and monasteries was it possible to find a library containing as many as five hundred volumes. When at length the printing press was invented, the desire for knowledge became widely spread. People felt that they must have books to read, and to study. They saw the necessity for schools in which their children might be taught. Of all the countries of Europe none was more thoroughly awakened than Italy; and among the places that were thus aroused to a desire for knowledge of all kinds, one of the first was the city of Florence. Florence early became the home of many learned men, and no city did more for the enlightenment of Europe than she. Here lived the famous family of the Medici (medÎ&#x201E; e chee). For several generations the Medici had been engaged in what was then 195

FAMOUS MEN OF MODERN TIMES almost the only commerce of the world. This was trade with India. Caravans of camels brought silks and shawls, spices and precious stones from the far East to the shores of the Mediterranean. Ships transported them to Florence. Trains of pack horses and mules carried them from Florence across the passes of the Alps to the cities of northern and western Europe. This traffic had made the Medici very wealthy; and not only wealthy but powerful. For three hundred years the family ruled the city and people of Florence. But it was not their wealth alone that gave them their power. Their political influence based on industrial conditions was great also. The city was, like ancient Athens, a state. It made its own laws, and had the right to coin its own money; it made war or peace with foreign countries. The government of the state was republican. But Florence was one of the strangest little republics that ever existed. It had this peculiar law, that no man should hold the office of chief magistrate, unless he belonged to one of the guilds, or “arts” as they were called. These were about the same as our modern trades unions. But the Florentines had even more such unions than we have. Not only were there unions of carpenters and masons and others who worked with their hands, the people who worked with their heads were also united. There were “arts” or unions of the bankers, the merchants, the doctors, and the lawyers. From the members of the “arts” the Florentines chose their officers. The government of the city was vested in the “Great Council of Nine.” These Nine consisted of seven who were head workers, and two who were hand workers. This arrangement brought those who worked with their heads and those who worked with their hands very close together. It caused the lawyers and merchants and bankers to have a friendly feeling for the carpenters and masons and others who made their living by “the sweat of their brows;” and no man could long be ruler in Florence who did not love the working people. The Medici family were famed for doing good with their money among the people of Florence. And therefore one after another of them found it easy either to be made the “standard-bearer” as the president of the republic was called; or to have men put into office 196

Lorenzo the Magnificent (Vasavi)

FAMOUS MEN OF MODERN TIMES who would carry out his wishes. In 1449, just about the time when Europe was preparing to enter upon a period of renewed activity, one of the Medici line was born who was named Lorenzo. He died in 1492, the very year in which Columbus discovered America. His grandfather, Cosimo de Medici had given many fine buildings to Florence, among which was its famous cathedral. Lorenzo’s father had also spent immense sums of money for the benefit of Florence. He had been really the ruler of the city for many years, although he very seldom held the office of standard-bearer, or had any official title. When he died the people of Florence desired that another Medici should manage the republic, and therefore they invited Lorenzo to do for them as his father had done. He accepted their invitation, and became their ruler. He proved to be much like the famous Athenian, Pisistratus—a tyrant who was not tyrannical. He ruled for the welfare of the people. He did not think that the first duty of a good ruler was to make his people soldiers. He saw that the best thing to be done for the Florentines was to enlighten them—to furnish them with books and schools. But where were books to be procured? There were monasteries in various parts of Europe in which were large numbers of books; and among these were manuscripts of many works of the old Greeks and Romans. But the principal hiding-place of manuscripts, especially those of Greek writers, was Constantinople. And it happened in a very strange way that the books of Constantinople were at that very time being brought to Western Europe. The inhabitants of Constantinople were Greeks. They read the writings of Homer and Plato, and the Gospels and Epistles of the New Testament, in the original Greek. The Turks who had long been menacing the city cared nothing for Homer and Plato; and they hated the books of the New Testament. They thought that men needed no book but the Koran of Mohammed. Many of them believed that no one ought to read any other book. At length, in 1453, Constantinople was actually taken by the Turks, and a great number of its people escaped and went forth to 198

LORENZO THE MAGNIFICENT seek new and peaceful homes in Western Europe. Many went to Italy; and of these, several found their way to Florence. Some of these men brought manuscripts with them; and they told their new Italian friends that others might be obtained in Constantinople. After this the Medici, and men like them, carried on for years a diligent search for books. They sent men to the monasteries of Italy, Germany, and England, and to Constantinople to purchase whatever ancient manuscripts they could find. One of those who went to the old Eastern capital brought back two hundred and thirty-eight, among which were the writings of Plato and Xenophon, who lived in Athens four hundred years before Christ. Lorenzo caused many of the old manuscripts to be copied; and, what was better, he had them printed. For just before Lorenzo’s birth, Gutenberg had perfected his printing press; and, three years after Lorenzo was born, the first book printed in Florence had made its appearance. It was an edition of Vergil, the great Latin poet; and very likely Lorenzo used a copy of it when he studied Latin. He lived to see books wonderfully multiplied. By the time he was thirty years old, Vergil and Horace, Homer and Xenophon could be printed so cheaply that they were bought for school boys. Like other merchant princes of the time, Lorenzo established a famous school in Florence. It was a Greek high school. So many learned men graduated from it and became celebrated teachers, that the people said it was like the wooden horse at the siege of Troy, out of which came so many Greek warriors fully armed for the fight. Although Lorenzo was called “The Magnificent” by the people of Florence, and was apparently so generous toward them, yet Florence was not really enriched by him. He only made it grander and more famous by his administration, but he completed that subversion of the Florentine republic for which his father and his grandfather had well prepared the way. Florence, although so splendid, was full of corruption, her rulers violating oaths, betraying trusts, and living only for pleasure. From the days of Lorenzo de Medici her power has steadily declined.

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Christopher Columbus 1435-1506 One day in the autumn of 1486 a stranger knocked at the gate of a convent called “La Rabida,” not far from the little Spanish seaport of Palos. He held by the hand a little boy, and when the monk who opened the door asked what was wanted he answered, “My child and I are tired and hungry. Will you give us a morsel of bread, and let us rest here awhile?” They were invited to enter, and food was set before them. During the meal the stranger began to talk about the Western Ocean and what must be on the other side of it. “Most men,” he said, “think that beyond the Azores there is nothing but a sea of darkness; but I believe that beyond those islands there is another and a larger land.” The prior of the convent, and the physician of Palos who happened to be present, were greatly interested in what their visitor had to say, and asked him to tell them his name and something of his history. “I am called Christopher Columbus,” he said. “I was born in Genoa, and there my boyhood was spent. I loved, when a child, to watch the sailors haul up the anchor and let loose the sails when a ship began her voyage. My play was to learn the names of the ropes and find out what each was for. “My father sent me to the University of Pavia; and there I learned about the stars that guide the seaman on his way. I also learned to draw maps and charts. While drawing those maps I used to wonder whether there was not some land beyond the Canaries and the Azores. “At fifteen I became a sailor. I went on voyages to England and Ireland, to Greece and elsewhere. On one of my voyages our ship was wrecked on the rocky coast of Portugal, but I got to land by the help of a plank. I stayed awhile in Portugal, and there I married the daughter of a sea captain who was the governor of Porto Santo, one 200

Columbus at the court of Ferdinand and Isabel (From the painting by Brozig, engraved by Heinemann)

FAMOUS MEN OF MODERN TIMES of the Madeira Islands. “I afterwards visited Porto Santo, and there I met many men whose lives were spent in sailing the sea. They told me some wonderful tales. One said that a Portuguese pilot named Martin Vicente had picked up at sea, twelve hundred miles west of Portugal, a piece of strange wood that had been carved by the hand of man. My brotherin-law said that he had seen at Porto Santo great pieces of jointed canes; and that a friend had told him about two human bodies which had been washed up at Flores, ‘very broad-faced’ and not at all like Christians. “All these things made me believe more firmly in the idea of a land to the westward; and at length I determined to find that land. “But I was poor. I could not buy a ship nor pay a crew. I went to my native Genoa, where the masts in the harbor rise as close as the trees in a wood. I explained my plans to the rich merchants there, and begged them to help me. But my countrymen were afraid to send any vessel of theirs beyond the Azores. They thought that west of those islands, there was nothing but the ‘Sea of Darkness.’ “I went to Lisbon and asked the Portuguese king for help. Again I was disappointed; but I was not discouraged. “I then came to Spain, and at last the good Queen Isabella heard my story. A council of learned men was called to consider my plan. They said it was wild, and advised her Majesty to give me no aid. “Thus, I am again disappointed. The little money that I had is spent, and I am a beggar. It seems as if the world is against me. Yet I am sure that there is a land beyond the sea.” The prior, the physician, and the monks who had gathered about Columbus were much interested. Father Perez, one of the monks, had been confessor to Queen Isabella, and he wrote a letter to her begging that she would see Columbus again. She consented, and Columbus went from the convent to the palace to see her. The queen again refused his request, and Columbus set out for France hoping that the king of that country might help him. But one of the officers of Isabella’s court persuaded her to change her mind, and a messenger was sent to bring Columbus back into the royal presence. King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella were in camp at Santa Fe 202

Columbus landing at San Salvador

The reception of Columbus at Barcelona

CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS near Granada, which they had but lately captured from the Moors; and there they signed an agreement to supply Columbus with two ships, and to pay the crews. It was easy for the sovereigns to promise crews and to pay them; but it was very hard to find men who were willing to sail on such a voyage. Even the criminals who were promised pardon if they would go, refused. To sail into the “Sea of Darkness” seemed certain death to them. At last, however, all difficulties were overcome. Two wealthy gentlemen added a third ship to the two supplied by the king and queen; and the wonderful voyage began. The Santa Maria with a crew of fifty men was commanded by Columbus himself; the Pinta with thirty men was in charge of Martin Pinzon; and the Nina or “Baby” with twenty-four men was commanded by Martin’s brother, Vicente Pinzon. At eight o’clock on the morning of August 3, 1492, the sails were hoisted, and the little expedition left the harbor of Palos. On the third day out, the Pinta lost her rudder. Fortunately they were then not far from the Canary Islands. They therefore steered for Tenerife where they had the vessel repaired. When they had sailed about six weeks they were astonished to find that the magnetic needle varied from its usual direction. Soon

Columbus in chains (Marechal)

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FAMOUS MEN OF MODERN TIMES after observing this, they reached a part of the ocean where a great field of seaweed lay all around them. This was what is called the â&#x20AC;&#x153;Sargasso Sea,â&#x20AC;? and the ships of Columbus were the first that ever sailed across it. They observed another strange thing. The wind in this part of the ocean blew steadily, night and day, to the westward. It was the northeast trade wind, which was unknown to sailors along the coast and in the inland seas.

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Ferdinand of Aragon 1452-1516 Ferdinand of Aragon was the son of John II, king of the Spanish provinces of Navarre and Aragon. For centuries before Ferdinandâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s time, Spain had been divided into a number of petty kingdoms. Some of them were in the hands of the Christians and the rest belonged to the Moors whose ancestors were partly Arabs and partly people of North Africa. The Moors were Mohammedans. About seven hundred years before the time of Ferdinand they had crossed the Mediterranean Sea and invaded Spain, capturing nearly the whole of that country with the exception of the provinces which lay in the extreme north. For a long time, therefore, Spain was a Mohammedan country. But the Spanish Christians became more numerous and more powerful; and during the time of the Crusades, they were almost continually at war with their Moorish neighbors.

The city of Granada 207

Lion court of the Alhambra, Granada

FERDINAND OF ARAGON At the time that Ferdinand was born they had regained all Spain except the one kingdom of Granada. In Granada, several thousand Moors still lived. They irrigated the land and cultivated rice. They planted mulberry trees and were famed for their production of silk. They even grew sugar cane, and were the first to make Europeans acquainted with sugar. The beautiful city of Granada was their capital and great stronghold at the time when Ferdinand became king; and even today travelers go by thousands to see the remains of its splendid palaces. Ferdinand married Isabella who was the queen of Castile; so that under these two sovereigns three of the Christian kingdoms of Spain—Aragon, Navarre and Castile—were united. It seemed to them, however, a disgrace to Christianity, as well as an injury to Spain, that there should be a Mohammedan kingdom in their country. They therefore determined to add Granada to their domains and a bitter war against the Moors was begun. General Gonsalvo, a famous soldier, whom the Spaniards still delight to call “the great captain” was put in command of the Spanish army. Granada was invaded. Sallies were made by the Moors; and many single combats were fought between their champions and the Christian knights. But no great battle was fought, and the war continued for months. At one time the Spanish camp of tents took fire by accident and was destroyed. A permanent town with houses of stone was then built by Ferdinand for his army. The town still stands, and is called Santa Fe. When the Moorish king, who was named Boabdil (bo ab΄ deel), heard that King Ferdinand had threatened to take Granada, he laughed in scorn; nevertheless, he at once made ready to defend his city. The war lasted more than ten years. The Moors defended themselves bravely; but the Spaniards devastated the fruitful lands of their country, totally destroyed twenty-four of their principal towns, and then besieged the city of Granada itself. The Moors held out bravely for almost a year; then, being on the verge of starvation, they surrendered Granada. 209

Boabdil surrenders

FERDINAND OF ARAGON It was agreed that Boabdil should reign over a small territory, and should do homage to Ferdinand for it. He soon grew tired of his little kingdom, however, and crossed the Mediterranean to Africa, where, not long afterwards, he perished in battle. He was the last of the Moorish kings of Spain. The year 1492 proved to be a memorable one for Ferdinand and Isabella, and for the country which they governed. It began with the conquest of Granada; and it ended in seeing Spainâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s condition wonderfully improved in almost every particular. For two hundred years the Turks had been the terror of Christendom. Christians who traded with India were obliged to sail across the Mediterranean Sea, and to pass through lands that belonged to the Turks to reach that country. They had also to bring back through those lands and across the Mediterranean whatever goods they bought in India. Their ships and cargoes were often captured by Turkish pirates, and the owners and crews were made slaves. Thousands of such Christian slaves were chained to the rowing benches of the Turkish galleys and were cruelly whipped if they did not obey their masters. The people of those times wished to find a way by which to reach India without encountering these difficulties and dangers. More than once did the different nations of Europe join together to make war against the Turks. Ferdinand himself, after taking Granada from the Moors, sent a fleet across the Mediterranean and captured Algiers, the great stronghold of the Turkish pirates. Many Italian, Spanish and Portuguese Christians who had been slaves for years came home, most of them sick, and all of them poor. You can imagine how the sight of them, when they landed, made the people wish for some safer way to India. When, therefore, Columbus offered to find one, Ferdinand and Isabella supplied him with money and ships and men. He did not, indeed, find a new way to India, but he thought he had done so, and so did the king and queen. The people of Spain, and of Europe generally, rejoiced at the thought that trade with India could in future be carried on without so great a loss of life and treasure. While Columbus failed in this one important point, his 211

After a Moorish victory (Philippoteaux)

FERDINAND OF ARAGON discoveries were of great value to Spain, for they gave her immense possessions in the “new world” and added largely to her wealth and power. Ferdinand was at first rather cold toward Columbus. He did not have much faith either in the great discoverer or in his plans. The real credit of Spain’s assistance belongs far more to Queen Isabella than to King Ferdinand. But by consolidating and strengthening his dominions, Ferdinand lifted Spain into a prominent position among the European nations; and his influence was felt for many years after his death, which occurred in 1516.

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Vasco de Gama 1469-1524 One day in the year 1497, King Manuel of Portugal was at work in his study. It was five years since Columbus had brought the news to Ferdinand of Aragon that a way to the Indies had been discovered by sailing westward; for Columbus, as we have learned, supposed that the islands on which he had landed were some of the East India islands. Manuel was busy planning an expedition which he hoped might discover a passage to the Indies by sailing eastward. A nobleman entered the room where he was sitting. “Vasco da Gama,” said the king when he saw him, “I make you captain of my expedition. Take any one of the ships you please, and let your brother command another. If it please God, you will discover India.” Three ships, not larger than the schooners which sail up and down our rivers, were lying at anchor in the harbor of Lisbon. They were named after the three archangels, Michael, Gabriel, and Raphael. They were laden with everything which the king and Vasco thought might be useful on a voyage of discovery, and among the men who were to sail in them were carpenters, blacksmiths, rope makers, and such other skilled workmen as were likely to be of service. When the vessels were ready to start, a solemn service was held in the great cathedral of Lisbon. All who were going on the expedition were there. The king and queen were also present; and when the bishop had pronounced the blessing, the king presented to Vasco da Gama the royal standard. “Let it fly,” he said, “at the masthead of your ship.” From the cathedral, Vasco and his men marched to the harbor. The ships were decorated with flags, and the king’s standard was run up at the masthead of the one which Vasco was to command. Guns were fired, the anchors were heaved, the sails were loosed, and the little fleet floated down to the mouth of the river. There in the port of Belem they waited three days for a fair wind, 214

VASCO DE GAMA and then the voyage began. A Portuguese writer says, “So many tears were shed when they were sailing away that the shore may well be named the shore of tears;” and Camoens, the great poet of Portugal wrote, “Uncounted as the grains of golden sand, The tears of thousands fell on Belem’s strand.” The ships were so long sailing down the coast of Africa that the sailors became discouraged. They insisted that the land must extend entirely across the sea, and that it had no end. Vasco da Gama knew that it had an end; for another great navigator, named Bartholomew Diaz, had already found the end and called it the “Cape of Storms,” because of the very bad weather he had encountered there. Near this cape Vasco also met with storms, and his men wished to turn back. But, like Columbus, Vasco was determined to go on. Some of the men formed a conspiracy to kill him, and he was obliged to put the mutineers in irons. At length, they doubled the cape, sailed to the north-eastward, and left the storms behind them. The ships had been greatly damaged by the winds and waves. They were leaking badly, and the sailors had to work at the pumps night and day. Wearied and disheartened they again requested that the voyage might be given up, and that they might be allowed to return to their homes. Vasco saw that the ships must be repaired, and, besides this, all were in need of water. He therefore steered toward the land and kept a sharp lookout for a safe harbor. If you look at the map of Africa, you will see that part of the southeast coast is called Natal (na tal΄). This is the Portuguese name for Christmas Day. Vasco named this part of the coast Natal because he sailed past it on that day. Farther on, the voyagers were delighted to see the mouth of a river. Steering into it, and sailing some distance up the stream, they found a place where they could land. There they stayed some time and repaired their ships. One, however, was so battered and broken that she could not be made seaworthy; they therefore took her to pieces and used the wood to repair the other two pieces and used the 215

The conspiracy

VASCO DE GAMA wood to repair the other two. Vasco named this stream the “River of Mercy.” One day some of the natives came to visit them. The sailors offered them slices of bread with marmalade; but their visitors did not taste a morsel until they saw the Portuguese eating. When they had once tasted, it seemed as though they would never have enough. Da Gama showed them a looking-glass, a thing they had never seen before. They were greatly amused, and laughed loudly when they saw their faces reflected in it. Sailing from the River of Mercy, Vasco steered northward, keeping always in sight of land. After some days he saw a ship at anchor and at once sent a boat to find out where he was. But the native sailors were afraid, and jumping into a canoe paddled away as fast as they could. The Portuguese boat soon overtook them, and then all but one of the natives threw themselves into the sea and swam to shore. The one man remaining in the canoe could not swim, and so the Portuguese took him on board one of their ships. He proved to be a Moor, and as he was able to act as an interpreter, he became very useful to them. Not long after this another vessel was seen. She was under full sail, but Vasco’s ship soon came up with her. Two negroes on board the strange vessel spoke a language that some of the negroes on the ships of the Portuguese understood; and from them they learned that she was on her way to a harbor of India called Cambay. This was good news to da Gama, and they followed her into an African harbor called Mozambique (mo zam beek΄). It was now nearly a year since they had sailed from Lisbon; and all were delighted to enter a port where they could see houses and people. Soon after they came to anchor, the sheik or governor of the city of Mozambique paid them a visit. He came upon two canoes lashed together, poles and planks being placed upon them to make a floor, above which was stretched a large piece of matting. Under the matting sat the sheik and ten companions. The sheik wore a jacket of velvet; a blue cloth, embroidered with threads of gold, was wrapped round his body; and a silken sash was tied round his waist. A dagger 217

FAMOUS MEN OF MODERN TIMES was stuck in his sash, and he carried a sword in his hand. When he reached the ships, trumpets were sounded, and Vasco and his officers greeted him with the heartiest welcome. The Moor interpreted everything that they said, or that the Portuguese said to them. The sheik asked the Portuguese of what merchandise they were in search. Thereupon they showed him some pepper, cinnamon and ginger. He then promised to send pilots who would steer their vessels to India; and after he left the ships two men came on board who said they had been sent for that purpose. Before the Portuguese were ready to resume their voyage, the sheik invited Vasco to dine with him, and advised that all the sick men should be sent on shore. Vasco learned from his Moor that this was a trick to get them into the sheik’s power, and so he declined the invitation. A boat was sent to get fresh water, and one of the sheik’s pilots went to show the Portuguese where the spring was. He said that midnight was the only time at which they could row to the spring because of the tide. But from midnight until morning he kept them rowing about from place to place, and no water was found. Seeing at length that the Portuguese were growing angry, he jumped overboard and swam a long distance under water, not rising till he was far away from the boat. In this way he escaped. Vasco now sailed away, but he put the other pilot in irons. He could not trust him; for the Moor had found out that the sheik had ordered both the pilots to steer the ships upon the shoals and wreck them. The next harbor Vasco reached was Mombasa (Mom bas΄ a). The sheik of Mozambique had sent word to the king, who was a friend of his, that two ships would soon arrive at Mombasa whose captains were great robbers—that they meant to bring a large fleet and take possession of Mombasa and Mozambique; and that the wisest thing to do was to make prisoners of the strangers and put them to death. As soon as the king of Mombasa learned that the two ships had actually arrived outside the harbor he sent a kind message to Vasco, inviting him to land and make a treaty. He sent two pilots to take the vessels into the harbor because there were dangerous shoals at its 218

VASCO DE GAMA entrance. He also sent a large boat loaded with sheep, sugar cane, citrons, lemons and oranges, as a present. The sick men were delighted with the fruit. Vasco sent two men on shore to buy some other things that were needed; but the king said they might have whatever they wished without paying. A guide was given to them who took them all over the city, and particularly to a part where, he said, Christians lived. The people there pretended to be Christians but were not. They treated the Portuguese kindly, and begged them to stop all night at their houses. This kindness was only pretended. The truth was that the king had given orders to the pilots to run Vascoâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s vessels on the shoals of the harbor, and they tried to do it. Vascoâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s ship, however, did not obey the helm when they were turning to enter the harbor; but it went so close to the shoal, that the officer in command ordered the sailors to let go the anchor and haul down the sails. In a moment this was done, and the other ship did the same. The two pilots, thinking their plans were discovered, jumped into the water and swam to a boat and escaped. Vasco determined to leave these treacherous people at once, but his anchor had become fixed so firmly in the rocks of the shoal that the crew could not raise it. They labored at this all night, and the cable parting in the morning, they had to leave the anchor and sail away without it. The next port that they reached was Melinda. Here they were treated with real kindness; for a soothsayer, whom the king trusted, told him that the Portuguese would someday be lords of India, and that he had better make a treaty with them. The king therefore invited Vasco and his brother to land and settle upon the terms of a treaty. The Portuguese, however, were distrustful. They proposed that the king and they should have their talk sitting in boats near the shore, and to this the king agreed. Vasco and his brother dressed themselves in their handsomest suits and went in their boats seated on chairs that were covered with crimson velvet. Each of the boats carried two small guns which were fired as a salute, and then the crews rowed toward the shore. The king now came on board one of the boats, and sat on a seat prepared for him. He said that he wished to be always friendly with 219

Vasco de Gama at Calicut

VASCO DE GAMA the king of Portugal. Vasco da Gama and his brother knelt to kiss the king’s hand, but he made them rise. Then the trumpets sounded and the ships fired all their guns. Vasco presented to the king a splendid sword in a case of gold, saying, “Sire, we give you this sword in the name of our king and promise to maintain peace and friendship with you forever.” The king answered “I promise and swear by my religion to keep peace and friendship forever with my new brother the king of Portugal.” Thousands of the king’s people were gathered on the shore and witnessed all this. After the treaty had been made Vasco wished at once to sail to India. But he had to cross the great Indian Ocean, and favorable winds would not blow until August, and it was now only May. So for three months the Portuguese remained at Melinda. Just before they sailed Vasco erected, on a hill near the city, a white marble column on which was inscribed the name of King Manuel. As a parting gift the king of Melinda sent to the Portuguese a large boatload of rice, butter, sugar, coconuts, sheep, fowls and vegetables. Sailing eastward now for about twenty days Vasco at length sighted land. It was the shore of Calicut, a city in India. The vessels were soon anchored in the harbor. Thus, the great sea route to the land of silks and spices had been discovered. A factory, or trading house, was established at Calicut, and for the next hundred years little Portugal was the sovereign of the eastern seas, and the greatest commercial nation of Europe. Da Gama died in 1524. The Portuguese honor him as we honor Columbus; and Camoens made him the hero of his “Lusiad,” the greatest poem in the Portuguese language.

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Chevalier Bayard 1476-1524 One of the greatest heroes of France in the sixteenth century, was the Chevalier Bayard, or, as we may translate his title, Bayard the Knight. His real name was Pierre du Terrail; and he came of a famous family of warriors who had done excellent service for their country. He was born in the year 1476, at Bayard Castle, near the town of Grenoble, in France; and it was from the family estate that he took the name of Bayard. He is often called “the knight without fear and without reproach.” He was so brave that he never feared a foe; so good that no one ever reproached him for doing wrong. His father and grandfather were warriors, and no other life than that of a soldier was thought of for young Pierre. The first step in the education of a knight was to become a page. When fourteen years old Pierre began his military training as a page to a famous warrior of that time, Duke Charles of Savoy. Mounted upon a pony, and dressed in a suit of silk and velvet, he was a handsome little fellow; but, better than that, he was courteous and obliging. The pages carried messages from the duke and duchess to their friends; and Pierre was such a faithful messenger that he became a general favorite. He had not been a year at the ducal palace when the duke had to make a visit to his sovereign, King Charles VIII of France. He thought that he could do no better service to the king than to offer him his bright little page. The king was charmed with him, and for three years Pierre was page to the king. He was then promoted to the rank of gentleman. He was only seventeen years old; but it was not long before he became famous, and everybody at the court was speaking in his praise. It was the fashion, in those days, for brave men to show their skill as soldiers by fighting with one another in “tournaments” or sham 222

CHEVALIER BAYARD

Tournament fights. A lady, chosen for the occasion and called the Queen of Beauty, presented prizes to the victors. The knights who wished to fight hung their shields on the boughs of trees near the tournament grounds as a challenge. Whoever wished to accept the challenge struck the hanging shield with his lance or sword. A tournament was to be held in honor of King Charles and the ladies of his court; and Sir Claude de Vaudre (voÎ&#x201E; dray), who was the champion of France, hung up his shield. Among those who struck it was young Pierre; and when the tournament was held, he won the prize. He had vanquished Sir Claude. Not long after this, he held a tournament himself, and was the challenger. Forty-eight warriors struck the shield that he hung up; and one by one they were defeated by him in the tournament. But it was real war for which the young soldier longed, and very soon it came. The French king invaded Italy, and the Italian states formed a league against him. In a battle which was fought, although the Italians were more than five times as numerous as the French, King Charles won the day. The champion of the fight was Bayard. Two horses were killed under him, his sword was hacked, and his coat of mail was battered; but in spite of all, he captured the royal standard of Naples. He was 223

FAMOUS MEN OF MODERN TIMES brought before the sovereign holding this trophy in his hand; and then and there, on the battlefield, the king made him a knight. Charles soon afterwards died, but under the new king, Louis VII, the French again fought in Italy. Marching across the Alps, they captured the province of Milan and held it; but the city of Milan was won back from them by the Italian Prince Sforza. Three hundred of Sforza’s horsemen were one day encamped near the city, when Bayard, with only fifty comrades, made an assault on them. The fight was wild, but at length the Italians fled and galloped swiftly through the gates into Milan. Bayard, supposing that his comrades were close behind him, dashed after the flying Italians into the great square of the city. A fierce attack was now made on him, while he on his part slashed right and left with his battle-axe, killing or wounding many of his assailants. At length however he was overpowered, and taken prisoner. The din of this conflict was heard by Sforza, and he ordered the knight to be brought before him. When Sforza had heard his story, he said, “Lord Bayard, I set you free. I ask no ransom. I will grant whatever favor you ask.” “Prince,” replied Bayard, “I thank you. I ask but my horse and my armor.” Then bidding his generous foe adieu, the knight rode out of the city, and soon reached the camp of his friends. Some time after this there was war between France and Spain. Both claimed certain parts of Italy, and so the fighting was done on Italian soil. Once the French and Spanish were on opposite sides of the river. There was a bridge between them which the French held and could easily defend. The Spanish commander knew of a ford some distance down the stream. He proposed to draw the French away from the bridge, so that his men might capture it. Accordingly, taking a body of troops, he went to the ford, as if he were intending to cross it. The French, on seeing him move, abandoned their post at the bridge and marched toward the ford. The bridge being thus left undefended, a body of two hundred Spaniards suddenly appeared and marched directly toward it. Bayard 224

CHEVALIER BAYARD saw that not a moment was to be lost. Putting on his armor, he leaped to the saddle, and spurring his horse, was on the bridge before the Spaniards could reach it. The Spaniards quickly arrived; but Bayard stood upon the defensive and, swinging his heavy broadsword, he slew an enemy with every blow. The Spaniards thought him some demon, and checked their furious charge. Meanwhile, a band of French horsemen rushed like a whirlwind to the bridge, and drove the Spaniards back to the farther side. After this exploit men said of Bayard, “Single, he has the might of an army.” Once, at the siege of a castle, he was crossing the ramparts at the head of a storming party, when he received his first wound. He was struck by a pike, and the sharp-pointed head remained fixed in his thigh. He was taken to a house near by, where a mother and her daughters had shut themselves in in dread of their lives. The mother timidly opened the door, and the wounded knight was taken in; and there for six long weeks he lay, and was nursed as carefully as if he had been a member of the family. And he on his part was their protection, for a band of his soldiers guarded the house until all danger was past. On the day of Bayard’s departure, the mother begged him to accept a little steel box as a remembrance. It contained twenty-five hundred ducats in gold, which would be more than a thousand dollars of our money. “Give five hundred for me,” said Bayard, “to the nuns whose convent near your house has been pillaged; and as for the rest, young ladies, I beg you each to accept a thousand ducats from me; for I owe you much for your care.” War was still raging in North Italy. Francis I had become sovereign of France; and like the king who reigned before him claimed part of Italy for his domain. The French army lay encamped about the town of Marignano (ma reen ya no). The king was about to take his supper, when suddenly the enemy marched in full force from the gates and assaulted his camp. The French were instantly in arms, and the battle raged as raged as long as there was light to see a foe. Both armies lay under 225

Bayard defends the bridge

CHEVALIER BAYARD arms all night, and before the sun rose, the fighting had begun again. The contest has been called the “Battle of the Giants.” The French performed marvelous exploits and won the day, but Bayard outshone all his comrades still. The evening after the victory, King Francis knighted many brave men on the field of battle. But a wonderful honor was chosen for Bayard. The king made proclamation that he himself would receive the rank of knight from his champion. Accordingly he knelt before the Chevalier, and Bayard, striking the shoulder of Francis with his sword, said, “Rise, Sir Francis;” and thus gave him knighthood. When, in 1520, Francis I met Henry VIII of England near Calais upon the celebrated “Field of the Cloth of Gold,” the knights of both countries vied with each other in what were, perhaps, the grandest tournaments ever held; and Bayard again won the greatest renown. It had always been the Knight’s wish that he might die in battle. And so he did. In 1524 he was fighting under the French commander, Lord Bonnivet. Want of supplies and sickness compelled Bonnivet to retreat. The Spaniards placed men in ambush along the road which the French had to take. From one of these hidden foes the chevalier received his death wound. A comrade helped him from his horse, and laid him under the shadow of a tree. Bayard felt that he was dying. He charged his friend to turn his face toward the foe, and then to care for his own safety. When the Spaniards reached the spot, they found him still breathing. The Spanish general, Lord Pescara, showed him every care, and a priest was brought to console him in his last moments. And thus, loved by friends and admired by foes, the “knight without fear and without reproach” ended his wonderful life.

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Cardinal Wolsey 1471-1530 Not far from London is an old palace called Hampton Court. Had you been standing near its gateway on a Sunday about four hundred years ago, you might have heard the cry, “Make way for my Lord’s Grace.” Looking toward the palace you would have seen a curious procession leaving the doorway. You would have noticed one gentleman carrying a scarlet hat; two very tall and handsome persons each carrying a silver cross; another carrying a mace, which is a wooden staff with a spiked metal ball for its head; and still another carrying the great seal of England. After these you would have seen a number of gentlemen who made the cry which you heard. Following these was the most important person of all—a high officer of church and state, mounted on a mule which had trappings of crimson velvet and gilt stirrups. This was “my Lord’s Grace.” His name was Thomas Wolsey; and when people were told to make way for him, he was setting out to pay his Sunday call upon the king of England. The red hat showed that he was a cardinal. He was also the Pope’s legate, or the representative of the Pope in England. The mace, and the great seal, showed that he was Lord Chancellor of the kingdom. Wolsey was second only to the sovereign in the kingdom— second only to the Pope in the church. He was not born to all this greatness. His father was a butcher who lived in the town of Ipswich, in England, and in addition to his business as a butcher, kept sheep and sold wool. He was a prosperous man—neither rich nor poor. Thomas was born in the year 1471. He was sent to the grammar school in his native town; and when only eleven was ready for college. He graduated at fifteen—so young that at college he was called the “Boy Bachelor.” One thing that made him great was that he was very clever and 228

CARDINAL WOLSEY very industrious. He learned his lessons so well and so quickly that all his teachers were astonished. He made up his mind after graduating to become a priest and was ordained. Then he was put in charge of a church called Limington. Some time after he began preaching in Limington, King Henry VII wished to marry a certain Spanish princess, and had to obtain the consent of the emperor of Germany. He needed some very wise and trusty messenger to send to Europe to arrange with the emperor about this marriage. Bishop Fisher and other good friends of Wolsey told the king that no better man than Wolsey could be found in all England. So the young priest was invited to a conference with the king, and Henry told Wolsey what he wished him to say to the emperor. After this Wolsey hastened to Dover and embarked upon a vessel which was waiting for him. Fair winds soon wafted Wolseyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s ship across the English Channel, and swift post horses brought him to the town where the emperor was staying. The kingâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s message was delivered and everything was arranged as Henry had desired. Wolsey then sailed back to England. He took post horses and reached the palace by night. Next morning the king saw him, and asked why he had not yet started on his journey. He had not been away a whole week; and the king could scarcely believe that he had gone to see the emperor and had returned. Henry was greatly pleased, and put the swift and sure messenger into a much better position in the church than he already held. After the death of Henry VII, his son Henry VIII found Wolsey a most useful person. The young king was fond of amusement, but not at all fond of business. Wolsey liked to manage the business of the kingdom. Henry saw that Wolsey could do this, and save him a great deal of trouble; and for this reason the king made him Lord Chancellor of England. Wolsey was now for a time the real ruler of the kingdom. Wolsey thought it wise to live in a great deal of show. He saw that it pleased the people and the king. He built for his home the palace called Hampton Court. It was very handsome and the king greatly admired it. So, after living in it about ten years, Wolsey gave it to his majesty as a present; and to this 229

FAMOUS MEN OF MODERN TIMES

Hampton Court day it belongs to the sovereign of England. Twice Wolsey was sent by Henry VIII with messages to Charles V; and when he traveled on state business he seemed as grand as the king himself. The Parliament met in a large building called Westminster Hall. Wolsey used to go there from Hampton Court in great pomp, just as when he went to visit the king. Several times every year the king went to visit the great cardinal. Then the most expensive luxuries that could be bought were served at the table. There were music and dancing. The finest singers of England were employed; and the king and the lords and ladies of the court often took part in the festivities. But there was something more serious in Wolseyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s life than the love of luxury and merrymaking. He wanted to found a college at Oxford, as other great churchmen had done, but the means were not at hand. He had received from the king the revenues of the abbey of St. Albans, and he applied to the Pope for permission to suppress a monastery at Oxford and apply its property to the new college. As the need for a new college was said to be most pressing, and as the monastery was well adapted for a house of learning the Pope consented. Still there was not money enough for Wolseyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s purpose. So he 230

CARDINAL WOLSEY wrote to the Pope that there were many monasteries in which the monks were so few that they could not perform their office properly. Then the Pope gave to Wolsey increased powers to suppress monasteries wherever he might deem it necessary, provided the king and the founders did not object, and the monks were admitted to other monasteries. Wolsey received the kingâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s approval and began his work. He met with strenuous objections from the people, however, and in some places there was a riot when Wolseyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s agents attempted to expel the occupants of the monasteries. Nevertheless, the means were secured, and Christchurch College was founded, as well as a school at Ipswich. Wolsey was a very ambitious man. He got for himself the highest positions in England; and he hoped sometime to be made pope. He was the favorite of the king for many years; but Henry was a fickle man. If a man or woman did not do exactly as he wished, his love soon changed to hate. Henry was married to Catherine of Aragon, the widow of his brother Arthur, the daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella, and aunt of the emperor Charles V. Nevertheless, he fell in love with another woman named Anne Boleyn, and wished Wolsey to persuade the Pope to annul the marriage with Catherine. Henry said he feared his marriage was illegal, and Wolsey tried to get the Pope to do what Henry and Wolsey wished. After considerable delay, for the Pope was then a prisoner, a cardinal was sent to form with Wolsey a court to try the case. Catherine was called before the court, but as Wolsey was her subject, she would not recognize the authority of the court, and appealed to Rome. No decision was made for a long time, and Henry began to consider his case hopeless when he learned that a shrewd young man named Cranmer had said that the King ought to get opinions about his marriage from the universities. That speech was the making of Cranmer. Henry followed his advice. No foreign university, however, would give an opinion, but pressure was brought on the English universities and a favorable answer was rendered. The women of Oxford, however, stoned the kingâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s messengers when they came for the formal documents. 231

Wolsey and Queen Catherine (Peters)

CARDINAL WOLSEY The answer of the professors was just what Henry wanted. They said he ought never to have married Catherine; and that it was right for him to marry Anne. The king was overjoyed. Catherine was divorced and Anne became the queen. Henry thought Cranmer ought to be handsomely rewarded for helping him out of his difficulty, and so he made him archbishop of Canterbury. Anne Boleyn thought that Wolsey was to blame for the delay in having Henry’s marriage annulled and she became the bitter enemy of the cardinal. Then the king grew cold, and was easily persuaded that Wolsey had broken one of the laws of the land in having directly sent to him the Pope’s “bulls.” There is a law in England that the Pope’s bulls shall not be published unless the king allows it. But Henry himself, as he well knew, had allowed the bulls sent to Wolsey to be published. So the great cardinal had done nothing wrong against the laws of the land. However, Henry took from him the honors he had previously bestowed upon him, and ordered him to give up the great seal. Wolsey was soon afterwards accused of high treason, and the king ordered that he should be tried. He was in a distant town at the time, and a guard of twenty-five men was sent to take him to the Tower of London. At that time Wolsey was very sick, but he rode several days with his guard toward London. When he reached the Abbey of Leicester and the abbot came out to meet him, Wolsey said to him, “Father Abbot, I have come to leave my bones with you;” and so indeed he did. He went at once to his bed and never left it. As he was talking to Sir William Kingston, the chief of the guard, a little while before he died, he said, “If I had served God as diligently as I have served the king, he would not have given me over in my gray hairs.” The next morning, as the abbey clock was striking eight, he passed away. He was the greatest English statesman of the age of Henry VIII. After Wolsey’s death Henry married Anne Boleyn; and he and the Parliament did just what Wolsey had foretold. They declared the Church of England independent of the Church of Rome. 233

Wolsey at Leicester (Westall)

Charles V of Germany 1500-1558 In 1500, eight years after the discovery of America by Columbus, a Spanish prince was born in the city of Ghent in the Netherlands. He was named Charles. He was the grandson of Ferdinand and Isabella, and from them at the age of sixteen, he inherited the crown of Spain and the two Americas. From his father he inherited the kingdom of Naples and the Netherlands. When he was about nineteen years old, his other grandfather the emperor of Germany died. Three great kings were then reigning Francis I, in France, Henry VIII, in England, and the young king Charles—and each of them wished to be chosen as the next emperor. Charles was elected; and as he was the fifth German emperor who was so named, he assumed the title of Charles V. With Germany thus added to his already vast domains, he was now the ruler of an empire greater than that of Charlemagne— greater even than that of Imperial Rome. It is wonderful that Charles was able to attend to the affairs of countries separated from one another by such great distances. This was far more difficult then than it would be now; because at that time there were neither railroads nor steamships, neither telegraphs nor telephones. Carriage roads were few and most of them were bad. Yet Charles attended well to every part of his vast empire. Although he could not be present everywhere, his power was felt everywhere. In 1518 Mexico was discovered by a Spaniard. An expedition was at once sent out from Cuba to take possession of the country. Ten vessels, carrying about seven hundred Spaniards, sailed under the command of Hernando Cortes. The noise of the Spanish guns and cannon made the Mexicans think that the Spaniards were gods, and could not be killed or even wounded. The people of Tlascala (tlas ca΄ la) were enemies of Montezuma 235

FAMOUS MEN OF MODERN TIMES (mon te zoo΄ ma) king of Mexico; and Cortes persuaded them to join his forces. So the native and Spanish soldiers marched together to the city of Mexico. Montezuma thought at first that Cortes was an ancient god of the Mexicans who had once been their king, and received him with great kindness. But Cortes made the king his prisoner and kept him closely guarded. Cortes also compelled him to give the Spaniards about half a million dollars in gold. The Mexicans were very angry with Montezuma for giving up so much treasure, and some of them revolted. Montezuma tried to pacify them with kind words; but the rebels hurled stones at him and he was severely wounded and died soon afterwards as the result of his injuries. Cortes at length succeeded in taking possession of the city of Mexico, and the whole country thus became a part of the great empire of Charles V. One of Charles’s neighbors was exceedingly jealous of him. This was Francis I, king of France. He laid claim to the province of Navarre, in Spain, and this brought on several wars between Francis and Charles which lasted through many years. Francis was a brave enemy. Like Hannibal, he crossed the snowcovered Alps and invaded Italy. But Charles was more than a match for him. In one battle he took Francis prisoner—in another he captured the Pope—and having taken possession of Rome he kept His Holiness a prisoner in the castle of St. Angelo which belonged to the Pope himself. Francis was at last obliged to content himself with his own kingdom; and to leave Navarre in the hands of Charles. One of the greatest difficulties which Charles had to deal with was the religious quarrel which was going on all over Germany. The German Empire at that time consisted of a great many separate states, such as Saxony, Bavaria and others. The rulers of these states had different titles. Some were called dukes, some princes, and some kings. The rulers and people of the German states were divided into two great parties—the Roman Catholics, and the Lutherans or Protestants. The quarrel between them began about the time that Charles 236

Cortez in battle (Ramirez)

FAMOUS MEN OF MODERN TIMES was born, and lasted for more than a hundred years. It was ended only by the terrible battles of the “Thirty Years’ War,” which came to a close in 1648. Charles was very anxious to put a stop to the evils which arose from this quarrel. It seemed to him that the simplest way of doing so was to get rid of the Protestants altogether. But so many of the princes and people of Germany had become Protestants that he found it impossible to do this; and he was obliged to allow northern Germany to remain for the most part Protestant. While Charles was thus trying to make the great religious parties of Germany live in peace, a new difficulty arose. Solyman the Sublime then ruled the great empire of Turkey; and, like Francis I, he was very anxious to get possession of a slice of Charles’s domains. In 1529 he raised an immense army and laid siege to Vienna, which was then the capital of the German empire. He was defeated and beaten back. This did not, however, altogether discourage him; but with a large army, he marched into southeastern Germany. Charles then saw his opportunity to bring together the Catholic and Protestant Germans. He called upon them to unite for the defense of the empire against the common foe. All Germany at once responded; and one of the finest armies was assembled that Europe had ever seen. Charles took command in person and marched against the Turks. When Solyman learned of this he retreated without a battle. He saw that the wisest thing for him to do was to leave Germany in possession of the Germans, and to look more closely after his own affairs. The Turks still continued to be troublesome, however, both on land and at sea. Solyman employed a famous pirate named Barbarossa to attack all Christian merchant vessels that ventured to sail upon the Mediterranean. Barbarossa and his master were determined that none but Turkish ships should sail that sea without paying toll to the Turks. The pirates captured the vessels of the Christians, took possession of the cargoes, and made slaves of all whom they found on board. Charles made up his mind to put a stop to all this. He therefore attacked Tunis, on the northern shore of Africa, which was Barbarossa’s stronghold. Barbarossa was defeated, Tunis was 238

Charles V at the siege of Metz (Melingue)

FAMOUS MEN OF MODERN TIMES captured, and thousands of Christian slaves were set free. This caused great rejoicing all over Europe; and Charles was regarded as a benefactor of Christian seafaring people. All these wars cost a great deal of money; and some of Charles’s subjects made strong objections to paying the taxes levied upon them. The Dutch people, in particular, complained bitterly. The people of Ghent, the very town in which Charles was born, positively refused to pay. They felt very much as our ancestors did who fought in the Revolutionary War. They thought that people who paid taxes should have something to say about the way in which the taxes should be spent. Charles considered that it was not only the duty of the people to pay, but that it was his sole right to decide what should be done with the money. He therefore determined to punish the people of Ghent. He took away the charter which gave the citizens the right to choose their own magistrates, and he appointed officers of his own choosing to manage their affairs. He also caused those persons who had advised the people not to pay to be treated as traitors and to be put to death. In an attempt to take Algiers, in 1541, his fleet was wrecked and more than half his army perished; and although this was a favorite object with Charles the project had to be abandoned. As he grew older, Charles found that it was quite impossible to manage his vast empire just as he wished to do. The pirates of Algiers still went on robbing, and more than half of his people in Germany would be Protestants in spite of all that he could say or do. He was greatly discouraged; and, in 1554, he gave the Netherlands and the kingdom of Naples to his son Philip. He then called together the “States General,” or Congress of the Netherlands, at Brussels; and with his right hand resting upon a crutch, and his left upon the shoulder of the young Prince of Orange, he made a very solemn address. He said that his infirmities made it necessary for him to give up the cares of government. He then asked the “States General” to forgive whatever errors he had committed during his reign, and to accept Philip as his successor. The whole assembly burst into tears and sobs; and Charles 240

CHARLES V OF GERMANY himself, completely overcome, sank into a chair and wept like a child. Two years after this he resigned the crown of Spain; and, after two years more, gave up his position as emperor of Germany. He caused a palace to be built near the monastery of Yuste (yoosÎ&#x201E; tay), in Spain; and there he spent the last days of his life. The story is told that he amused himself with trying to make a number of clocks in different rooms of the palace keep the same time. Finding that he could not do this, he is said to have remarked that it was no wonder he could not make all the people in his kingdom live and act as he desired. Although extremely ambitious and overbearing he managed to maintain a strong hold on his people; and some of the events of his career exercised a powerful influence upon the later history of Europe. During his days of retirement he was very fond of attending the religious services of the monastery, and of listening to the reports of messengers who came to tell him the news from all parts of his former domain. His strength rapidly failed; and he died in 1558.

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Charles V at Yuste

Solyman the Sublime 1490-1566 Solyman I (sol΄ e man), sometimes called the Sublime, was sultan of Turkey when Charles V was emperor of Germany. He was born about the year 1490, and became sultan at the age of twenty-five. When his father, Selim I, lay upon his death bed, he said to his son Solyman, “My son, I am passing away, and you will soon be ruler of Turkey. During my reign I have tried to make my empire a strong military power. Promise me that you will carry on the work which I have begun. Try to make the Turkish nation respected and feared.” “Father,” said Solyman, “I will do all that I can to make my country the equal of any in the world.” We know nothing of the Turks until about the time of Louis IX, the crusading king of France. Then a small body of the strange warlike people came from central Asia; and in about fifty years they had gained possession of all that part of Asia which we call Asia Minor. Only the narrow strait called the Bosporus, about one mile wide, lay between them and the beautiful city of Constantinople, which was then the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire. From the Asiatic side of the Bosporus the Turks could see the palaces of the Christian city and the church of Santa Sophia (so fee΄ a), then the most magnificent church in Christendom. In 1453, when Gutenberg was printing his first Latin Bible, the Turks attacked Constantinople with a powerful fleet. The Greeks had put a chain across the mouth of the harbor, but the Turks made a plank road five miles long, drew their war galleys over it, and launched them under the very walls of the city. Their cannon made a breach in the walls, and through it the Turks entered and stormed the place. The Greek emperor, though fighting bravely, fell; and the Turks completely overpowered the Christians. 243

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Constantinople At sunset the sultan gave thanks for his victory. The church of St. Sophia was at once turned into a mosque, and so remains to the present day. By the capture of Constantinople the Turks gained their first foothold in Europe; and for more than two hundred years afterward it was their constant effort to make themselves masters of the whole continent. With this idea in mind, Solyman invaded Servia and besieged Belgrade, the capital. Belgrade was at that time one of the strongest fortifications in the world. It was also the great stronghold of the Christians of the east. Solyman captured the city and annexed Servia to the empire of Turkey. He next invaded Hungary, and in 1526 a terrible battle was fought at Mohacs (mo hachÎ&#x201E;). Solyman gained the victory. A great number of the Hungarian nobility perished and their king, Louis II, lost his life. A large part of the valley of the Danube was now at the mercy of Solyman, and portions of it continued to be Turkish territory for three centuries. 244

Triumphal entry of the Turks

FAMOUS MEN OF MODERN TIMES After this battle some of the Hungarian nobles elected as king a man named John Zapolya (za΄ pol ya). A prince who had a better right to the throne was Ferdinand, duke of Austria, who was the brother of Charles V. Zapolya could not drive Ferdinand’s troops out of the kingdom. He asked Solyman to help him. This Solyman was glad to do because he saw that it might give him the opportunity to take possession of all Hungary. With a large army he marched into the country. He took from Ferdinand the fortified city of Buda and made it his own headquarters. Not long afterwards he appeared with an army of nearly two hundred thousand men before Vienna which was Ferdinand’s capital. After trying several times to storm the city, however, he had to abandon the siege. But fighting continued until it was agreed that Zapolya should be king of one half of Hungary, and of course he became a vassal to Solyman. Some time later Solyman compelled Ferdinand to pay tribute for the other half—thus all Hungary became a province of the Turkish empire, and this it continued to be for more than a hundred and fifty years. All of northern Africa was Mohammedan, and from its shores it was easy to send out expeditions to attack the ships of Christian nations. Solyman selected Tunis as the headquarters for his fleet. His great admiral, Barbarossa, was the terror of every Christian seaman. He forced the nations who carried on commerce on the Mediterranean to pay him tribute, as if the sea belonged to the Turks, and as if the ships of no other nation had the right to sail upon it. Charles V determined to capture Algiers and put a stop to the sufferings of the many thousand Christians whom the Turks kept in prison or slavery. With an army of over twenty thousand men he landed near Algiers, and it looked as though he would certainly take the city. But the night before he intended to make the attack a storm arose. A torrent of rain fell. The soldiers had no tents, and they were drenched. The wind blew bitterly cold; and toward morning the Turks sallied forth from the gate of the city and, making a sudden attack upon the Christians, threw them into confusion. 246

Incident of the Turkish Invasion (Zick)

FAMOUS MEN OF MODERN TIMES Charles V himself mounted his horse and rallied the troops. But though they fought bravely they could not capture the city, and after losing several hundred men they retreated to their ships and sailed back to Spain. Another of Solyman’s pirate captains was Dragoot. He attacked two villages not far from Naples, and took about a thousand prisoners—men, women and children. Then he let the Christian people know that if they brought a sufficient sum of money they might ransom relatives or friends whom he had captured. He also told the Turks that they could buy his captives as slaves. Thus both by sea and by land the Turks under Solyman were dreaded by the most powerful nations of Europe. But they were able to go no farther than Hungary, except on the one occasion when they attacked Vienna. Being checked in Europe, Solyman turned his thoughts toward Asia, and with a powerful army he invaded Persia. The Persians met him in battle; but finally the Persian monarch had to purchase peace by payment of a large sum of money. Except for this Solyman would certainly have taken possession of the whole country. Solyman’s promise to his father was well kept. He pushed the empire of Turkey westward into the heart of Europe, and eastward into the heart of Asia. He filled both continents with dismay. But the end was near. In 1566 a revolution broke out in Hungary, and Solyman, at the head of a vast army, went to quell it. He was then a white-haired man of seventy-six, but vigorous and active. He rode at the head of his troops on a favorite black horse which had carried him in many a campaign. He was cheerful and hopeful, and as he went along he conversed with his officers. “I must conquer the Hungarians this time so thoroughly,” said he, “that they will never revolt again. Then I will return home and hang up my sword, for I am getting too old to bear the hardships of war.” He crossed the river Drave and laid siege to the fortress of Szigeth (se΄ get), which was defended by a small force of Hungarians. They gallantly resisted the attack of the Turks; but at the end of four weeks, were forced to surrender. The conqueror, however, did not live to enjoy his victory. He was 248

SOLYMAN THE SUBLIME stricken with apoplexy and died while the siege was going on. If Solyman had devoted himself to the advancement of his own people, instead of spending his life in fighting others, he might have done a great deal of good; for in the first years of his reign he made excellent laws. He tried to do justice to all; and he severely punished any officer of his kingdom who oppressed the people. He was probably the greatest of all the sultans of Turkey.

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Sir Francis Drake 1540-1596 Queen Elizabeth—popularly known as “Good Queen Bess”— ascended the throne of England in 1558. Her reign was both magnificent and successful; and it added much to the greatness of the nation. It was during Elizabeth’s reign that England first became a great naval power; and among the men who helped to make her so, none were more famous than Sir Francis Drake. There is some doubt about the date of Drake’s birth. It is now generally believed that he was born in 1540, though some writers put the date at least five years earlier. The place of his birth was the little town of Tavistock, in Devonshire. He seems to have had a great love for the sea even when but a child. His parents were too poor to help him into a good position, and so he began his career at sea as a cabin boy. But he had the merit of pluck; and he soon rose to the highest rank in the English navy. In 1567 he went with his uncle Hawkins, who was one of the noted sailors of that day, on a slave-trading voyage to Africa and the West Indies. The experiences he met with at that time gave color to the rest of his life. Being driven out of their course by storms, they were obliged to seek shelter in the harbor of San Juan de Ulua, a Spanish port on the coast of Mexico. There they were received with a show of kindness, but were afterwards attacked by a superior force, and only two vessels escaped. After this act of treachery, Drake resolved to seize every opportunity to plunder the Spaniards and thus to make good the loss which he and his uncle had sustained. In the years 1570–71 Drake made two other voyages to the West Indies for the purpose of becoming acquainted with the situation and 250

SIR FRANCIS DRAKE strength of the Spanish settlements. In 1572, he sailed again with two ships, one of seventy-five tons, the other of twenty-five. His plan was to capture the town of Nombre de Dios (nom΄ bra da dyos΄) on the Isthmus of Panama, which was the port from which the Spaniards shipped to Spain the gold and silver taken from the mines of Peru. In the attempt to take this town Drake was severely wounded. He tried to conceal his hurt from his men; and they pressed onward into the town. But just as they reached the market place where they hoped to find the treasure, he fainted from loss of blood. His men at once carried him to his ship, and the enterprise was abandoned. As soon as he was able to do so, he began to sail back and forth along the coast. He seized a large number of ships, and took from them a great amount of wealth both in money and goods. He formed an alliance with a band of run-away slaves called Cimarrones (the ma ro΄ nes), and together they built a fort on a small island at the mouth of a river. There Drake and his men remained until February 3, 1573. On that day Drake set out, with some Cimarrones as guides, to cross the Isthmus of Panama and gain his first view of the Pacific Ocean. Half way across the isthmus they led him to a tall tree standing on a central hill. Among the topmost branches of this tree there was a platform on which ten or twelve men might stand at ease. Drake climbed up to this platform, and was delighted to find that from his lofty perch he could see both the Atlantic and the Pacific. Drake returned to England in the fall of 1573, carrying much treasure which he divided with the strictest fairness among his followers. His own share was large enough to enable him to purchase three ships. With these he sailed to Ireland, and there, as a volunteer under the Earl of Essex, he “did most excellent service.” But Francis Drake is chiefly distinguished as the first Englishman who sailed round the world. In December, 1577, with five little vessels, about the size of those of Columbus, he sailed out of the harbor of Plymouth. It took him seven months to reach Patagonia, and there he remained for about nine weeks. Two of his ships had become so leaky as to be unfit for further service, and he was compelled to abandon 251

FAMOUS MEN OF MODERN TIMES them. The crews and stores were taken on board the other vessels and the fleet started out to sail through Magellan Strait in order to reach the Pacific. It was sixty years since Magellan had passed through the strait, but Drakeâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s was the first English expedition to follow the great Portuguese navigator over this route. While the vessels were in the strait, one of those terrific storms arose for which the region of Cape Horn is still noted. One ship called the Marigold was never heard of again, and the crew of the Elizabeth were so disheartened by the terrible weather that they put about and returned to England. Although Drake was left with but a single ship he would not give up the voyage. He made his way into the Pacific, and sailed northward along the coasts of Chile and Peru. The Spaniards had already established colonies on the western shores of South America. Santiago had been founded nearly forty years before, and Lima was already a town of considerable size. As Spain and England were not friendly toward each other, it was thought perfectly right to capture Spanish vessels and to plunder Spanish towns; and Queen Elizabeth had given Drake a commission, signed with her own hand, authorizing him to do this. After plundering a number of the Spanish settlements he pursued his voyage until he reached the western coast of North America. Finding that his ship was again in need of repairs, he landed for that purpose at a point which has since been named Drakes Bay, a little to the north of San Francisco Bay. From California he sailed across the Pacific and visited the Spice Islands and Java. Leaving Java he crossed the Indian Ocean and passed around the Cape of Good Hope into the Atlantic. Then, steering northward, he made his way back to England, reaching home exactly two years and ten months after starting on the voyage. On his arrival a banquet was prepared on board the ship in which he had thus sailed round the world. Queen Elizabeth was one of the guests. In honor of his achievement she knighted him on the deck of his ship, and it was in this way that he came to be called Sir Francis Drake. The little vessel had been so battered by the storms through 252

Drake at Cadiz

FAMOUS MEN OF MODERN TIMES which it had passed that it was unfit for further service. But Elizabeth gave orders that it should be carefully preserved as a monument to its famous captain. One hundred years later it was found that the timbers were badly decayed. It was then broken up. One piece of the wood, that was still sound, was made into a chair for King Charles II, who afterwards gave it to the University of Oxford, where it can still be seen. A few years later, Sir Francis rendered another valuable service to his native land. Philip of Spain equipped an enormous fleet for the purpose of invading England. Drake learned that the larger part of this fleet was in the harbor of Cadiz, making final preparations for the voyage. He was then at Lisbon with thirty English war ships under his command. He at once sailed for Cadiz, and, on arriving, he sent a fire-ship among the Spanish vessels, burned nearly a hundred of them, and escaped from the harbor unharmed. This delayed the sailing of the Spanish fleet for nearly a year, and when at length it approached the shores of England, Drake did more, perhaps, than any other man to bring about its overthrow. The Spaniards had collected about one hundred and thirty vessels of war, and more than fifty thousand men, and to this array they gave the proud title of the “Invincible Armada.” Thirty-five thousand men were to land at the mouth of the River Thames and another large force was to land farther to the north. Then a third force threatened the west coast. In this way, England was to be attacked at three different points at the same time. The Spaniards thought that the English would be bewildered, and would surrender. But all this great armament was not prepared without some news of it getting to England, and preparations were made to repel the foe. Troops were collected at Tilbury ready to attack the Spaniards in case they succeeded in landing. The queen on horseback reviewed them, and made a stirring speech. The merchants of London and other ports offered their ships to be used as ships of war; the rich brought their treasures; the poor volunteered in the army and navy. Thus the coast was well guarded and the number of vessels in the fleet was increased from thirty to one hundred and eighty. These carried about sixteen thousand men—not half the number 254

Drakeâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s ships returning from Cadiz (Bohrdt)

FAMOUS MEN OF MODERN TIMES on board the enemy’s fleet—but they were sturdy English fighters. Howard was Lord High Admiral, and with him were Drake, Frobisher, and Hawkins, the most famous English mariners of the time. One evening, late in July, 1588, beacon lights blazed all along the coast of the English Channel telling the news that the Spanish fleet was coming. Next morning, arranged in a crescent, the Armada moved up the Channel. Its line was seven miles long. The English fleet sailed out from Plymouth. Its vessels were light, while those of the Spaniards were heavy, but more than this, the English ships were finely managed, and their guns were skillfully aimed, while most of the shots of the Spaniards went over the heads of the English. The Spaniards tried to come to close quarters, but the English vessels were so steered that this could not be done. Day after day for a week the fighting continued. The Spanish commander then led his fleet into the harbor of Calais on the French side of the Channel. He wished to get provisions and powder and shot. He also wished to get some small vessels—swift sailors—with which he might match the light ships of his adversaries. The English fleet followed, but it would not be allowed by the French to attack the Spaniards in the harbor. To force them out into the open sea, the English turned eight of their oldest and poorest vessels into fireships. Tar, rosin and pitch were placed upon them. The masts and rigging were covered with pitch. Their guns were loaded; and thus, all ablaze, they were sent at midnight drifting into the harbor with wind and tide. This fire fleet did its work. It did not indeed fire any Spanish ship but it so alarmed the Spaniards that they sailed from the harbor into the open sea, and there the English attacked them. Many of their ships were disabled, and four thousand of their men were killed in one day’s fighting. Next day the Spanish commanders held a council of war. The question to be decided was whether to try to sail home through Howard’s fleet or go round Scotland and avoid his guns. It was determined to attempt the voyage round Scotland. So the whole remaining Spanish fleet of perhaps one hundred and twenty vessels steered toward the north. 256

Spanish ships under fire (Brierly)

FAMOUS MEN OF MODERN TIMES On the coast of Scotland, there are dangerous rocks, and when the shattered Armada neared the Orkney Islands, violent storms arose, which wrecked many of the ships. Thus nature finished what man had begun—the ruin of the most powerful fleet that ever had sailed from the shores of Europe. Only fifty-four vessels and about ten thousand men succeeded in returning to Spain. About eighty ships had been destroyed, and thousands of men had perished. Ten years after the destruction of the Armada, Sir Francis made one more voyage to the West Indies. He still cherished the plan of seizing the town of Porto Bello on the Isthmus of Panama, and thus securing the gold and silver brought there for shipment to Spain. He was, however, again doomed to disappointment. He was stricken with fever, and died on board of his ship, January 28, 1596. His body was buried at sea. Lord Macaulay wrote these lines in reference to his burial: “The waves became his winding sheet: The waters were his tomb. But for his fame—the mighty sea Has not sufficient room.” He left no children, but his nephew was made a baronet in the reign of James II. England will always remember with gratitude the services he rendered in the days of her struggle to become “mistress of the sea.”

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At close quarters (Overend)

Sir Walter Raleigh 1552-1618 Another famous Englishman who lived in the days of Queen Elizabeth was Sir Walter Raleigh. He was a soldier and statesman, a poet and historian, but the most interesting fact about him is that he was the first Englishman who attempted to plant colonies in the region now known as the United States. He was born in Devonshire, England, in 1552. At about the time that he was growing up, great sympathy was felt in England for the Huguenots, as the French protestants were called, and Raleigh enlisted as a volunteer in the Huguenot army. He was in France at the time of the massacre of St. Bartholomew, in 1572, but we do not know how long he remained there. In 1580 he went to Ireland as captain of a company of a hundred men, to aid in putting down a rebellion there. Returning to England at the age of thirty, he became one of Queen Elizabethâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s courtiers. He constantly sought to please her. A story is told that one day when Elizabeth was out walking at Greenwich, she came to a muddy place. Raleigh was in attendance upon her, and quickly took off his costly coat and spread it over the mud so that it formed a carpet for the queen to walk on. This gallant act is said to have gained him high favor from Elizabeth. Whether the story is true or not it is certain that for some years he was the greatest favorite at the court. In Queen Elizabethâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s reign the English began to take great interest in the new country of North America. Raleigh and his halfbrother, Sir Humphrey Gilbert, obtained from Queen Elizabeth permission to colonize any land in North America which was not already claimed by a Christian nation. Five ships were fitted out and sailed from England, in 1583, under the command of Gilbert. Raleigh was unable to go, but he bore a large part of the expense of the expedition. 260

Raleighâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s galant act

FAMOUS MEN OF MODERN TIMES Hardly had the voyage begun when one of the ships, owing to sickness among the crew, was obliged to return to England. Gilbert, with the other ships, kept on his course across the Atlantic, and at last reached Newfoundland, where he went on shore and took possession of the island in the name of Queen Elizabeth. Near Cape Breton Island, the largest vessel stuck in the mud, and was broken to pieces by the force of the waves; all but fourteen, out of nearly a hundred men on board, lost their lives. Gilbert thought that now it would be impossible to carry out the colonization plan, so with his three remaining ships he started back to England. A terrible storm came on, but the vessels kept together for a time. When last seen, Gilbert was sitting in the stern of his ship, reading a book. He shouted to those on board the other ships, “We are as near to heaven by sea as by land.” During the night his ship disappeared, and not one on board was saved, but the other vessels succeeded in reaching England. Raleigh was not discouraged by this failure. In the following year he sent to America another expedition. In due time his vessels reached the coast of what is now known as North Carolina. Everybody was charmed with the beauty of the country. But after exploring the coast for some distance, and taking possession of the region in the name of Elizabeth, the expedition for some reason returned to England without making a settlement. The description which the explorers gave of the Raleigh erects Queen Elizabeth’s country which they had standard in America 262

SIR WALTER RALEIGH visited interested Queen Elizabeth. As she was called the “Virgin Queen,” Raleigh suggested that she should give her name “Virginia” to the newly discovered territory. She did this, and the state of Virginia, which formed part of the territory thus discovered, obtained its name in that way. Raleigh soon organized a third expedition which sailed in 1585 with about a hundred colonists. Seven vessels carried them. The fleet was commanded by Sir Richard Grenville while the colonists were in charge of a noted soldier named Ralph Lane. After a long voyage they reached Roanoke Island, on the coast of North Carolina. Grenville returned to England with the fleet, while Lane was left on Roanoke Island to establish a settlement. The colonists probably quarreled with the Indians. Their provisions failed, and they could get none from the red men. No ship from England came with supplies, and the colonists were thoroughly discouraged. The next year a fleet under command of Sir Francis Drake called there by chance, and all the colonists returned home. One of them, named Thomas Hariot, in an account of the colony, spoke of a herb “called by the natives yppomoc,” and told how it was smoked by them in pipes. This herb was tobacco. Hariot and his companions had learned to like it, and they carried quantity home with them. This was the first Virginia tobacco imported into England. Some of it was given to Raleigh who smoked it in silver pipes. Queen Elizabeth also learned the art, and she made smoking fashionable among people of high rank in England. In 1587 Raleigh sent out to Virginia a fourth expedition. It consisted of three ships carrying one hundred and fifty colonists under Captain White. After landing his passengers, White returned to England for supplies. When he got back to America, three years later, he found that the colonists had disappeared, and it was never learned what became of them. Thus failed Raleigh’s last attempt to colonize Virginia. So confident was he that the new world would be colonized, that he wrote of Virginia, “I shall yet live to see it an English nation.” And this he did, for he lived until 1618, and Jamestown had then been 263

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Raleighâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s smoking alarms his servant founded ten years. In return for his services in quelling the Irish rebellion the queen gave him a large grant of land in Ireland. The most interesting fact about this Irish property is that Raleigh raised there the first potatoes grown in Europe. You have read how Philip II of Spain attempted, in 1588, to invade England with his famous Armada, and how that great fleet was destroyed. There was in England a great hatred of the Spaniards and a great desire to injure them. At that time Spain claimed most of the new world so far as it had been explored, and her ships were all the time coming home laden with the products of her possessions, and particularly with silver from her mines. Raleigh fitted out privateers to capture such vessels, and a large Spanish ship was taken. She was the most valuable prize which, up to that time, had ever been brought into an English port. The queen herself had an interest in the expedition and was greatly pleased with her share of the plunder. 264

SIR WALTER RALEIGH Raleigh had still a great desire to plant colonies, and he now turned his attention to South America. He placed a vessel in command of a certain Captain Whiddon, and sent him, in 1594, to explore the region now known as Guiana. Fabulous stories had been told of the amount of gold in this province. It was said that the king, when he was going to make an offering to his gods, covered his body all over with gold dust, and from this the Spaniards called him “El Dorado,” that is, “the gilded man.” In 1595 Raleigh himself set sail with five ships for the land of “the Gilded King.” He entered the mouth of the Orinoco and sailed up the great river for a distance of about four hundred miles. But the river rose so high that navigation was imperilled; and Raleigh therefore returned to the coast and soon afterward sailed back to England. War with Spain still continued; and, in 1597, an English expedition under Howard and Essex was fitted out to attack Cadiz, a seaport on the Spanish coast. Raleigh was in one of the ships and rendered important service. The English destroyed or captured the ships of a large Spanish fleet in the harbor, and the city itself was surrendered. This exploit was one of the most brilliant ever achieved by the English navy. After it, the Spaniards never regained their power upon the sea. All through the reign of Elizabeth, Raleigh was highly esteemed by the queen and by the people. Up to the date of her death he was a member of Parliament. But, in 1603, James I succeeded Elizabeth. He disliked Raleigh, and therefore stripped him of all his offices and accused him of entering into a plot against the king. Raleigh was arrested and brought to trial. One who was present wrote that when the trial began, he would have gone a hundred miles to see him hanged; but that before it closed, he would have gone two hundred to save his life. Although nothing was proved against him, Raleigh was condemned to death. Only when he stood on the scaffold was his sentence changed to imprisonment for life. For thirteen years he was confined in the Tower of London; and there he wrote his great work “The History of the World.” It is reported that the Prince of Wales often visited him in the Tower, and 265

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Raleigh parting from his wife said, “No man but my father would keep such a bird in such a cage.” In 1616 Raleigh was released so that he might go on another expedition to the golden land of Guiana and capture Spanish merchant vessels. But disease broke out among his crews, and Raleigh himself was stricken down with fever before they reached the Orinoco. His son was killed in a fight with the Spaniards; and, in 1618, the poor father returned to England broken-hearted. Shortly after his arrival he was arrested and condemned to die the very next morning under the sentence of death which had been passed upon him fifteen years before. Even then his courage did not leave him. On the scaffold he asked to see the axe. “This gives me no fear,” he said. “It is a sharp medicine to cure me of all diseases.” To someone who told him to lay his head toward the north, he replied, “What matter how the head lies, so the heart be right.” 266

SIR WALTER RALEIGH Raleighâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s attempts at colonization were the beginnings of the great movement which led to the establishment of the Thirteen Colonies; and those colonies formed the basis for the United States of America.

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Henry of Navarre 1553-1610 In the year 1569 the Catholics of France and the Huguenots, or French Protestants, were engaged in a bitter and bloody war. Although religion played a great part in the war it was really more of a political than a religious struggle. In the early summer of that year the Catholics won a great victory near the town of Jarnac (zhar΄ nack). Among those who fell in the battle was the great Protestant leader, Louis, Prince of Condé. The remnant of the Protestant army lay in camp near the castle of Cognac (Con΄ yak). They were sad and dispirited. Suddenly trumpets and drums were heard in the distance; and a sentry announced that a band of soldiers was approaching. It was soon learned that they were Huguenots, and the defeated Protestants were very glad to see them. They proved to be the escort of Jeanne d’Albert, Queen of Bearn, a little kingdom in the extreme southwest of France. The people over whom she ruled were Protestants; and as soon as she heard of the death of Condé she hastened to the Protestant camp. The army was drawn up to receive her. Stepping forward, and holding her son by the hand, she said, “My friends, our cause has not died with the Prince of Condé. We have still left us brave captains. I offer to you as leader, Condé’s nephew, my son, the Prince of Navarre.” With loud shouts of “Long live Henry, the Prince of Navarre,” the soldiers at once elected him as their commander-in-chief. Prince Henry was the son of Anthony of Bourbon and Queen Jeanne. He was born in 1553, and therefore was but sixteen years old when called to fill this high position. He was too young to lead the troops in battle; but he was ready to learn how to do so. The brave Admiral Coligni (ko leen ye) agreed to instruct him, and to command the Protestant forces until he was 268

HENRY OF NAVARRE able to do so. Henry was a sturdy and well-grown lad. His life had been a simple one. His principal food had been the brown bread, the chestnuts, and such other plain fare as was eaten by the peasant boys who lived among the mountains of his mother’s kingdom. He would have been glad to go out to battle at once; but the wise Coligni would not permit him. Henry was very fond of reading. His favorite books were those containing the stories of the great conquerors of former times. He also read, many times over, the story of the good knight Bayard—the knight without fear and without reproach—who had lived not very long before. When not yet twenty years old, Henry was married to Margaret of Valois (val΄ wa), sister of the king of France. It was hoped that this marriage would bring peace to the country. It failed to do so, and the war went on for thirty years. Only a few days after the wedding bells had rung so joyously at Henry’s marriage, a very sad event took place which filled Europe with horror. At about four o’clock, one August morning, in the year 1572, the great bell on the Palace of Justice awakened the people of Paris; and the soldiers of the Catholic party began to attack the Huguenots. When news of this massacre reached other French cities similar attacks were made and a great many Protestants were slain. The number has been variously estimated, some authorities stating that about a thousand in all were killed, others that the number reached a hundred thousand. This was called the massacre of St. Bartholomew, because it happened on St. Bartholomew’s Day. The young Prince Henry was kept a prisoner in the king’s palace for nearly four years. Then he escaped and again became the leader of the Huguenots. He was so anxious for the restoration of peace that he sent to the Duke of Guise, who commanded the Catholic army, this challenge: “I offer to end the quarrel. Either I will fight with you alone, or two on our side will fight with two on yours, or ten with ten, or whatever number you please; so as to stop the shedding of blood and the misery 269

FAMOUS MEN OF MODERN TIMES of the poor.” But the duke would not accept the challenge, and the war went on. Henry III, King of France, was a very weak and foolish man. So the Duke of Guise determined to dethrone him and make himself king. As soon as King Henry learned of this, he sent an assassin to murder the duke. When he heard that Guise was dead, the king said to his mother, who was very ill: “How do you feel?” “Better,” she answered. “So do I,” said the king. “This morning I have become king of France again. The king of Paris is dead.” The friends of the murdered duke at once took up arms against King Henry; and the Sorbonne—the great religious authority in Paris—declared that the people were no longer bound to obey him. Then Henry III turned for help to his cousin, Henry of Navarre. They agreed to fight side by side against those who had revolted; and many of the Catholics joined with the Huguenots in order to bring about peace. The rebels attacked King Henry near the city of Tours; but the Prince of Navarre marched to his aid, and the rebel leader left the field in great haste. As the rebels had failed to conquer the French king in battle, they determined to have him murdered. They found a man to carry out their plot. One morning, he gained admission to the king’s presence by saying that he desired to see him on important business. As soon as they were left alone, the murderer handed Henry a letter; and while the king was reading it, he drew a knife from his sleeve and plunged it into his body. A messenger was sent in haste to tell Henry of Navarre. As he entered the king’s room the tears gushed from his eyes, and he kissed the dying man with great tenderness. Many of the nobility of France had, by this time, come in to see their dying ruler; King Henry begged them to acknowledge Henry of Navarre as his lawful successor; and all present agreed to do so. So the Prince of Navarre became king of France, with the title of Henry IV. The rebels were not satisfied with this arrangement, since the law of the kingdom declared that no man could be king unless he were a 270

HENRY OF NAVARRE Catholic. They demanded that Cardinal de Bourbon, Henry’s uncle, should be made king with the title of Charles I. Preparations were made for a great battle near the town of Arques (ark). During the night the forces of the new king had dug trenches and thrown up earthworks so as to give them a greater advantage over the enemy. Next morning a rebel sentry, who had been captured during the night, was brought before him. As they talked together the man said, “We are about to attack you with thirty thousand foot and ten thousand horse. Where are your forces?” “Oh,” said the king, “ you do not see them all. You do not count the good God and the good right; but they are ever with me.” A bloody battle followed, in which the king gained a wonderful victory. Soon after this he was joined by a body of English and Scotch soldiers sent him by Queen Elizabeth of England; and his army was thus increased to over ten thousand men. One day a carrier pigeon flew into the camp. It brought a strip of paper inclosed in a quill. On the paper were written the words, “Come, Come, Come.” The king at once understood that he was needed at Paris; for that city was now in the hands of the rebels. He therefore hastened to its relief. The king was not yet prepared to capture Paris. But he attacked many other cities; and about twenty of them opened their gates and received him as their sovereign. Then followed the famous battle of Ivry, in which the cannon, the colors, and nearly all the supplies of the rebels fell into the king’s hands. On the rebel side the loss in killed, wounded and captured was over eleven thousand, while the king lost but five hundred men. Very soon after the battle of Ivry, Cardinal de Bourbon died; and at about the same time the king laid siege to Paris which was still in the hands of the enemy. Before closing up all the avenues of approach to Paris he wrote a letter to the governor of the city, in which he said: “I am anxious for peace. I love my city of Paris. She is my eldest daughter, and I wish to do her more favors than she asks.” But it was all in vain, and the siege went on. 271

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Henry IV at Ivry (Royer)

King Henry’s army prevented the carrying of food into the city, and the people soon began to suffer. Bread gave out and the people were glad to eat rats, cats, dogs, horses, or anything else they could find to prevent starvation. King Henry allowed the women and children to leave the city. He even permitted supplies to pass through his lines to relieve the besieged, saying, as he did so, “I do not wish to be king of the dead.” But just as Paris was on the point of surrendering, the Duke of Parma, one of the ablest generals in the service of Philip II of Spain, arrived before Paris with a large Spanish army and compelled Henry 272

HENRY OF NAVARRE to raise the siege. The king now felt that the only way in which he could give peace to his people was by uniting himself with the Catholic Church; and this he determined to do. At eight o’clock on the morning of July 23, 1593, robed in white satin, he marched with a bodyguard of soldiers to the church of St. Denis, near Paris. At the door of the church he was met by a cardinal, an archbishop, nine bishops and large numbers of clergy and monks. “Who are you?” asked the archbishop. “The king,” replied Henry. “What do you wish?” was the archbishop’s next inquiry. To this the king replied, “To be received into the Catholic Church.” Then the king knelt and declared, his belief, after which the archbishop forgave and then formally received him. After this ceremony Henry was anointed at Chartres (shart΄r), and thus declared sovereign of the whole kingdom. Henry’s great desire now was to make his people prosperous. He once said, “I wish every peasant in France to have a fowl in the pot every Sunday.” To avoid, as far as possible, all further wars about religion, he signed and published the famous Edict of Nantes, in 1595. This royal decree gave the Protestants equal rights with the Catholics. The government agreed to pay the salaries of their clergy as well as those of the Catholics. The Protestant children were allowed to enter the universities and colleges; their sick were received into the hospitals; and the two great religious parties of the nation were placed upon a common footing. The last years of King Henry IV were years of peace and prosperity. The farmers and trades-people were happy. The heavy debt which had lain for so many years upon France was entirely removed; and the taxes were reduced to a rate lower than ever before. In the midst of this growing sense of security and comfort all France was suddenly shocked and distressed beyond measure. A madman, by the name of Ravaillac (ra vi rack΄), stabbed the king to the heart; and the career of the noble and generous Henry of Navarre was at an end. 273

Murder of Henry IV (Chappel)

Wallenstein 1583-1634 A bloody religious war broke out in Germany in 1618, and as it lasted until 1648 it is called “The Thirty Years’ War.” This war was one of the most dreadful that ever raged in Europe. It was a struggle between the Catholic and Protestant parties, like that in France which we have read about in the story of Henry of Navarre. Many Catholics and Protestants opposed each other because they wished to defend their belief as well as to convert others to it. But many of the princes and nobles used the disturbed religious conditions to increase their power. Thus religion and politics were closely united, and the lines were drawn between two great parties, the Catholic League and the Evangelical Union. Therefore all through those thirty years the Catholics and the Protestants of Germany strove with all their might to overcome and destroy one another. Of course this great war required great leaders. The ablest general on the Catholic side was Albrecht von Wallenstein (fon wol΄ en stin), who was born in Bohemia in 1583. His parents were Protestants. They died while he was yet a child; and he was brought up by an uncle who was a Catholic. This uncle sent him for his early education to the Jesuit College at Olmutz (ol΄ mutz), and afterwards to the universities of Bologna and Padua. While at the Jesuit College, Wallenstein became a Catholic, and this changed his whole career. Wallenstein inherited from his father a large estate and an immense sum of money. By his marriage with an aged widow his wealth was nearly doubled; and when his uncle died and left him his property, Wallenstein became one of the richest men of his day. His aged wife did not live long after their marriage, and he took for his second wife a daughter of the Count of Harrach. By this second marriage his wealth was again increased; and through his wife’s father, he gained much influence and many friends at the court 275

Beginning of the Thirty Yearsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; War (Brozik)

WALLENSTEIN of Vienna. After completing his education he traveled through Italy, Spain, France, and Holland. He served for a short time in Hungary in the army of the Emperor Rudolf who was then at war with the Turks. But as yet he did not display any marked ability as a soldier. With a part of his wealth he purchased from the emperor of Austria, a vast territory in Bohemia and Moravia, at a cost of over seven million florins. To this territory he gave the name of Friedland, that is, Land of Peace. The emperor gave him the title of Duke of Friedland; and he managed his duchy wisely and well. Justice was so faithfully administered in the courts that all men had their rights; and the farmers, miners, and manufacturers were properly cared for. When the “Thirty Years’ War” broke out Wallenstein raised a regiment of dragoons to aid the cause of the emperor. He was also the means of saving the money in the imperial treasury from falling into the hands of the enemy. As Wallenstein came more fully into notice his ambition steadily increased. In all that he did, he seemed to have an eye to his own advantage. After the war had been going on for some time, the emperor found himself sorely in need of a better army. Then Wallenstein called upon him and said, “My liege, you shall have such an army as you require. I myself will bear the expense of equipping it. I make, however, this condition, that I shall have the right to compel the people in any part of the empire where my troops may be fighting to supply them with provisions;” and to this condition the emperor agreed. Wallenstein soon made for himself a reputation as a great commander. There were plenty of men in Germany who were ready to fight for pay and plunder, and he therefore soon raised a force of over thirty thousand soldiers. He himself went with them to the front. During the first two years Wallenstein and his men were everywhere successful, but at length they met with a severe check. They had laid siege to a large commercial city called Stralsund (stral΄ soond). This was one of the wealthiest ports on the Baltic. It exported a great deal of grain and other produce, and vessels flying its flag were 277

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Living off the country seen in every harbor of Europe. Wallenstein determined to capture Stralsund. His soldiers knew that if he succeeded, they would get a vast amount of plunder, and an abundance of provisions for their future use. Wallenstein had more in mind than that. He planned to turn the merchant vessels of Stralsund into battle ships, and thus secure a fleet which would enable him to carry on the war by sea as well as by land. He would then attack the other great ports of Germany, such as Lubeck, Hamburg and Bremen. All these ports had large fleets of merchant ships. He planned that after taking these he would make his navy the largest in the world. He even dreamed of capturing the ships of England, Sweden, and the Netherlands, and thus making himself master of the sea. It was with these thoughts in his mind that Wallenstein laid siege to the great port of Stralsund. He swore that he would capture it “even if he found it to be fastened to heaven with chains of gold.” But Stralsund was well supplied with provisions; and, for eleven weeks, the brave citizens repelled his attacks. Wallenstein’s men began to suffer for lack of food; and at last the great commander was 278

WALLENSTEIN forced to abandon the siege. Every year a festival of rejoicing is still held in Stralsund to commemorate the day on which Wallenstein and his starving army retreated, baffled and angry, from before its walls. Wallenstein had won so many victories that some of those who fought on his side had become jealous of him. As soon, therefore, as he met with this great reverse at Stralsund, his enemies persuaded the emperor to take the command of the army away from him. They made the emperor believe that he was a very dangerous man, and that with his large army which had grown very fond of him, he meant to rule all Germany, and lord it over every prince and duke in the empire. The emperor at once wrote him a letter ordering him to give up his command. Although greatly surprised, Wallenstein took his dismissal in silence. He bade farewell to his troops, and went to live quietly in the capital of his duchy. Not long after Wallenstein had left the army the emperor found that he had made a mistake. Instead of hearing of victory after victory, he now received news of one defeat after another. His secondbest general was fatally wounded; and he had no one like Wallenstein to put in command of the army. After suffering a number of disastrous defeats the emperor sent to Wallenstein and begged him to take command once more. He gave him permission to choose his own officers, and to carry on the war just as he thought best. He also promised that, in future, no one should interfere with him. On these terms Wallenstein again accepted the emperorâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s offer, and was soon back in the field at the head of an army of forty thousand men. By this time, however, a greater general than even Wallenstein had become the leader of the Protestant forces. This was the famous Gustavus Adolphus, king of Sweden, whose bravery had already been shown on many a bloody field. The two commanders and their armies met near a place called Lutzen (lootÎ&#x201E;sen), in Saxony, and there a fearful battle was fought. In this battle Gustavus lost his life, but his army fought on nobly and won the day. The victory at Lutzen is always spoken of as the 279

Assassination of Wallenstein (V. Piloty)

WALLENSTEIN greatest victory of the “Thirty Years’ War.” When Wallenstein found that the Protestant army had won the battle in spite of the loss of its commander, he became greatly troubled, and scarcely knew what to do. He seemed afraid to meet such an army again. He doubtless saw that it was useless to continue the war, and hoped that the emperor would make terms to the Protestants, and so establish peace. Wallenstein’s enemies again appeared before the emperor with the old story that he was simply fighting for himself, and was determined to make himself ruler over the entire nation. Strange as it may seem, the emperor again believed them. He even went so far as to call Wallenstein a traitor, and he caused him to be publicly disgraced and again removed from command. With a guard of about a thousand men, and accompanied by several of his leading officers, Wallenstein left the camp and once more started for his home. He supposed that all who accompanied him were his faithful friends. But it was not so. Four of the men whom he thus trusted had already agreed to assassinate him. Having first murdered his real friends, they hurried to the house where Wallenstein was staying, broke into his room, and killed him as he was retiring to rest. It is said that, for this shocking crime, the murderers were handsomely rewarded by the emperor. Wallenstein ranks as one of the world’s greatest soldiers, rather than as one of its greatest heroes. His work was a hindrance rather than a help to human progress, and this it is which so largely dims his fame.

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Gustavus Adolfus 1594-1632 In the year 1594 a child was born in the royal palace of Stockholm who was destined to have great influence upon the history of modern Europe. He was the son of Charles IX, king of Sweden, and a grandson of the famous hero, Gustavus Vasa. He was given the name of Gustavus Adolphus. As soon as he was old enough to begin his education he was provided with the best of teachers. He soon learned to speak Latin, Greek, German, Dutch, French, and Italian, but before he was eighteen his studies were brought to an end by the death of his father. He was at once proclaimed king of Sweden. Gustavus had been carefully instructed in athletics, especially in riding, fencing, and military drill. He was a boy of muscle as well as of mind, and he soon proved the value of both. At the time of his fatherâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s death, Sweden was at war with Denmark. The Danes had captured the two most important fortresses of Sweden. Gustavus was determined to win them back, and he continued the war with great vigor. A few months after his accession the Danes sent a fleet of thirtysix ships against Stockholm, but Gustavus, marching night and day, led his army to a point from which he could attack the Danish fleet with advantage. A storm also hindered the Danes from landing, and they returned home disappointed. When the king of Denmark heard of these rapid marches, and found that he had no mere boy to contend with, he consented to a treaty of peace by which Sweden regained one of her fortresses and was permitted to buy back the other. From 1614 to 1617, Gustavus was at war with Russia to recover the pay due to Swedish soldiers which his father had sent to Russia a few years before. 282

GUSTAVUS ADOLFUS In that war he took from Russia the two provinces of Carelia and Ingria. These provinces remained in the possession of Sweden for more than a hundred years, serving as a great barrier between Russia and the Baltic Sea. Even the land on which St. Petersburg now stands passed into the hands of the Swedes; and at the close of the war, Gustavus declared, â&#x20AC;&#x153;The enemy cannot now launch a boat on the Baltic without our permission.â&#x20AC;? When Gustavus came to Gustavus Adolfus the throne, Sweden was at war (Van Dyck) also with Poland. The cause of the war was this: Charles IX, the father of Gustavus, was not the true heir to the Swedish crown. It belonged, by right, to Sigismund, king of Poland. Sigismund had tried to take the crown of Sweden from Charles; and he now tried to take it from Gustavus. But Gustavus won a great victory over Sigismund and forced him to abandon his claim to the throne and to make a peace which was of great advantage to Sweden. Ten years before the birth of Gustavus a new star had suddenly appeared in the northern skies of Europe; and people thought that wonders in the heavens had much to do with events upon the earth. The new star rapidly became one of the brightest in the firmament. It could be seen by men with keen eyes even in the day time. But it soon began to lose its brilliancy, and in about a year and a half it disappeared entirely. When Gustavus Adolphus startled Europe by his brilliant victories over Denmark, Russia, and Poland, men began to believe that the wonderful star foreshadowed the wonderful boy king of Sweden. 283

FAMOUS MEN OF MODERN TIMES Some, however, began to speak of him as the snow king, and declared that he would soon melt. Finally, they came to think of him rather as one of the old Scandinavian war gods, and they found that he was equal to greater tasks than those he had already accomplished. The empire of Germany was, at that time, divided against itself. The “Thirty Years’ War” was raging. The grain fields were trampled down by marching troops. Towns were besieged and burned. Innocent people were destroyed by thousands. Two great generals— Wallenstein and Tilly—were filling the empire with horrors. In 1631 the city of Magdeburg was taken by Tilly. Its little garrison of twenty-four hundred men had made a noble defense, but Tilly had no respect for their bravery. As soon as the city fell into his hands he put these brave soldiers to death; and during the next two days his soldiers pillaged the city and slaughtered more than twenty thousand of the inhabitants. All Europe was horrified. Gustavus Adolphus gathered an army of thirteen thousand chosen men and at once invaded Saxony. On the outskirts of the little town of Breitenfeld, not far from Leipzig, Gustavus met the inhuman Tilly and defeated him in battle. The people of Saxony were wild with delight. They gladly opened the gates of their cities to welcome the conqueror of the dreaded Tilly. Thousands flocked to the standard of Gustavus and his army was soon more than four times as large as when he had left Sweden. With this large body of fresh troops at his command, Gustavus determined to follow the German army which had retreated into Bavaria. Having overtaken the Germans, he at once put his army into line and began the attack. In the desperate battle which ensued Tilly was mortally wounded; and he died as he was being carried from the field. It was at this time that the emperor recalled Wallenstein and again placed him in command of the German army, as we have read in the previous story. It was not long before Gustavus and Wallenstein found themselves face to face upon the field of combat. They met in battle near Lutzen, in Saxony, to which place Gustavus had returned on account of the large number of Saxons in his army. During the morning a thick fog hung over the field and the 284

Tilly at Magdeberg

FAMOUS MEN OF MODERN TIMES fighting did not begin until nearly noon. Then, as the skies cleared, the king and his army approached the German lines singing Luther’s beautiful hymn, “A mighty fortress is our God.” As they ceased singing, Gustavus waved his sword above his head and cried, “Forward! in God’s name,” and the battle began. In one particular Gustavus was most imprudent. A wound, received some time before, made it painful for him to wear a breastplate; and so he led his troops into the engagement, wearing a common riding coat. Early in the afternoon his arm was pierced by a ball from a pistol, and this probably severed an artery. For a time he concealed his wound and continued to encourage his men. But he grew faint from loss of blood, and finally said to one of the princes riding near him, “Cousin, lead me out of this tumult. I am hurt.” As they turned, a musket ball struck the king in the back, and he fell to the ground dying. Some of Wallenstein’s men rode up and inquired his name. “I am Sweden’s king,” he replied. “I am sealing the religion and the liberty of the German nation with my blood.” When the troops of Gustavus learned of his death, they attacked the enemy with such fury that Wallenstein was quickly defeated; and Gustavus won the battle although he lost his life. Suddenly the star in the north had become the most brilliant in the heavens; and as suddenly its light was quenched. The snow king had melted at last. But a great work had been done. Gustavus and his brave band of Swedes had inspired half a continent with hope and courage. His splendid victories also did much to crush the tyrannical power of Germany; and the good which this great man accomplished has had much to do with the spreading of religious liberty over Europe. After the battle was over, and just as twilight was gathering, the body of the hero was carried into a little church near by, and laid before the altar. The soldiers, still dressed in their armor, were the chief mourners; and a village schoolmaster read the simple service for the dead. Next morning the body was embalmed, and the soldiers carried it 286

GUSTAVUS ADOLFUS back to Stockholm. There it was laid to rest in the church of Riddarholm which contains the royal tombs, and where many others of the greatest and best men of Sweden are buried.

Body of Gustavus Adolfus on its way to Sweden

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Cardinal Richelieu 1585-1642 While Wallenstein on the one side, and Gustavus Adolphus on the other, were fighting the battles of the “Thirty Years’ War” in Germany, a similar religious war was going on in France. Louis XIII and his famous prime minister, Richelieu, were fighting with the Huguenots, or Protestants of France. Louis sat on the throne, but the real ruler of France was Cardinal Richelieu. The full name of the Cardinal was Armand de Richelieu; Riche-lieu being the name of his father’s estate, upon which, in 1585, Armand was born. When he was twenty-two he entered the ministry and soon became a bishop. His people were mostly poor; and Richelieu felt that there was a grander career before him than to remain their bishop. He determined to make something of himself, and to be the equal of any nobleman in the kingdom. There was only one way in which he could do this. That was by becoming a politician. His ambition was to become a leader of men. In Richelieu’s time, there was an assembly in France called the states-general. It was composed of delegates who represented the nobles, the clergy, and the comRichelieu mons—the three great classes 288

CARDINAL RICHELIEU

Louis XIII and Richelieu into which the nation was divided. But the states-general had no real power. It did not, like our congress, make laws. It could only petition the king. The delegates presented addresses to His Majesty, telling him of any trouble in the kingdom and begging him to remedy it. Richelieu, being a bishop, was a member of the states-general, and although he was one of the youngest—perhaps the very youngest of the bishops—he got himself chosen as the orator who should deliver the address of the clergy. This gave him a good opportunity to win the favor of Louis XIII’s mother, the famous Marie de Medici, who was acting as regent of the kingdom until Louis should come of age. The young orator could not say enough in her praise, and she naturally took a liking to him. About a year after his oration at the meeting of the states-general, Richelieu was invited by the queen mother to become a member of the council of state. He remained in the council, however, only a short time; for a quarrel arose between the king and his mother, and Richelieu retired from office. Soon, however, the death of Luynes (lu΄een), a favorite minister of Louis, gave him the opportunity to return to Paris. He again took a position under the king, and became the most valuable officer that Louis ever had. When Henry of Navarre granted to the Huguenots the celebrated 289

FAMOUS MEN OF MODERN TIMES Edict of Nantes, the French people generally hoped that the religious troubles in France were forever ended. But unfortunately, this was not the case. In 1621 some of the Huguenots held a great meeting at La Rochelle, which was their richest city, and there made a kind of declaration of independence. The king of France had several fortresses in that part of the country. One of these, called “St. Louis,” commanded La Rochelle. King Louis considered that he had a right to maintain fortresses anywhere in France, but the Huguenots insisted that the fortress of St. Louis should be demolished. The king, instead of pulling it down, made it stronger. The Huguenots then did a very unwise thing. In 1622 they rose in a general revolt, and made an attack on some of the king’s war vessels and captured them. Richelieu, however, managed to put down the revolt. Two years later the English made war upon France and again the Huguenots revolted. Richelieu then decided that their power must be destroyed. So with an army of twenty-five thousand men he marched to La Rochelle and besieged it. The city was well protected. On the land side were vast swamps through which an army could neither march nor drag siege guns. An attack might have been made by sea, but at that time the king had no navy. To prevent food being taken into the city across the marshes was easy; but the only way to prevent its going in by ships was to close the harbor. To do this, a great stone dike, a mile long, was built across the channel that led to the city. Richelieu paid his men twice ordinary wages, and in that way, although it was winter, he succeeded in getting the work done. The harbor was thus practically closed. Food soon became scarce, and great suffering prevailed in La Rochelle. But no one thought of surrender. The women were just as determined to hold out as were the men. Months passed, and still the siege went on. The starving citizens hoped every day to see an English fleet come to their aid; and an English fleet did come. When the English commander learned of the great dike that Richelieu had built, he was afraid to approach it lest his ships should 290

Richelieu on the dyke at la Rochelle (Motte)

FAMOUS MEN OF MODERN TIMES be wrecked. He therefore sailed away without firing a gun. At the close of the summer the besieged were obliged to eat horses, dogs, and cats. It is said, that they boiled the skins of these animals, and even boiled old leather trying to make it fit for food. In September a second English fleet attempted to enter the harbor; but by this time Richelieu had equipped a number of large war vessels, and the English met with determined resistance. A storm damaged many of their vessels, and the battered fleet was forced to sail back to England. By this time one half of the population had died; and, of those left, few were strong enough to do military duty. At length after a siege of fifteen months, La Rochelle surrendered, and the king made a triumphal entry into the city. The fortifications were destroyed, and the power of the Huguenot nobles was forever at an end. Richelieu compelled the nobles to admit that Louis was master of France. Many of them, however, were extremely angry at the loss of their power, and conspiracies against the life of Richelieu were more than once formed; but he always managed to find out about them and to punish those engaged in them. Many of the conspirators were executed; and thus Richelieuâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s power was actually increased instead of destroyed. It should be said that though Richelieu destroyed the fortresses of the Huguenots, he was not unfair to them about their religion. They were allowed to worship God according to their own consciences; for he was wise enough to know that people cannot be forced to worship in ways they do not like. While Richelieu wished the king of France to be strong, he wished his neighbor, the emperor of Germany, to be weak. So in the same year in which he had broken down the power of the Protestant nobles, he actually gave help to the Protestant princes of Germany, who were fighting against the emperor just as the Huguenots had fought against King Louis. He not only persuaded the great Gustavus Adolphus to lead his army of Swedes against the emperor, but he paid large sums of money to him for the support of his troops. Thus the great victories of Gustavus Adolphus, which were so valuable to the German Protestants, were won in part by soldiers paid and fed by Richelieu 292

CARDINAL RICHELIEU and the king of France. Richelieu saw that if the emperor of Germany should overcome the Protestant princes and make himself head of the whole country, and as absolute as Richelieu had made Louis, Germany would be a more powerful country than France. Then Germany might take to herself some of the territory of France. Richelieu fought the Protestants in France to make France united and strong; he paid and fed the Protestant armies in Germany to keep Germany divided and weak. While Richelieu was prime minister of France, the English and Dutch were planting colonies in America; and commerce in the fish and furs which were brought from the New World was becoming very active and profitable. Richelieu desired France to be the equal of England as a colonizing and commercial nation. He therefore gave a charter to the Company of “New France,” as Canada was often called. He granted to the Company the sole right to collect furs in America, and the sole right to sell them in France. In return, the Company was required within fifteen years to land at least four thousand colonists in Canada. To protect trading vessels from pirates who then infested the seas, to defend the coast of France, and to protect her colonies, Richelieu saw that a navy was required. He created the navy of France. When Louis XIII came to the throne the country had not a single war ship. When he died, the French navy consisted of twenty men-of-war and eighty smaller vessels. Long before Richelieu died he had accomplished the object of his life. He had made the king of France an absolute monarch, and himself as absolute as the king. Wallenstein had desired to accomplish the same thing in Germany, but he had miserably failed. Charles I was trying to make his power absolute in England, but the English people rebelled against him. Many years after the death of Richelieu, the Czar, Peter the Great, visited Paris. As he stood before the splendid marble monument of Richelieu, he exclaimed, “Thou great man! I would have given thee one half of my dominions to learn from thee how to govern the other half.” 293

Galileo 1564-1642 Sometime in the year 1583, repairs were going on in the cathedral of an old Italian city called Pisa; and, accidently, a workman had set swinging a great lamp which was suspended from the high roof of the building. People came into the church and knelt for a few minutes to say their prayers and then went out without noticing that the lamp kept on swinging to and fro. A young man about eighteen years of age came into the church. He noticed the swinging lamp; and he also thought that it took just the same time to make each of its swings. With his right hand he clasped his left wrist. He knew that the times between pulse beats are practically equal. So, feeling his pulse and watching the swinging lamp, he was trying to measure the one by the other. The young man who watched the swinging lamp was Galileo; and he found that its motions were equal in duration. Before his time no pendulum had ever swung in a clock. No clock with a pendulum had been thought of. But after Galileo published his great discovery that pendulums made their swings in equal periods of time, a man named Huygens (HiÎ&#x201E; genz) made a pendulum clock. It was found that pendulums about a yard long make each swing in a second; and so, at first, clocks were made with pendulums which beat seconds. From Galileoâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s watching the swinging lamp, all our clocks may fairly be said to have been invented. The father of Galileo hoped that his son would become a physician; but the young man liked to study mathematics, and his father permitted him to follow the bent of his genius. Not long after graduating at the university, and when not quite twenty-five, Galileo was made professor of physics. He taught his classes about pumps and machinery, why smoke rises in the air, why 294

GALILEO birds’ wings enable them to fly, and why fishes’ fins send them through the water. Nobody in Europe at that time knew much about such matters. There were no steam engines; no railroad trains were in existence; no steamers were crossing the seas. People knew very little about such simple things as the falling of stones and feathers, and pieces of iron and lead. Even learned men thought that two pounds of lead would fall twice as fast as one pound, one hundred pounds one hundred times as fast, and so on. One day Galileo asked some of his friends to climb with him the leaning tower of Pisa. This tower is one of the famous buildings of Europe. The odd thing about it is that it does not stand up straight like the tower or spire of a church, but leans over, as some of our trees do. Some of Galileo’s friends stayed at the foot of the tower; some went to the top. Heavy and light things were carried up and dropped from the summit of the tower; and one pound of iron reached the ground at the same instant as did a piece that weighed ten pounds. While Galileo was professor at Pisa the people of Europe who watched the heavens saw a new star in the sky. “Have you seen the new star? What do you think it is?” were questions that everybody was asking. Some thought it was only a meteor; but Galileo said, “No! It must be a star, because a meteor would surely be moving, and that star seems still.” He gave three lectures upon it and people went by hundreds to hear him. Galileo, like everybody else, could look at the star only with the naked eye. He tried to contrive something that would show both it and the other stars more plainly. He had seen spectacles. His grandfather wore a pair. He had somewhere read that if two eyeglasses are placed one above the other, things seen through them will appear nearer and larger. Some bright man in Holland fixed an eyeglass at one end of a tube and another like it at the other end; and so made the first telescope. Galileo had heard about this. He bought a piece of lead pipe and fixed a glass at either end. His telescope magnified only three times; but it made things look nearer and larger. He was as pleased with it as a child with a new toy. Wealthy and 295

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Galileo (de Lemud)

noble Venetians looked through it with wonder; just as when you look through a microscope at the point of a needle you are surprised to see how blunt it is. Then Galileo used stronger lenses. His second telescope magnified eight times; and a third was made which magnified thirty times. He looked at the moon; and he saw what no human being had ever seen before. There are mountains on the moon. He saw their bright tops and the shadows which they threw. Then he looked at the planet Venus. She no longer looked like the other stars; but sometimes she seemed to be round like the full moon, sometimes horned, like the old and new moons. With his naked eye Galileo counted only six stars in the Pleiades. People long years before had seen seven; and it was believed that one had been lost. Galileo looked one bright night and his telescope showed him forty. He looked at the Milky Way and found that its whiteness is the dim light of millions of stars so far away that they seem as small as the finest dust. He then made a fourth and larger telescope, and turned it upon the farthest away of the known planets. Jupiter, like Venus, seemed 296

GALILEO no more a star. It was round like the moon at the full. But another and greater wonder appeared. Close to the edge of Jupiter’s disk were three tiny stars. Two were seen on the east side of the planet and one on the west. They were Jupiter’s moons. Galileo watched on another night and found that instead of three there were four. We now know that there are seven. He told the other professors in the university what he had seen, and the news quickly spread. The newly-found moons were called planets, just as our own moon was; and so it seemed that Galileo had made the number of planets eleven, instead of seven. One of the professors was so angry that he would not even look through the telescope. Another man said, “The head has only seven openings—two eyes, two ears, two nostrils and one mouth, and how can there be more than seven planets?” Galileo had an old friend called Kepler, who was the greatest astronomer then living. Galileo wrote to him, “Oh, my dear Kepler, how I wish we could have one good laugh together. Why are you not here? What shouts of laughter we should have at their glorious folly!” About sixty years before this, Copernicus had printed a book in which he said that the earth was not still, as people thought, but that it was all the time moving round the sun. Galileo did not at first believe this, and said in one of his letters that it was “folly.” Then he saw that it was probably true; and when he looked through his telescope at the planets he became certain of it. When people said that the system of Copernicus was contrary to the teaching of the Scriptures, Galileo tried to explain the sense in which the passages in the Bible are to be taken. He was then accused of teaching what would do harm to religion, and was summoned to Rome. His trial took place in 1616 and he promised to give up his opinions concerning the Copernican system. But his enemies still pursued him, and in 1633 Galileo was again accused of heresy and of breaking the promise he had made in 1616. The main part of the charge was that Galileo had denied that God is a personal being and that miracles are not miracles at all. As to breaking the promise he had made in 1616, Galileo admitted that he had felt proud of his arguments in favor of the Copernican system 297

Galileo showing the heavenly bodies through his telescope

GALILEO and in one of his books he had made out rather a strong case for it. He denied, however, having expressly taught the Copernican system. Unfortunately Galileo did not tell the truth in thus denying what he had taught, and he was sentenced to an indefinite term of imprisonment. The imprisonment was not severe, although Galileo complained of it. He was to remain with an old friend and disciple; but at the end of six months he was permitted to return to his home near Florence. His friends were allowed to visit him; but he was not allowed to go outside the gate to visit them. This was sad for him; but sadder still was the loss of his sight; for his eyes had seen more of the glory of the heavens than all the millions of eyes that had ever looked at the stars since the world began. He died in 1642 and his body was interred in the Cathedral of Santa Croce.

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Milton visiting Galileo at Florence (Lezzi)

Oliver Cromwell 1599-1658 Oliver Cromwell was born in Huntingdon, England, four years before the death of Queen Elizabeth and the accession of King James I. His father was a gentleman farmer and cultivated his own land. But he was in comfortable circumstances and able to take excellent care of his family. Oliver is described as being of a wayward and violent temper as a lad. He was cross and masterful; but possessed a large quantity of mirthful energy which showed itself in various forms of mischief. It is said that when only a boy he dreamed that he would become the greatest man in England. A story is also told that once, at school, he took the part of king in a play, and placed the crown upon his head himself instead of letting someone else crown him. At college he excelled in Latin and history, especially in the study of the lives of the famous men of Greece and Rome. He was, however, more famed for his skill at football and other rough games than for the study of books. His schooling was given him by Dr. Thomas Beard, a Puritan minister who resided in his native town, and who seems to have taken a great interest in him as a boy. It was from his mother, who is described as “a woman of rare vigor and great decision of purpose,” that Cromwell derived his remarkable strength of character. At the age of eighteen he left college, on account of the death of his father, and returned home to look after the affairs of the family. At twenty-one years of age he was married to Elizabeth Bourchier, daughter of a London merchant, who proved to be a most excellent wife. The esteem in which he was held in Huntingdon is shown by the fact that in the Great Parliament, which drew up “The Petition of 301

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Cromwell Rights,” he sat as a member and represented his native place. He made his first speech in the House of Commons, where so much of his future work was to be done, on February 11, 1629. He was then thirty years of age. A gentleman who heard this first speech has thus described it: “I came into the House of Commons one morning and listened to a gentleman speaking whom I knew not. His dress was a plain cloth suit which showed the cut of a country tailor; his linen was not very clean; his hat was without a hatband; his voice was sharp, and his eloquence full of fervor. He was speaking in behalf of a servant who had been imprisoned for speaking against the queen because she indulged in dancing.” After King Charles dismissed that Parliament, he decided to manage the affairs of the nation without one; and so for eleven years no other Parliament was called. During this long interval Cromwell remained at home and worked upon his land. 302

OLIVER CROMWELL Want of money at last forced King Charles to call a Parliament; and it assembled in 1640. In this Parliament Cromwell sat as the member for Cambridge, and took an active part in the business of the House. Trouble soon arose between the king and the Parliament on the question as to who possessed the right to levy taxes. Both parties claimed this right and neither would yield. Then Parliament passed what was called “The Great Remonstrance,” which was a complaint from the people of the wrongs they suffered under the rule of Charles. On leaving the house that day, Cromwell said to a friend with whom he was walking, “If the Remonstrance had been rejected I would have left England never to have set my foot upon her shores again.” The king was so angry that he ordered the arrest of the five members who had taken the lead in the passing of the Remonstrance; but the House of Commons would not allow the arrests to be made. The next day King Charles brought four hundred soldiers with him, and demanded that the men be given up; but the members would not yield, and the king had to go away without them. It at once became evident that there would be war between the Parliament and the king, and the whole land was filled with excitement and alarm. How Cromwell felt about this matter can be seen from a few words in a letter written at this time. He said, “The king’s heart has been hardened. He will not listen to reason. The sword must be drawn. I feel myself urged to carry forward this work.” The whole nation quickly became divided into two parties. The friends of the king were called “Royalists,” or “Cavaliers.” Those of Parliament were called “Roundheads.” Cromwell’s own uncle and cousin were staunch friends of King Charles, and at once entered his army. Cromwell raised two companies of volunteers. He distinguished himself by his strict discipline, although up to the time when the war broke out he had not had much experience in military affairs. He was then forty-three years old. He soon became known as a great leader and soldier; and his successes as a soldier gave him a high 303

FAMOUS MEN OF MODERN TIMES place in the affairs of the nation. The adherents of Parliament had on their side the navy; and they also had more money than King Charles had. But Charles had a fine body of cavalry; and many of the rich men of England sent him money to carry on the war. At the opening of the war the army of Charles had the advantage. Cromwell saw that the forces of the Parliament would soon be beaten unless they could get soldiers who were interested in the cause for which they were fighting; and such men he at once began to gather about him. A large number of soldiers who fought under Cromwell were Puritans. The Puritans were people who objected to many of the forms and ceremonies of the Church of England. Many of them laid great stress on the importance of sober and righteous living. When in camp, they read the Bible and sang psalms. They often recited Bible verses and sang psalms as they went into battle. The first battle of the war was fought at Edge Hill. The greatest loss in any single engagement was at the battle of Marston Moor, where the king’s army left forty thousand slain upon the field. In this battle the soldiers under the command of Cromwell really won the victory. From that time he rose rapidly until he became commander-in-chief. He is said to have been victorious in every battle he fought. Oliver received, while in the army, the name of “Ironsides;” and a little later this same title was given to his men, because the Royalist troops had found it impossible to break Cromwell’s lines. But it must not be thought that Cromwell was a man devoid of tender feeling. Shortly before the battle of Marston Moor his eldest son was killed. Cromwell felt his loss most keenly, and was heard to say, “It went to my heart like a dagger. Indeed it did.” Over sixty other battles were fought; and finally the cause of the king was wrecked at the great battle of Naseby, in 1645. But instead of admitting that he was beaten, and agreeing to meet the demands of the people, Charles fled to Scotland and tried to induce the Scots to give him aid. This turned Cromwell against the king, and convinced him that 304

OLIVER CROMWELL only through the death of Charles was it possible to secure the liberties of the English people. In June, 1647, the king was seized by one of Cromwell’s soldiers and placed in custody of the army. The Commons resented this action and resolved to make terms with the king. Whereupon the army leaders sent Colonel Pride with a body of soldiers to “purge” the Commons of members who favored making terms with the king. The remaining members soon afterwards passed a resolution that the king should be brought to justice, and voted to form a special High Court of Justice. The king protested that the court was illegal and refused to make any plea. He was condemned by the court and was beheaded on January 30, 1649. In 1653 Cromwell decided to dissolve Parliament. A body of soldiers drove the members out and Cromwell himself took possession of the speaker’s mace. Oliver Cromwell was now the most powerful man in England; and the army, over which he still presided, offered to make him king. One of his daughters pleaded so earnestly with him that he refused to accept the crown or to take the title of king. England was declared to be no longer a monarchy but a Commonwealth; and under this new form of government Oliver Cromwell was made ruler, with the title of Protector. In the summer of 1658 he was taken ill with chills and fever; and on September 3rd of that year he died. Oliver Cromwell had grave faults; and he was by no means an easy man to deal with. He made many blunders, some of which were serious ones. But he proved himself equal to the task he had undertaken.

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Cromwell dissolving the long Parliament

Louis XIV 1638-1715 After the death of Richelieu, in 1642, Louis XIII, king of France, followed the advice of his great prime minister and called Cardinal Mazarin to fill his place. But Louis XIII lived only six months after Richelieu passed away. He died in 1643, and his son Louis XIV succeeded him as king. Louis XIV had the longest and most brilliant reign in the history of France; and the French people have always called him â&#x20AC;&#x153;The Grand Monarch.â&#x20AC;? He was born in 1638, and became king when he was but five years old. His mother governed the kingdom, as regent, until he was thirteen; but Mazarin was retained in office, and quickly became the real ruler of France. Mazarin was a great statesman, but he was determined to have his own way. Many of the things he did cost a great deal of money; and so he made the people of France pay very heavy taxes, and this caused them to dislike him exceedingly. Finally they became so discontented that they began a revolt known as the War of the Fronde, which means the War of the Sling. The name was given to ridicule the revolting party who were chiefly peasants; and who were too poor to buy proper arms. They were compared to the disorderly boys of Paris who sometimes fought with slings, and the name arose in that way. This war lasted four years, and at its close Mazarin was dismissed. But he was soon put into office again, and had even more power than before. As a boy Louis XIV was more fond of military exercises than of study. He took great delight in handling swords and beating drums. The boys belonging to some of the noble families of France were the playmates of the young king; and he formed them into a company of soldiers, and spent some time every day in drilling them. 307

FAMOUS MEN OF MODERN TIMES In 1651, when he reached the age of thirteen, he took the government into his own hands, but Mazarin remained prime minister. One of the first things Louis did, after declaring himself king, was to go with General Turenne into the South of France upon a military expedition. He was greatly pleased with life in the army and came back to Paris enthusiastic about military tactics. “General Turenne,” said the young king, “when I make war you must lead my troops.” “I deeply thank you, Sire, for your good opinion of me,” replied the famous general. “I should be glad indeed to have command of Your Majesty’s army in any war in which you may be engaged.” “Well, general,” said Louis, “I feel sure that I shall have lots of wars; and you must be ready to help me.” Years afterwards Louis’s words came true. He carried on many wars; and in some of them Turenne won fame as one of the greatest commanders of his time. Louis saw that Mazarin was managing the affairs of the nation with great skill; so he allowed him to do as he thought best, while His Majesty devoted himself to a life of pleasure. But in 1661, when Louis was twenty-three, Mazarin died. The day after Mazarin’s death the officers of the government assembled at the palace, all eager to know which of them was to be the new prime minister. “To whom shall we speak in the future about the business of the kingdom?” asked one of them. “To me,” answered the king. “Hereafter I shall be my own prime minister.” After thus taking matters into his own hands he reigned for more than fifty years. He placed in control of the different departments of the government the best men he could find; and one of his officers, the famous Colbert, managed the money matters of the kingdom in such a manner as to make his name illustrious for all time. He made the taxes less burdensome to the people; and, at the same time, he so fostered the industries of the kingdom that the revenue was greatly increased. Louis improved the condition of the French people. He encouraged manufacturers. He even established some factories at the 308

Reception of Turenne by Louis XIV at Versailles (Gerome)

FAMOUS MEN OF MODERN TIMES expense of the government; so that, during his reign, France became famous for her woolens and carpets, her silks and tapestries. Louis also founded schools and colleges. He improved the country roads. He began the great canal which connects the Mediterranean with the Bay of Biscay. He did all in his power to advance the welfare of the kingdom. At Versailles, a few miles from Paris, he built the largest and most magnificent palace in France. He adorned it with paintings and statues and surrounded it with lovely gardens. There he lived in great splendor, and gathered about him a large company of talented men and beautiful women. The Louvre, the Trianon, the Tuileries, and some other of the most beautiful buildings for which Paris is still noted were also built during his reign. In 1685, Louis revoked the famous Edict of Nantes, under which Henry of Navarre had granted religious liberty to the French people. In consequence over three hundred thousand Protestants left France. They carried with them their tools and their trades and moved into other countries. More than forty thousand of them settled in England, where they were received with open arms. In his later life Louis had the same fondness for war as in his youth; and during nearly fifteen years he was engaged in wars with various European nations. His army was large and thoroughly disciplined. He had also a navy which made France powerful on the ocean. He used to say with great pride, “I can fight the world equally well on the sea or on the land.” Wars were fought with Spain, Holland, England, Germany, and other nations, and brilliant victories were won. These successes delighted the French people, and they almost adored their “Grand Monarch.” Louis XIV became almost as much the terror of Europe as did Napoleon about a hundred years later; and then the decline began. Among the men who helped to break down the military glory of Louis XIV, was Prince Eugene of Savoy. Prince Eugene was born in Paris, in 1663. As soon as he was old enough for military service he asked King Louis to make him an officer in the French army. 310

LOUIS XIV Louis was not friendly to Eugeneâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s mother, and the request of the young prince was refused. Indignant at this, Eugene left France; but he was determined to be a soldier somewhere. He was twenty years old when the Turks laid siege to Vienna, and he was among the soldiers who helped to drive them back. His bravery brought him into notice, and he rapidly rose from rank to rank. At twenty-one he was a colonel, at twenty-two a major general, and at twenty-four a lieutenant general. After serving in numerous battles against the Turks, Prince Eugene was sent, in command of an Austrian force, into Northern Italy, where Louis XIV was threatening the province of Savoy. Eugene now had one of the great satisfactions of his life. When Louis had refused him a commission in the French army he had said that he would never again enter France except as a conqueror. After several victories in Italy, he marched into France, captured several towns, and returned to Italy laden with great plunder, thus making good his word. But the most important thing achieved by Eugene and his allies during this war with Louis was the capture of a strongly fortified town called Casal (kaÎ&#x201E; sal). This town stood near the borders of France and Italy, and commanded the easiest and most frequently traveled pass between the two countries. When the town was taken, Eugene made it one of the conditions of surrender that its fortifications should be destroyed and never rebuilt. Yet this did not prevent Louis XIV from making other attempts to capture Northern Italy; and Prince Eugene afterwards served in two other long wars that were successfully fought in its defense. Louis continued fighting against Italy, Bavaria, and the Netherlands, and kept all Europe in a state of turmoil. Then came the great battle of Blenheim (blenÎ&#x201E;im), in 1704. Louis had made himself so obnoxious, and had become so dreaded, that a great league of the European nations was formed against him. In the battle of Blenheim the English, under the Duke of Marlborough, united their forces with those of the Austrians under Prince Eugene. 311

Battle of Blenheim

LOUIS XIV The defeat of Louis XIV, on this occasion, was one of the most disastrous ever suffered by the French; and it greatly encouraged those who were defending the liberties of Europe. Louis’s power in Bavaria and Holland was shattered, and his armies were never again so much of a terror as they had been. Louis did not, however, give up at once. Fighting continued for about ten years longer; but there were no further victories for France. When the war was ended, in 1713, by the peace of Utrecht (u΄ trekt), the French were obliged to give up to the British, Acadia, the Hudson’s Bay Territory and Newfoundland. Austria also was given possession of some of the territory which had been held by France. A year later, in 1714, by the Treaty of Rastatt (ras tat), it was agreed that all the different nations which had been engaged in the war should have just what belonged to them before the war began. The glory of France and her “Grand Monarch” had departed. He lived only a little more than two years after peace was proclaimed. He died on September 1, 1715, at the age of seventy-seven, having reigned seventy-two years.

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Sir Isaac Newton 1642-1727 In 1642, the very year in which the great Civil War broke out between Charles I, of England, and his Parliament, a wonderful man was born, named Isaac Newton. As an infant he was so feeble that none of his family expected that he would live. If he had been a Spartan baby he would, according to Spartan law, certainly have been put to death. But by extra care on his motherâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s part his life was saved, and he grew into a lad with more than the ordinary powers of strength and endurance. He was born in Woolsthorpe, in Lincolnshire, just one year after the death of Galileo, to whom he may be said to have borne a strong mental likeness. When he first entered school he did not seem to be a very bright lad; but this was because he was not really trying to do his best. One day a boy who ranked above him in his class struck him a severe blow. This proved to be one of the best things that ever happened to young Newton; for, feeling that he was no match for the other lad with his fists, he determined to get even with him by beating him in the work of the class. This he soon did; and then he rose higher and higher until he stood above all the other boys in the school. He spent most of his play hours in making mechanical toys. He watched some workmen who were putting up a windmill near his school; and then made a working model of it and fixed it on the roof of the house in which he lived. He constructed a clock which was worked by a stream of water falling upon a small water wheel. He also built a carriage and fitted it with levers so that he could sit in it and move himself from place to place. This was, perhaps, the first velocipede ever constructed. In Newtonâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s day gas lamps and electric lights were unknown. The winter days were short, and it often happened that he had to go to school in the dark. So he made for himself a paper lantern to give him 314

Newton (Van der Zank)

FAMOUS MEN OF MODERN TIMES light on his early journeys, and this was soon copied by the other boys. In the yard of the house in which his parents lived he traced on a wall, by means of fixed pins, the movements of the sun. Clocks were then very expensive, and the contrivance, which received the name of â&#x20AC;&#x153;Isaacâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s dial,â&#x20AC;? was a standard of time to the country people of the neighborhood. When he was fourteen his stepfather died, and his mother thought it best for Isaac to work upon a farm which belonged to the family. So he left school; but he had no love for plowing and reaping, or for attending to horses, cows, and pigs. The sheep went astray while he was thinking out some problem in algebra or geometry; and the cattle got into the standing crops and munched the milky wheat-ears while he was studying the motions of the moon, or wondering what made the earth go round the sun. His mother soon saw that Isaac would never make a farmer. He was therefore sent back to school and fitted to enter college. He was the most wonderful mathematician that ever graduated from the University of Cambridge; and, when only twenty-seven, he was made professor of mathematics in the college in which he had studied. He rose to eminence in the university, and through the influence of some of its leaders he was appointed Warden of the Mint in 1695, and was promoted to the Mastership four years later. He then moved to London, and went to live in a little house near Leicester Square. His salary enabled him to devote himself to his favorite studies; and this he proceeded to do. One of the first important discoveries he made was about light. Before his time everyone thought that light was made up of fine lines, or rays; bright, but without any color. Isaac made an experiment which any boy can repeat. He bored a small hole through the shutter of a window so as to allow only a delicate pencil of light to enter the room. This made a round spot of white or colorless light on the wall opposite the window; and he set out to examine this spot and see what it could teach him. When he put a glass prism into the pathway of the ray, he found that the colorless spot disappeared. Instead of it he saw on the wall, above where the circular spot had been, a beautiful band of light in 316

SIR ISAAC NEWTON

Newton and the prism which several colors were blended. At the top end this band was blue. At the bottom it was red. In the middle it was yellow. Newton had thus discovered that a ray of white light is made up of colored rays. His next experiment was with soap bubbles. He found that when blown very thin the colors of the light could be more plainly discerned, and he was soon able to count seven distinct tints violet, indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange and red. These are the seven colors seen in the rainbow. But the greatest of Newton’s discoveries was that which is now spoken of as “The Law of Gravitation.” Everybody knew, long before Newton was born, that apples fell from trees to the ground: but no one seems to have asked the question why they never moved the other way. All boys know that a ball thrown up into the air will come down again: but no one, before Newton lived, had tried to find out why this was so. At first he seems to have thought that only things that were near to the earth would fall to its surface. But when he thought how the rain drops fell from the clouds he saw that his theory was not true. 317

FAMOUS MEN OF MODERN TIMES Then he thought of the moon going round the earth; and wondered how it kept just so high up in the sky; and why it did not fall like the rain drops. This was a new puzzle and he set to work to solve it. About two hundred years before Isaac Newton was born, a great Polish astronomer named Copernicus had written a book in which he had said that people were wrong who believed that the sun goes round the earth. Copernicus insisted that the earth moves round the sun. At the first, people made fun of this idea but by Newtonâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s day they had begun to believe it. Isaac began to wonder if this theory might not help him to solve his problem. One of the favorite games of the boys of that day was to throw stones with a sling. Doubtless Isaac had himself used one many times in his play. Now that he was grown up he remembered how he had whirled the stones round and round at a high rate of speed; and yet they never left the sling until he let go one of the strings. Isaac knew that the moon goes whirling round the earth at the rate of about fifty thousand miles every day; and that the earth whirls round the sun at the rate of about one thousand miles a minute. Certainly, thought Newton, the moon goes round the earth, and the earth goes round the sun, just as a stone is whirled round in a sling; but there must be something stronger than a cord to keep them in their places. After thinking about the matter for a long time, he said, the moon is drawn toward the earth by a very powerful force; but she does not come nearer to the earth, or fall upon it, any more than the stone in the sling falls upon the hand of the slinger, because, like the stone, she is in rapid motion. The earth is drawn toward the sun by the same wonderful force that draws the moon toward the earth; yet the earth does not fall upon the sun because it is all the while whirling forward at the rate of a thousand miles a minute. Newton saw that the force which brings the stone and the apple down to the ground is the very same that draws the moon toward the earth and the earth toward the sun. He called this force â&#x20AC;&#x153;Gravity,â&#x20AC;? or 318

SIR ISAAC NEWTON force of weight. Then his great mind went on thinking beyond the moon and the earth to the far away stars. He soon learned that the same force which keeps the moon and the earth in their orbits, keeps all the stars of the sky in their courses. For his great discoveries he was highly honored by the learned men of his day. He was made a member of the Royal Society, a society established for the purpose of gathering up and treasuring all forms of valuable knowledge. The Royal Society aided him in publishing his books, of which he wrote twelve. The most important of these is called the â&#x20AC;&#x153;Principia.â&#x20AC;? In 1705 he was knighted by Queen Anne; and when he died, in 1727, his body lay in state for a whole week in the Jerusalem Chamber; and was then buried with great pomp in Westminster Abbey.

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William III, King of England 1650-1702 The story of King William’s life is an interesting one. He was born in Holland in 1650, and was a prince of the distinguished house of Orange, which for many years had been prominent in the history of the Netherlands. William was carefully educated. He showed so much ability that when he was only twenty-two years old he was chosen stadtholder, or president of the Netherlands. In 1672, Louis XIV, with an army of one hundred and twentyfive thousand men, under the command of Turenne and Condé, invaded the Netherlands. England united her forces with France, and lent her fleet to crush the power of the Dutch. Town after town was taken by the French, and the Dutch were in a terrible plight. Young as he was, William carried on the war like an experienced general. His army had reverses at first; but his belief in the final triumph of the Dutch never left him. Once a despondent official said to him, “Do you not see that the country is lost?” “Lost!” replied William, “No, it is not lost; and I shall never see it lost!” In this spirit of confidence he fought his enemies, never despairing, never acknowledging defeat. After many successes the French were about to seize the city of Amsterdam. William ordered the dikes to be cut, and the waters of the North Sea spread over the lowlands. The growing crops were ruined, but the flood checked the invading army. When, in 1674, peace was made with England, New York, which was originally a Dutch settlement and was called New Amsterdam, was ceded to Great Britain. It was renamed New York in honor of James, Duke of York, to whom his brother Charles II had, in 1664, granted all the land between the Connecticut and the Delaware. 320

WILLIAM III, KING OF ENGLAND France inflicted great disasters upon the Netherlands and actually secured part of her territory, but Louis was at length forced to withdraw from the country. The Dutch, under the heroic leadership of their young stadtholder, maintained their independence. On the death of King Charles II, in 1685, the Duke of York came to the English throne under the title of James II. He, however, aroused very great dissatisfaction in England by some of his acts; and in June 1688 a letter was sent to William of Orange, inviting him and his wife Mary, who was a daughter of James II, to become sovereigns of England. This letter was signed by seven leading men of both the great political parties in England. It assured William that it was the universal wish of the English nation that he should become its ruler. The invitation was accepted. The Netherlands, glad to have their honored stadtholder on the English throne, furnished him with an army of about thirteen thousand men, and a fleet of more than six hundred ships, and with these forces he reached England in November, 1688. William landed his army and marched to Exeter, where the citizens welcomed him in a very enthusiastic manner. Thousands of the nobles, gentry and common people flocked to his standard. His army rapidly increased. Everywhere in England there was great rejoicing at his arrival. King James gathered a strong force, mostly from Scotland and Ireland, and marched to Salisbury to check the revolt. But William met him bravely, and the king’s army fell back in disorder and many of the officers and men deserted. James gave up the struggle in despair, and hastened to London. There he learned that his daughter, Anne, had left his palace to join the revolters. “God help me,” cried the king, “for my own children have forsaken me!” His spirit was utterly broken, and he prepared for a rapid journey to France. He knew that the throne was lost to him, and he resolved to flee from England and cast himself upon the hospitality of his cousin, the French king, Louis XIV. Leaving the palace at night, and in disguise, he threw the seals of 321

Coronation of William and Mary (Ward)

WILLIAM III, KING OF ENGLAND state into the Thames, and then took a boat to a ship which was lying some distance down the river. James hoped to sail in this ship to France; but his escape was prevented by a fisherman who thought him a suspicious character, and he was brought back to London. William and Mary, with the army that supported them, came to London. There was a wonderful demonstration of joy by the people of the metropolis, and the queen was greeted with acclamation. A committee of Parliament drew up a Declaration of Rights, which was presented to William and Mary. It declared what the rights of Englishmen are, stated that no sovereign could interfere with those rights, and expressed the resolve of both houses of Parliament to maintain them. It seemed like a second Magna Charta. William and Mary both signed it, and they were then, in February, 1689, declared king and queen of England. This change in the rulers—the abdication of King James and the coming of William and Mary—is called the Revolution of 1688. As has been said, it was easily accomplished in England; but in Ireland there was decided opposition to it. Londonderry and Enniskillen were the only Irish towns that declared for William and Mary. The other towns were strongly in favor of James. Finally, James came from France to Ireland, collected an army and began a war on those who supported the new sovereigns. He received assistance from Louis XIV of France. Those who fought for James were called “Jacobites” and the others were called “Orangemen.” The war in Ireland lasted but a few months; for at the battle of the Boyne, on July 12, 1690, James’s army was defeated, and all resistance in Ireland came to an end. William was then formally recognized as king of Great Britain and Ireland. England had declared war on France; and it became necessary for William to visit the European continent. He there made alliances with Austria, Spain, and other nations. While he was absent from England, Mary ruled the kingdom, and ruled it well. William was engaged for some years in the contest on the continent. He won many great battles, but he also suffered disastrous defeats. While he was in Europe another attempt was made by James 323

Battle of la Hogue (West)

WILLIAM III, KING OF ENGLAND to invade England and regain the throne. Louis XIV again provided James with soldiers and war ships; and an expedition sailed for England. James was confident of success; and all associated with him thought it would be an easy matter to accomplish the undertaking. Near the coast of Normandy the invading fleet came upon the combined English and Dutch fleet; and, off Cape La Hogue, a furious battle took place. The English and Dutch gained a brilliant victory, and James sailed back to France, and never again made a movement to recover the English throne. While England and France were fighting in Europe, the colonies of the two countries were fighting in America. The war is known in American history as King William’s War. The reign of William and Mary is of great interest to us in the United States. Those sovereigns were not accepted by the people of England until they had signed the Declaration of Rights; and the very first Act passed by Parliament during their reign was one which made the Declaration a part of the laws of the land. That Declaration secured their rights not only to the subjects who lived in the “mother country,” but also to those in the colonies. One of its provisions was “that it is the right of the subjects to petition the king.” George III spurned the petitions of the colonists, and otherwise violated the rights claimed in the Declaration, just as James II had done. What the American colonists did, therefore, when they fought the battles of the Revolution, was very similar to what the people of England had done a hundred years before, when they dethroned James and offered the crown to William and Mary. The English Revolution of 1688, and the American Revolution, had exactly the same purpose.

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Sobieski 1624-1696 The poles first appeared in history in the fifth century under the name of Poliani. There appears to have been a definitely organized kingdom of Poland as early as the tenth century. But the country did not rise into much prominence until the fourteenth century; and it attained its greatest splendor in the seventeenth. The name Poland is derived from a word meaning plains. For many centuries great herds of cattle, horses, and swine have been raised within its territory; and cereals, hemp, timber, honey, and wax have been produced in large quantities. Numerous mines of salt, and a few of iron, copper and silver, have been worked at different periods; but they are not of much value. After passing through a vast number of changes, Poland became, in 1572, an elective monarchy; and this principal became one of the chief causes of the national downfall. The nation consisted of but two classes, the nobles who owned the soil, and the serfs who cultivated it. There was no third estate. At the time of which we write the Turks were at the height of their power in southeastern Europe. Their flag still waved, as it had done for a hundred and fifty years, over Belgrade; and Belgrade was the gateway to Hungary. Their fleets swept the Mediterranean. They captured the island of Crete from the powerful state of Venice; and they fortified the Dardanelles, so that no ships could enter the Black Sea without their permission. Poland being famous for its wheat and cattle, the Turks greatly desired to possess it. They therefore invaded Poland with a large army; but the Poles met them bravely and in a great battle in which Sobieski served as commander-in-chief of the Polish forces succeeded in beating them 326

SOBIESKI back. Just at that time the king of Poland died quite suddenly; and the Diet assembled to select a successor. Sobieski entered the hall where the Diet was in session and proposed the name of a French prince. Then one of the nobles was heard to say, â&#x20AC;&#x153;Let a Pole rule Poland.â&#x20AC;? Sobieski was at once proposed and elected with hardly a dissentient voice. John Sobieski was born in 1624, at Olesko, in Galicia. His father was castellan or keeper of the castle of Cracow. John received an excellent education, both at home and in foreign countries; and this was of great advantage to him when he was elevated to the throne. Poland was, at that time, one of the most powerful countries of Europe. It was stronger by far than Russia; and gave promise of a still greater future. A hundred years before this the Turks had threatened Vienna,

Starhemberg, the Defender of Vienna (Martin)

327

FAMOUS MEN OF MODERN TIMES and they now determined to conquer all Austria. In 1683 they gathered a vast army and marched a second time against Vienna, which was at that time not only the principal city of Austria, but the capital of the German Empire. The emperor then ruling over Germany was Leopold I. He wore the crown of Charlemagne, but he was not worthy to do so. As soon as he heard that the Turks were marching toward Vienna he fled from the city; and many of the nobles and wealthy people followed his example. Count Starhemberg who was in command of the garrison stayed at his post, and did everything possible to prevent the city from falling into the hands of the enemy. The fortifications needed repair. Not only the men but the women aided in the work. The women mixed mortar and even carried stone while the men built up the walls. One day, as the people of Vienna were looking eastward, they saw columns of smoke ascending. Crops were burning, and houses and villages were in flames. This told them, only too plainly, that the Turks were approaching; and at sunrise, on the fourteenth of July, 1683, they appeared before the city walls. Their camp made a semicircle or crescent reaching more than half around the city. As in Athens, during the terrible siege by the Spartans in the Peloponnesian War, so now in Vienna the plague broke out. This was because the people who had rushed into the city from the country were huddled so closely together. The amount of sickness was terrible. Then a fire broke out; and as there were no fire engines nor other appliances with which to fight the flames, a great many houses were burned, and hundreds of families were rendered homeless. Things looked very discouraging; but just when they were at the worst help came. John Sobieski, king of Poland, was marching to the relief of the beleaguered city. He had sixty-five thousand men in his army; and John George, the Elector of Saxony had joined him with thirteen thousand more. Before beginning the attack on the Turks, Sobieski made a speech 328

SOBIESKI to his men in which he said, “Not Vienna alone, but Christendom looks to you today. Not for an earthly sovereign do you fight. You are soldiers of the King of kings.” The battle cry was Sobieski’s own name. It was well known to the Turks, for they had met him before, and thousands of Turks fled before hundreds of his Poles. His very name seemed to fill them with dread. Large numbers of the Turkish soldiers stood their ground, however, and fought desperately; but they could not withstand the furious charges of the Poles. Sobieski himself went into the battle singing the words of the psalm beginning: “Not unto us, O Lord, not unto us, but unto thy name give glory, for thy mercy, and for thy truth’s sake.” Six of the sultan’s pashas, or generals, were killed; and the grand vizier, or prime minister of Turkey, abandoned his splendid green silk tent that was embroidered with gold and silver, and fled for his life. The whole Moslem army was routed; and the conqueror and his troops entered the city in triumph. A great service of thanksgiving was held in the cathedral; and one of the priests preached a sermon from the text: “There was a man sent from God whose name was John.” Never again did the Turks attack Vienna. City after city was lost to their empire; and all Hungary was finally won back from them. Since Sobieski’s great victory, the power of the Turks has steadily waned rather than increased. They have been slowly pushed to the eastward until there is now little of value left to them in Europe but Constantinople. The reign of John Sobieski was the most brilliant in Polish history. But the constant dissensions and the unending turbulence of the Polish nobles frustrated all his efforts to strengthen the kingdom, and prepared the way for its final dismemberment and ruin. The hero of Poland has not, like Hercules and Perseus, given his name to a great constellation; but in the brightest part of the Milky Way hangs a gleaming expanse of star dust known as Sobieski’s shield; so that, until the stars forget to shine, or men to watch them, the name of the great Polish hero will never be forgotten. 329

Relief of Vienna

Peter the Great 1672-1725 In the history of Russia there is no name more famous than that of Peter the Great. Before his time the Russians were far behind the other nations of Europe in knowledge of the arts and the comforts of life. Peter devoted a large part of his reign to improving the condition of his country and his people. He made Russia prosperous, powerful, and respected. He was born in 1672, and was the son of the Emperor Alexis. When only ten years old he came to the throne, together with his brother Ivan, who was almost an idiot. The boys were proclaimed joint emperors of Russia; but their sister, Sophia, who was many years older than they, acted as regent. Sophia determined to make herself empress, and leagued herself with Galitzin, the prime minister, with that end in view. “Madam,” said Galitzin, “we need fear nothing from Ivan, but Peter alarms me. He has a thirst for knowledge that cannot be quenched. He wishes to know everything.” It was as the minister said. Peter had a remarkable desire for knowledge; and he learned many useful things. When he was about seventeen years of age he was informed that his sister Sophia and Prince Galitzin intended to murder him. Peter at once banished Galitzin to the icy Peter the Great 331

FAMOUS MEN OF MODERN TIMES region of Archangel and confined his sister in a convent. He thus became, at about eighteen years of age, the active ruler of Russia; for Ivan could take no share in the government. Peter listened to others before taking important action. He valued particularly the advice of a brilliant Swiss, named Lefort, to whom he gave a high position in his court. Lefort urged that the army should be made larger, and be better drilled and equipped. The young emperor accepted this advice. He appointed Lefort to be commander of one division of his army, and directed him to equip and drill it in the very best manner. Peter himself served for a few months under the command of Lefort as a common soldier. He performed all his duties with the greatest faithfulness. He became a subordinate officer, and then rose gradually through every grade until he reached the rank of general. Under Lefortâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s direction the army was made a splendid body of fighting men. One day, in the early part of his reign, Peter noticed on the river which flows through Moscow a small boat with a keel. He inquired what the keel was for, and was greatly interested to learn that it was to enable the boat to sail against the wind. The boat had been built for Peterâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s father by a Dutchman named Brandt; and this man was at once instructed to put it into first-rate order. This being done, the Dutchman gave Peter some lessons in sailing, so that the young czar became quite an expert sailor. Russia at that time had only one seaport. It was Archangel on the White Sea. So to Archangel the czar went, and made it his home for several months. While there, he made the acquaintance of a Dutch captain named Musch; and from him he learned all about ships and their management. He began as a cabin boy, and worked up through every department of a seafaring life until he was fitted to be a naval commander. Peter felt that he must have a navy and must be at its head; so he thought he ought to know about the building of ships as well as their management. He therefore determined to go to Holland and learn the art of shipbuilding. Putting the affairs of his empire in charge of three nobles, he left 332

PETER THE GREAT Russia, with Lefort and some other companions, and went to Amsterdam, the most important city of the Netherlands. After visiting Amsterdam and examining its shipping and its docks, he went to a little town called Zaandam near by, and there became a workman in a yard where ships were built for the famous Dutch East India Company. He lived in a little cottage near the yard and cooked his own food. After working some time in Zaandam he spent four or five months as a shipwright near London, because some things connected with shipbuilding could be better learned in England than in the Netherlands. When, by taking lessons in both countries, he had thoroughly mastered the art, he returned to his own country. He now began the building of the Russian navy at a place in southern Russia, on the Verona River. The vessels built were small gunboats. While they were being built, someone said to Peter, “Of what use will your vessels be to you? You have no good seaport.” “My vessels shall make ports for themselves,” replied Peter; and before long they did so. The first port captured was Azof at the mouth of the Don. It was taken from the Turks. The Russian fleet sailed down the river, and made the attack by sea; while twelve thousand troops attacked by land. Peter himself was sometimes with the army on land, sometimes on board one of his vessels. The capture of Azof gave Russia a port on the Black Sea. But this was only the beginning. A greater work was done in the north, at the mouth of the Neva. When Peter came to the throne, Sweden was the great military and naval power of northern Europe. The Swedes were masters of the Baltic Sea, and of the Gulf of Finland. Peter said that the Swedes were the oppressors of Russia; and that he would free the land from their presence. When in the Netherlands he had lived near Amsterdam. It was a great seaport near the mouth of a river. The land upon which it stood was swampy; and its dwellings, its warehouses, and its magnificent churches and public buildings rested on piles. 333

Peter the Great as Shipwright in Holland (Cogen)

PETER THE GREAT The River Neva flows into the Gulf of Finland. Peter determined to build a Russian Amsterdam on its swampy banks. The king of Sweden, the famous Charles XII, claimed the province at the mouth of the River Neva. In spite of this Peter laid the foundations of his new city and called it St. Petersburg. When the king of Sweden heard what was going on he said, “I shall soon put those houses into a blaze.” The Swedish fortresses guarded the province and the mouth of the river. Whoever held them would control the commerce of St. Petersburg. The Swedish king was astonished soon after hearing that the foundations of St. Petersburg had been laid, to learn that Peter’s new army and navy had captured his two fortresses, and that the province at the mount of the Neva was in Peter’s hands. Soon afterward, with a well drilled army, Charles laid siege to Poltava, a small fortified town of the Russians. Peter marched against him. Both sovereigns commanded their armies in person. Charles had been wounded in his heel, and had to be carried into battle on a litter. During the battle a cannon-ball killed one of the bearers and shattered the litter; whereupon the king is said to have ordered some of the men to carry him upon their pikes. Peter, like Charles, was in the hottest of the fire. His clothes were shot through in several places, one ball going through his hat. After desperate fighting on both sides the Swedes gave way. They left more than half their number dead or wounded upon the field. Only a few hundred men escaped with the king who, it is said, was taken off the field in a carriage drawn by twelve horses. The victory at Poltava was followed by naval successes in the Gulf of Finland. Abo, then the capital of Finland, and Helsingfors, which is the present capital, were both captured, and the Russians became masters of the gulf. Peter was determined that his people should become a commercial nation. He urged them to engage in foreign trade and encouraged foreigners to bring their merchandise to Russia’s new ports. Less than six months after the first stone of St. Petersburg was laid, a large ship under Dutch colors ascended the Neva and anchored off the city site. Peter himself went on board to welcome the strangers. The 335

FAMOUS MEN OF MODERN TIMES skipper was invited to dine at the house of one of the nobles. Peter and several officers of his government bought the entire cargo; and when the ship sailed from St. Petersburg the captain received a present of about two hundred dollars, and each of his crew a smaller sum of money, as a premium for having brought the first foreign vessel into the new port. Peter encouraged his people in the different parts of Russia to carry on commerce with one another, and he made it easy for them to do so. He improved the roads, aided in providing boats for navigating the rivers, and undertook the gigantic work of uniting the great seas, the Baltic, the Black and the Caspian Seas by canals. Toward the close of his reign Peter visited the town of Zaandam in Holland where he had learned the trade of shipbuilding. There he found some of his old companions, and was delighted to hear them salute him as Peter Bass, the name by which they had known him nearly twenty years before. He went to the little cottage in which he had lived. It is still carefully preserved. In one room are to be seen the little oak table and three chairs which were there when Peter occupied it. Over the chimney-piece is an inscription which every boy who is making his way up in the world might well take for his motto, “To a great man nothing is little.” Peter went to see an old friend, Kist the blacksmith, who was at work in his smithy. The czar took the job from him. He blew the bellows, heated the piece of iron and beat it out with the great hammer into the required shape. Though he was the ruler of millions of people he was proud of being a workman and of being able to do things for himself. No sovereign ever more truly deserved the title “Great” than did Peter. He found his empire feeble and left it with a well-drilled army and a large navy. He found it without commerce. He secured for it ports to which foreign ships might bring merchandise; and he dug canals so that the different parts of the country might easily carry on trade with one another. Thus he was, in the best sense, great, because he made his country great; and provided for his people new and better ways of living. 336

Charles XII of Sweden 1682-1718 In the year 1697 a strange coronation service took place in the city of Stockholm. A boy of only fifteen years of age was crowned king of Sweden, and took the title of Charles XII. He was born in 1682. When he was only three or four years old the queen went into the nursery to take him to church, but he refused to get down from the high chair in which he was perched because he had promised his nurse that he would not leave his seat until she had given him permission. He was taught German as well as Swedish as soon as he could speak; and history, geography, and arithmetic seemed like play to him. When only four years old he was put astride a horse, and at eight he was a good rider. At eleven he killed his first bear; and before he was twelve he shot a stag at a distance of ninety yards. As soon as he began to wear the crown he became very pompous and arrogant. No one was allowed to find fault with anything that he did. About a year after Charles was made king two princesses were brought to Stockholm to spend the winter in the hope that he would marry one of them. But Charles did not marry either of them. In fact he was never really in love with anybody or with anything but war. One day, when he was out on a bear hunt, news was brought to him that the kings of Denmark and Poland, and Peter the Great of Russia, had formed a combination against him, and proposed to capture Sweden and divide it among themselves. He gathered an army, placed himself at its head, sailed for Denmark and soon forced the Danes to sue for peace. He then marched against the Russians. The Russians were five times as many as the Swedes, but Charles said, â&#x20AC;&#x153;With my brave boys 337

FAMOUS MEN OF MODERN TIMES in blue behind me I am afraid of nothing.” On the march four hundred Swedes had been attacked by six thousand Russians; but the Swedes had beaten them off. Peter the Great and his men ran away as soon as the Swedes approached. But Charles followed them and a great battle was fought in a driving snow storm. Charles lost one of his boots in a bog, and a bullet was flattened against his clothing; but by nightfall the Swedes had won a complete victory. Charles was then only eighteen years of age. The next summer the young warrior marched against the united armies of Russia and Poland. After a fight which lasted all day Charles was again victorious. Among the ladies of Poland was the beautiful Marie Aurora. She wrote a letter to Charles asking that she might see him, in the hope of ending the war; but Charles made no reply. Then Aurora traveled to the Swedish camp, although it was the depth of winter; but the king refused to see her. The lady, however, was not discouraged. One day she saw him riding toward her, and at once got out of her carriage and knelt before him in the muddy road. Charles raised his hat and made a low bow; but, without stopping, he put spurs to his horse and went off at a gallop. In about three weeks both the capitals of Poland—Warsaw and Cracow—were in his hands. Charles at once found work for his army elsewhere. Saxony which then belonged to his great enemy Augustus was invaded and captured; and Charles remained in possession of it for more than a year. While Charles was busy with Saxony, Peter the Great attacked his provinces on the Baltic. He took possession of the principal ports, and founded on Swedish territory his new capital, St. Petersburg. In the defense of his territories, Charles engaged in several fierce battles with the Russians and finally defeated them. The Russians retreated and burned all the bridges behind them. He next determined to go to the succor of the Cossacks of the Ukraine. It was December. The cold was so intense that the Baltic Sea was frozen over, and many of the birds fell dead from the trees. The Swedes were poorly clothed, and they suffered greatly from the cold. Over three thousand were frozen to death, and many others were frost-bitten. 338

CHARLES XII OF SWEDEN Charles had lost twenty thousand out of an army of forty-one thousand. Yet he would not give up the struggle, but determined to lay siege to the fortress of Poltava. Up to this time Charles had seemed to bear a charmed life. But one day a bullet struck his foot. Some of the small bones were broken, and the flesh had to be cut open to remove the splinters. Charles watched the operation without flinching; but the wound gave him trouble, and he had to be carried about in a litter, as we have read in the story of Peter the Great. The “boys in blue” did wonders, but the struggle was really hopeless. They were utterly defeated, and Charles barely escaped with his life. He at length crossed the River Dnieper with the remnant of his army and took refuge with the Turks; and in the Turkish town of Bender, seven hundred miles from Sweden, he lived for several years. The sultan of Turkey treated him kindly, and in Bender, Charles built for himself a stone house with walls like those of a fort. The sultan also gave him a body guard of janissaries. These men became very fond of him and when they found what a strong will he had, they called him “Iron Head.” Some of them said, “If Allah (God) would only give us such a ruler we could conquer the world.” Peter the Great had seized certain Turkish ports on the Black Sea, as well as the Swedish ports of the Baltic. So Charles proposed to the sultan that the Turks and Swedes should unite their forces against Russia. To this the sultan agreed and, in 1710, war was declared and an army of two hundred thousand men marched against the Russians. Peter had only about forty thousand, and he was very anxious for peace. He sent a wagon-load of money to the Turkish commander and persuaded him to sign a treaty. Charles was not with the Turkish army when this was done; but he arrived immediately afterwards. He was terribly disappointed, and more so when the sultan wrote him a letter advising him to return to Sweden. Charles refused to go. This made the sultan angry; and he sent orders to seize Charles and take him, alive or dead, away from Bender. Charles sent word back that if they attempted to do this he would fight; and so an attack was made upon him in the house which he 339

FAMOUS MEN OF MODERN TIMES had built as a defense. Some of the Turkish soldiers refused to fight against him, and thirty of them were drowned in the River Dnieper by the sultan’s orders. Fifty of the soldiers who were friendly to him tried to persuade Charles to put himself into their hands; and when they failed they said, “Oh, Iron Head! Allah has made thee mad!” Twelve thousand Turks then attacked Charles in his quarters. He fought bravely for his life, but was finally captured and turned over to the Turkish commander. He looked very unlike a king. His clothes were torn to rags, and his face was so blackened with powder and smeared with blood that he could scarcely be recognized. When the people in Sweden heard of his capture some were greatly delighted at the king’s bravery; but the wisest men of the kingdom felt grieved; and, all over Europe, it was said that Charles had gone mad. Some of the people in Sweden now said that unless Charles returned to Sweden they must have another ruler; and a letter was sent to him imploring him to come home. This caused him at last to leave Turkey; and at midnight, of November 11, 1714, he entered the fortified town of Stralsund, which belonged to Sweden. His people were overjoyed at his return, but were disappointed that he did not cross the Baltic and come into Sweden itself. The neighboring powers were glad to have him stay in Stralsund. Six of them—Russia, Prussia, Poland, Saxony, Denmark and Hanover—had declared war against Sweden; and they thought they could capture King Charles quite easily while he was in Stralsund. They besieged the town; but Charles defended it bravely. To encourage his men he went to the most dangerous places. He even took his meals within range of the enemy’s guns. He slept on the ground with a stone for his pillow; and shared all the hardships of the siege equally with the common soldiers. But, in spite of all his bravery, Charles saw that Stralsund must surrender. He therefore crossed the Baltic in a boat and made his home in the city of Lund, in Sweden. Poor Sweden was almost ruined; 340

Charles XII defends his house against the Turks (Zick)

FAMOUS MEN OF MODERN TIMES and its future looked very dark indeed. It seemed as though Charles could not see in what a wretched state his kingdom was. Everybody else knew that Sweden must have peace; for she had lost in battle or by disease almost one fourth of all her men. Most of the fisheries were abandoned, because the fishermen had been taken to man the fleet. A large part of the farms were cultivated by women and boys. There was a great scarcity of meat, butter, and tallow; and as tallow was used for making candles, the people were unable to work in the mornings or evenings, because no candles could be bought. The king shared the poverty of his people. There was no silver on his table. All his dishes were of pewter. He slept on a straw mattress with his cloak spread over him. His passion for war was as strong as ever; and finally he determined to invade Norway, which then belonged to Denmark. He attacked the Norwegian fortress called Fredericksten. Trenches were dug within gun-shot of the fortress. One morning as he was looking over the top of one of the trenches, he was struck by a bullet and instantly killed. Charles was a brave man, but he was not a good ruler. He had a great fondness for fighting, and a strange power of making others fond of it. His people loved him; and they continue to honor him. He brought his country to the verge of ruin. More than one hundred and fifty thousand men perished in his wars; and he left Sweden poorer both in territory and in wealth than it was when his reign began.

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Frederick the Great 1712-1786 In the year 1730 all Europe was startled with strange news. Tidings went from kingdom to kingdom that the crown prince of Prussia had been condemned to death by a court martial on a charge brought by his father the king. When the news reached Vienna, the emperor of Austria sent word to the Prussian king begging him not to allow his son to be executed, and the kings of Poland and Sweden made the same request. The young man was charged with being a deserter from the Prussian army. He belonged to a famous regiment called the “Potsdam Guard,” of which his father was very proud. His father was a hard, harsh man. The one thing that he loved to do was to save money—the one thing that he disliked to do was to spend it. Frederick had been made to study hard when he was only seven years old. His father’s rule was that he should get up at six in the morning, not staying in bed one minute after he was called. On Saturday morning he was examined on the lessons learned during the week, and if he passed a good examination, the afternoon was given him as a half holiday; if the examination was not good, he had to stay in and study. Then besides studying he was obliged before he was twelve years old to drill as a soldier. But young Frederick was not so fond of playing soldier as most boys are. You will not be surprised to hear that the crown prince was not very fond of his father, and the king seems to have really hated the prince. Once it is said that he tried to strangle him to death with the cord of a curtain. The prince at length made up his mind that he would run away from his father’s palace and go to stay with his uncle, George II, who was king of England. But his father discovered his plan and thwarted 343

Frederick the Great (Camphausen)

FREDERICK THE GREAT it. Then came the court martial. The prince was found guilty of deserting his regiment, and was sentenced to death. He would have been executed had not the emperor of Austria and the kings of Poland and Sweden said so much against it. A few days later the prince signed a promise to submit to his father. He was then released from prison and watched very carefully. As he now behaved himself to suit the crusty old king, he was made colonel of the Potsdam Guard. Not long after this his father had a serious sickness, and was never quite strong again as long as he lived. He became softened and affectionate toward his son, and before his death he saw what a mistake he had made in thinking so little of him. Frederick II began his reign on May 31, 1740. The next day he made this promise to the people, â&#x20AC;&#x153;Our great care shall be to make every one of our subjects contented and happy.â&#x20AC;? He began well. Sometime before his fatherâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s death, the crops in Prussia had failed, and a famine prevailed; but the miserly old king was afraid of being cheated and would not sell to the people the wheat which belonged to the crown. Frederick II at once sold the grain to all who needed it, and ordered that a thousand poor women should be comfortably fed and clothed at his own expense. He altered his manner of living. He made a great change in the army, enlarged it to the number of one hundred thousand, and, very early in his reign, he went to war. His reason for fighting was this. About a hundred years before he was born one of his ancestors made an agreement with the duke of a province called Silesia, that if either of them should die without an heir, his territory should go to the other. This agreement was duly written on parchment and signed and sealed. The Duke of Silesia died leaving no heir. So, by the agreement, Silesia ought to have become part of Prussia. However, the archduke of Austria took possession of it. It had been a part of Austria so long that most people seemed to have forgotten that Prussia had a claim to it. Frederick II did not forget; and soon after he came to the throne he wrote to Maria Theresa, the archduchess of Austria, and made the 345

The Justice of Frederick (Allegorical)

FREDERICK THE GREAT claim that Silesia was part of his dominions. He offered to pay a large sum of money for the province, though he said it was his; but Maria refused to give it or sell it. Frederick without loss of time marched with a large army into the country. Breslau, the capital of Silesia, opened its gates to him without resistance, and most of the other towns followed its example. Maria Theresa sent a large army into the field, and Frederick’s first battle was fought. It took place near a town called Mollwitz. This battle is famous not because of the number of men who were killed and wounded, but because King Frederick himself fled from the field. After his flight the tide turned, and his troops gained the victory. Maria Theresa was greatly alarmed. But she did a very wise thing. She was queen of Hungary as well as archduchess of Austria. She knew that the Hungarians were great fighters. So she invited the nobles of Hungary to meet her, and said to them, “You are my only allies, and I throw myself on your generosity.” These words went to their hearts and they voted that all Hungary should arm and fight for her. But her troops were again badly defeated and she was forced to surrender nearly all of Silesia to Frederick. In twenty months Frederick thus won for Prussia a territory larger than Massachusetts, Connecticut, and Rhode Island put together. And really it was a fortunate thing for the Silesians that they became Prussians. The province was soon far more productive and prosperous than it had ever been, and the people were a great deal happier. When peace came, Frederick was as busy at home as on the field of battle. To do what he thought a king ought to do, he found that his day must contain a great many hours. So he gave orders that a servant should awaken him at four o’clock. On several mornings he dropped asleep again after being called. So he ordered the servant to mop his face at four o’clock with a cold wet towel. This made him wide awake, and through his life, four was his hour for rising. He went to bed about nine or ten; so he hardly ever had more than six hours sleep. Maria Theresa kept him busy, for she did not rest content with the loss of Silesia. Frederick had reason to suppose that she was going 347

FAMOUS MEN OF MODERN TIMES to try to regain the lost province; so he immediately invaded her territories. He gained four victories, and thus secured Silesia a second time. After Frederick had conquered her in the second Silesian War, she found Russia, France, Sweden, and Saxony ready to fight against him. Maria Theresa and her new friends agreed that they would destroy Frederick’s army, get possession of Prussia, and divide it among themselves. But Frederick took his enemies by surprise. On August 24, 1756, he invaded Saxony, and thus began what is known as the Seven Years’ War. At the very beginning he was successful and forced the whole Saxon army to surrender. After this, however, his good fortune left him. The Austrians gained a great victory over him at a place called Kolin (ko len΄); and in about three years from the beginning of the war the allies had really almost ruined him. Another great battle was fought with the Austrians and Prussians at a place called Kunersdorf (koo΄ ners dorf). When Frederick saw that this battle also was likely to be lost, he led the attack three times himself. Three horses were killed under him. A bullet struck a small metal box in his vest pocket and was flattened. Had it not been for the box he must have been killed. All his efforts, however, were in vain. The defeat was terrible, and Frederick was in despair. He wrote to a friend, “All is lost. I will not survive the ruin of the Fatherland. Adieu forever.” It is said at this time he kept in his pocket some little pills of poison ready to take, if all seemed hopeless. Then a piece of good luck happened. The Russians expected the Austrians to feed their army because it was fighting for them; but, instead of sending flour, the Austrians sent money. The Russian general said that his men could not eat silver; and as winter was approaching, he marched home to Russia. The campaign of the year now closing, 1759, the year so famous in America for the conquest of Canada by the English—had been most unfortunate for Frederick. He had lost six thousand men, and Prussia was nearly exhausted both of men and of money. 348

Frederick addressing his generals

FAMOUS MEN OF MODERN TIMES But the king was wonderfully brave, and he inspired all Prussia with courage and hope. Besides, he gained some victories. One night when he was sitting half asleep by one of his watch fires, a horseman galloped into camp, exclaiming, “Where is the king?” “Here!” answered Frederick. The rider hurriedly said, “The enemy has driven in our outposts and is not five hundred yards from our left wing.” Instantly Frederick gave his orders, and in a few minutes ten cannons were pouring shot into the ranks of the enemy. The attack of the Austrians was terrible; but the Prussians stood their ground heroically, and the Austrians were driven back. They lost ten thousand men, the Prussians only eighteen hundred. The tide had turned, and another great battle gained at Torgau (tor΄gou) left Frederick a third time master of Silesia. When a treaty was made, Maria Theresa was obliged to give up the province forever. Prussia at the beginning of Frederick’s reign had been small and insignificant. At the end of the Seven Years’ War she was one of the Great Powers of Europe. Frederick was as great in peace as in war. He lent money to those in need. He furnished seed to the farmers. He called himself “the chief servant of the state,” and really worked like a slave for the good of his people. It is said that in seven years the country was as prosperous as ever. One of the most remarkable and one of the saddest things ever done in Europe was what is called the “Partition of Poland.” Russia, Austria, and Prussia determined to cut up the little kingdom and divide it among themselves. Yet Prussia’s share of Poland was much benefited by being brought under the government of Frederick. When he took charge of it the people were in a wretched condition. Frederick soon changed all this and the country became prosperous and its inhabitants comfortable. To the last he was a rigid disciplinarian; he was as severe upon himself as upon others. In August, 1786, he ordered the army to go through a number of sham fights. While witnessing one of these he caught a chill which brought on an illness from which he never recovered. 350

FREDERICK THE GREAT At about twelve o’clock on the night of his death, one of his dogs which was sitting near him was shivering with cold, and Frederick said “Throw a quilt over him.” These were the last words which he spoke, and at half past two he was dead.

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William Pitt 1708-1778 While Frederick the Great was making Prussia a prominent European power, the elder William Pitt, first Earl of Chatham, was making England great. He held the office of prime minister only once, and that for not more than two years; but his wisdom and uprightness gave him such influence that he was the real ruler of the country for many years. He was born in 1708, in the southwestern part of England, his father being a country gentleman of prominent family and considerable wealth. The childhood of the future statesman was passed amid rural scenes and pleasures. As a boy he was remarkably fond of books; and by his careful attention to study he gratified both his parents and his teachers. He was also a lover of sports and games. This, however, did not prevent his suffering, even during his school days, from attack of gout, a disease which he inherited. When he entered Trinity College, Oxford, few students of his age were so well-read. But owing to his lack of robust health he was obliged to leave the university, without taking his degree. Going to the continent, he spent two years in travel and study in France and Italy. He then returned to England, and secured an officerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s commission in a regiment of dragoons. He soon discovered that he had made a mistake in choosing the army as a profession. He saw that his best work could be done in public life. The young officer immediately began to take steps to secure a public position. Fortunately, the right of representing the borough of Old Sarum belonged to his family, and thus he was enabled to become a member of Parliament. His speeches in the House of Commons were forcible and at times 352

William Pitt (Brompton)

FAMOUS MEN OF MODERN TIMES very eloquent. One day he spoke against a measure proposed by Horace Walpole, then prime minister of England. Walpole was so offended at the strong language of Pitt that he had the latter dismissed from the army, with which he had not as yet severed his connection. “Now I shall turn my energies wholly to politics,” Pitt said to his friends. “I am really glad Walpole has prevented my remaining in the army. I am not in any way fitted to be a soldier.” From the time that Pitt entered Parliament to the last day of his life he was devoted to public affairs. He quickly showed that he had great genius for political management. There was no orator in the House of Commons whose speeches commanded so much attention. But the source of his power was no mystery. It was the simple fact that he invariably advocated measures which he believed to be for the benefit of the people. After some experience in political life he was chosen a member of the Cabinet, and though he was not nominally prime minister, he was really at the head of the government. Nearly all its important measures were suggested by him. He ventured, on one occasion, to oppose the wishes of King George II, and consequently was obliged to resign his position. But the king found it impossible to carry on the government without him. The people demanded that he should return to office, and within a few months he was recalled. The condition of England at this time was one of feebleness. Pitt put the army and navy into such a condition that during the famous “Seven Years’ War” in which England, as the ally of Frederick the Great, was at war with France, the latter country was forced to cede to England most valuable possessions both in America and India. Pitt inspired England with national enthusiasm. It was during the years 1756–1761 that he had the fullest opportunity to show his surpassing qualities. His wise choice of men like Wolfe in Canada and Clive in India, and his vigorous measures in the management of foreign affairs, made England respected in every part of the world. The people called him the “great commoner,” because, up to this time, he was without a title of nobility. Never before had so great a leader of public affairs appeared in England. 354

WILLIAM PITT The young king was obstinate. He was determined to be “a real king,” as he said. So one day when Pitt advised that war should be declared against Spain, which had made an alliance with France, the great enemy of England, the king and his council refused to agree to such a war. Pitt then decided to give up his office and have nothing further to do with the management of the government. The king received his resignation calmly, and made no request to Pitt to remain in office; nevertheless, he granted him a pension of fifteen thousand dollars a year. After his retirement from office, Pitt remained in the House of Commons; and was, as he had so long been, its foremost member. His eloquent voice was constantly heard in the debates, and his word had influence not only with Parliament, but with the whole nation. Twice he was urged to take part in the government but refused. At last, in 1766, King George invited him to choose a ministry to suit himself, and Pitt accepted the invitation. In the new ministry he selected for himself the office of Privy Seal, with a seat in the House of Lords as Viscount Pitt and Earl of Chatham. His acceptance of a title lost him at first considerable popularity; but his continued devotion to the people’s interests, even as a member of the nobility, eventually restored public confidence. He ceased to be prime minister in 1768 and was succeeded in that office by Lord North. Like Burke, he denounced in the most fearless manner the arbitrary and unjust measures of the government of Lord North toward the American colonies. He insisted that the colonists were entitled to all the rights of British subjects; and urged in the warmest way that the difficulties between them and the government should be amicably settled. The name of Pittsburg, in Pennsylvania, was given by his American admirers to commemorate his efforts in behalf of the rights of his colonial fellow citizens. When he died, in May 1778, the entire English nation, in the colonies as well as at home, mourned with genuine grief. He had been a patriot and a statesman—not a mere politician.

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Death of William Pitt

George Washington 1732-1799 George Washington, familiarly known as the Father of his Country, was born on a plantation in Virginia called Bridgeâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Creek, on February 22, 1732. When he was three years old the house in which he was born was burned down, and the family moved to another plantation on the Rappahannock, opposite Fredericksburg. He was the eldest of five children, although he had a half-brother named Lawrence, who was fifteen years older than himself. His father died when he was but eleven years of age. But his mother, who was a strong and healthy woman, took up her burden bravely and brought up her family with great care. It is generally admitted that Washington got his manly qualities from his mother. In features and in mental characteristics he resembled her very closely. After the death of Georgeâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s father one of his estates called Mount Vernon, on the Potomac River, was inherited by Lawrence. Lawrence Washington was fond of George, and often invited him to spend his holidays at Mount Vernon. An English nobleman, named Lord Fairfax, lived near Mount Vernon, and often visited Lawrence Washington. In this way he became acquainted with George. Lord Fairfax owned an immense tract of wild forest land in Virginia. He had never seen it himself, and few white men had ever been on it. Lord Fairfax was an old gentleman, but he took a great liking to George Washington. When he found that the young man understood surveying he engaged him to survey these lands. When only sixteen George entered upon his task. This was quite an undertaking for one so young. But in three years the survey was finished; and it was so well done that it stands to this day. Lawrence Washington died in 1752, and in his will he made 357

FAMOUS MEN OF MODERN TIMES

Washington as a surveyor George guardian to his daughter and heir to Mount Vernon in case of her death. George had now grown to manhood. He was wonderfully strong and athletic and could out-run, out-leap and out-ride all the young men of his acquaintance. So fully did he command the confidence of those who knew him that he was appointed to positions of great trust and responsibility. At the age of twenty-three he was made colonel and commanderin-chief of all the forces raised in Virginia for the defense of the Western Territory against the French. In this French War, as it was called, he received a splendid training, not only in success but in failure, and confidence in him was greatly increased when men saw how these failures and defeats raised his unconquerable spirit. In a second expedition Washington was again placed in command of the American troops. The French had built a fort at the point where the Allegheny and Monongahela Rivers join and form 358

GEORGE WASHINGTON the Ohio, which they called Fort Duquesne. Washington decided to capture this fort; but the French garrison were afraid to risk a battle; so they burned the fort and marched away into Canada. When Washington and his men arrived they found nothing but smoking ruins; but they took possession of the place in the name of King George. Sometime afterward, the English won a great victory over the French at Quebec. This gave them all French America from the St. Lawrence and the Great Lakes as far west as the Mississippi, and south to the Gulf of Mexico. At the end of the war, Washington returned to Mount Vernon. In May, 1758, Washington was called to Williamsburg to confer with the governor in regard to the condition of the Virginia troops. He traveled there on horseback, accompanied by his servant; and one day he stopped for dinner at the mansion of a hospitable planter. There he was introduced to a lovely young widow, Mrs. Martha Custis. Her manners and conversation were so pleasing to him that he spent the afternoon and evening in her company; and the next morning he rode away a captive to her charms. George Washington and Martha Custis were married on January 6, 1759. The union proved to be a very happy one. She adorned every station to which his greatness called her, and he was tenderly devoted to her till the end of his life. For several years Washington lived the life of a country gentleman. He was very fond of horses and hounds and often went fox hunting. But like other people in the American colonies he was greatly troubled by the unjust way in which the English king and his government were acting. The English Parliament ordered that a tax should be paid upon all the tea brought into New York, Boston, and the other ports of the colonies. As the colonists had no representative in Parliament they felt that they ought not to be taxed; and when a shipload of tea arrived in Boston a number of citizens went on board the vessel and threw the chests of tea into the harbor. This was called the â&#x20AC;&#x153;Boston Tea Party.â&#x20AC;? Washington hated the tea tax, and he and his friends refused to 359

FAMOUS MEN OF MODERN TIMES buy any goods that came from England. A number of men from all the colonies met together in a Congress to consider what should be done. They sent a letter to the king of England begging that they might have the same rights as those of his subjects who were born in England. Quite a number of men in the English Parliament said that the colonists were right. Among these was William Pitt, after whom the city of Pittsburg was named. But the Parliament was stubborn, and the Americans found that if they were to gain their rights they could only do so by fighting for them. So they took up arms and entered upon a great struggle for their liberties. The Congress of the Colonies raised an army, and Washington was made commander-in-chief. British troops had already been sent over to fight against the colonists. As Washington was riding from Mount Vernon to Cambridge, Massachusetts, people told him that a battle had taken place between the English soldiers and the colonial militia. His question was, “Did the militia fight?” “Yes!” was the answer. “Then” said Washington, “the liberties of the country are safe.” On arriving at Cambridge, Washington at once assumed command. The British held the city of Boston, but Washington made up his mind to take it. One cold night in March he fortified a hill which commanded the city. From its heights he discharged such a shower of shot and shell that the British commander found that Boston was not a safe place for him to stay in; so he took to his ships and left the city in Washington’s hands. This was a great victory for the colonists and they were much encouraged. On the fourth of July, 1776, Congress declared that the colonies no longer belonged to Great Britain, but were free and independent. A British fleet and army now arrived from England to capture New York. They landed on Long Island, and a battle was fought in which the Americans were badly defeated. The British rested for a couple of days after the battle; and during that time Washington led the American army across the East River, marched through New York, and on through Harlem to White 360

Signing the Declaration of Independence (Trumbull)

FAMOUS MEN OF MODERN TIMES Plains. There they dug trenches, threw up breastworks, and awaited the British attack. The English commander hesitated to attack them in this strong position, and Washington soon afterward crossed the Hudson into New Jersey. These were dark days for all who were fighting for liberty and independence. On several occasions Washington saved his army only by rapidly retreating from place to place. At Christmas, 1777, the main body of the British army were in winter quarters at New York, and the towns of Princeton and Trenton, in New Jersey, were also, held by them. Washington determined to make an advance movement against them. He crossed the Delaware amidst floating ice, marched to Trenton in a driving storm of sleet, and captured the town. He was also successful at Princeton, and Frederick the Great, the most famous soldier of Prussia, declared that “Washington’s victories at Trenton and Princeton were the most splendid gained in the eighteenth century.” He next won a great battle at Monmouth in New Jersey, and after that the outlook began to improve. Benjamin Franklin was then in Paris, and he persuaded the French government to help his countrymen. So a French fleet and an army came over, and rendered good service to the American cause. The Marquis de Lafayette, a young French nobleman had already come to this country and joined the colonial army. Washington admired him very greatly, and made him a major general. He was a brave man and a brilliant soldier, and will ever be kindly remembered by the American people. In 1781, the main division of the British army was at Yorktown in Virginia under the command of Lord Cornwallis. As soon as the French allies arrived, Washington went to see the commander of the fleet; and it was agreed that the French and Americans should unite and make an attack on Cornwallis. The French fleet sailed to Yorktown; and the French and Americans closing in upon the town by land, it was soon besieged on all sides. The British army was so closely cooped up in Yorktown that Cornwallis was finally obliged to surrender; and this victory brought the war to an end. 362

Washington crossing the Delaware (Lentz)

FAMOUS MEN OF MODERN TIMES Peace was made with England, and Washington returned to his beautiful home at Mount Vernon. Where he would have liked to spend the rest of his life in quiet. But the country still needed his help. Although our country was called the “United States of America” the states were not really united. They had joined in the war against England because all were in the same danger. But as soon as the danger was over, they began to disagree among themselves. There were thirteen independent states. Each of these states had its own governor, but there was no president over all. There was really no nation, and of course there was no constitution. Washington said there must be a union that would keep the states together in peace as well as in war. Most of the people felt as he did; and so, in 1789, a constitution was drawn up and adopted by the states. This constitution provided that there should be a president elected by the people to be the ruler of the nation; that laws should be made which the people in all the states must obey; and that these laws should be made by Congress and the president. After the constitution had been adopted, an election was held, and George Washington, being the unanimous choice of his countrymen, became the first president of the United States of America. New York was then the capital city of the country, and after his election Washington went to live there. His journey from Mount Vernon to New York was one long triumphal march. Congress then held its meetings in a hall in Wall Street; and in front of that hall he took the oath to serve the country faithfully and to maintain the constitution. An immense crowd had gathered to witness this ceremony; and as soon as it was performed they shouted “God bless George Washington, president of the United States.” Bells pealed and cannons roared, and there was great rejoicing all over the land. So well did Washington rule that when his term of office expired he was again the choice of the people; and they would have elected him a third time had not he himself declined the great honor. He wrote “A Farewell Address to the People of the United States,” and went back to Virginia to live amid the quiet scenes of Mount Vernon and enjoy a well-earned rest. 364

Washington and Lafayette at Mount Vernon (Rossiter)

Inauguration of Washington (Chappel)

GEORGE WASHINGTON Not quite three years passed when, in December, 1799, he took a severe cold as he was riding over his farm in a storm of sleet. He failed very rapidly from the first; and, two days later, George Washington, the Father of his Country, was dead. He was buried at Mount Vernon. The entire nation sincerely mourned the loss of its founder and friend; and the world grieved for the death of one of its grandest heroes.

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Robespierre 1758-1794 A few years after the American Revolution had freed the thirteen colonies from the tyranny of George III, the great French Revolution began. This was also a struggle against tyranny, and Americans can scarcely help sympathizing with the French who, for many generations, had been deprived of their just rights. One of the great leaders of the French Revolution was Robespierre (robs pyarÎ&#x201E;). He was born at Arras, in France, on May 6, 1758. He was left an orphan at the age of nine, and obtained his early education in the schools of his native town through the kindness of a warm-hearted bishop who had known his father.

Robespierre (Carbon by Braun, Clement)

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ROBESPIERRE He afterwards entered the college of Louis le Grand in Paris. He was a clever student, and when Louis XVI entered Paris, at the beginning of his reign, Robespierre was chosen by vote of his fellow students to present him with an address of welcome. After his graduation, in 1781, he was called to the bar; but resigned on account of his reluctance to pronounce sentence of death. Nevertheless, it is said that he was cruel even as a child, and that he took great pleasure in mean little acts that would give pain to others. He appears to have felt, very early in life, a great hatred for people who were wealthy and of high rank. As a youth, he talked a great deal about the rights of the lower classes, and the wrong doings of the upper classes; and he declared that the power of doing so much wrong should be taken away from the king and his nobles. The poor people of France liked to hear such talk, for they had just reason to complain. Many of them came to look upon Robespierre as the champion of their rights, and to place much confidence in his ability to help them. The revolutionists had come to think that the only remedy for their wrongs was the death of King Louis XVI; just as in England Cromwell and his friends, a hundred and fifty years earlier, had believed that the English people could gain their rights only by the death of Charles I. Robespierre was determined that the king should be executed. He made a speech in which he said that France would be far better off without any king. He then went on to say that happiness and prosperity would return to the country if only Louis could be removed; and that the only way to remove him was to put him to death. Most of the Assembly thought that the person of a king was sacred; and that if his life was taken, the curse of God would rest upon those who took it. Robespierre boldly denied this; and the people were delighted with his words. They named him â&#x20AC;&#x153;The Incorruptible;â&#x20AC;? and they almost worshiped him. One day, when he was leaving the hall where the meetings of the Assembly were held, they placed a crown of oak leaves upon his head, unharnessed the horses from his carriage, and drew him to his home 369

FAMOUS MEN OF MODERN TIMES themselves. As they passed along the streets, they cried: “Behold the friend of the people! Behold the defender of liberty!” The revolutionists raised an army of their own, placed a guard around the palace, and made the king a prisoner. Then they brought him to trial and charged him with being the cause of all the troubles that the people of France had suffered during his reign. Three excellent lawyers were employed to defend him; and they spoke very strongly in his behalf. But on January 16, 1793, this mock court sentenced him to death. After the death of Louis XVI, Robespierre became the absolute master of France; and he was so cruel that the period of his rule has been called “The Reign of Terror.” People were afraid, when they rose in the morning, that they might be beheaded during the day; and when they went to bed they feared lest assassins might enter their rooms and kill them while they slept. It is stated, on good authority, that the executions during Robespierre’s rule averaged about thirty a day. After a while people began to see that their condition had not improved. Everybody in Paris was extremely unhappy; and some did not hesitate to say that they were worse off under Robespierre than they had been under Louis XVI. As Robespierre himself had taught the people that the death of the ruler was the great remedy for their troubles, many persons began to think that it would be the best thing for France if Robespierre himself should be put to death. A conspiracy was formed to bring Robespierre to trial; and one day a bold speaker arose in the Convention and openly blamed him for his cruelty. Robespierre rose from his seat and was about to make a speech in his own defense; but the hall was filled with cries of “Down with the tyrant! Down with the tyrant!” and he fled from the building in great alarm. In a few moments he was surrounded by the officers of the Convention. As they were about to seize him he tried to kill himself by firing a pistol at his head; but the ball only fractured his lower jaw. Together with twenty of his friends he was executed on the same day on which he was arrested. 370

Arrest of Robespierre (Melingue)

Napoleon Bonaparte 1769-1821 The home of Napoleon Bonaparte for the first ten years of his life was at Ajaccio (a yat΄ cho) on the island of Corsica. When ten years of age he was sent to a military school. At sixteen he entered the army. When France was declared a republic he sided with the revolutionists. Some of the people of Paris did not like the idea of a republic, and about forty thousand of them marched through the streets to attack the Tuileries where the republican Convention was sitting. The Convention had learned that an attack was to be made on them, and they had prepared to resist it. They had troops; but they needed a commander. One of the members who knew Napoleon said, “I know just the man you want. He is a little Corsican officer and will not stand upon ceremony.”

Napoleon at school in Brienne (Dumas)

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NAPOLEON BONAPARTE Napoleon was sent for and put in command. He led out their forces and many of the royalists were killed or wounded, and the rest fled. He had done his work well, and the Convention at once gave him a higher position. A French army, sent to attack the Austrians in North Italy was placed under his command. The soldiers were greatly dissatisfied because their pay was in arrears. Napoleon said to them, “I will lead you into the most fertile fields that the sun shines on. Rich provinces and great cities shall be your reward.” The Austrians posted themselves near a town called Lodi, on the bank of the River Adda. A bridge crossed the Adda into the town, and this bridge was first taken. Then Napoleon and General Lannes made a splendid charge and captured the town itself. Four days later Napoleon entered Milan, and compelled that wealthy city to pay him nearly four million dollars. Mantua was also captured and the palaces of the dukes and nobles were plundered. When peace was made Austria was obliged to surrender Belgium, Corfu and the Ionian Islands, and to liberate General Lafayette and other Frenchmen held in Austrian prisons. With French aid, republics were established in Switzerland, Naples, and Rome; and Napoleon then said: “If my voice has any influence England shall never have one hour’s truce until she is destroyed.” But his next campaign was in Egypt, where he was again victorious. The English commander, Nelson, however, destroyed the ships in which the French soldiers were expecting to return; and so Napoleon, leaving fifteen thousand troops to hold possession of Egypt, marched the remainder of his army into Palestine. He was successful in an attack on Jaffa. Then he proceeded northward to Acre, which was garrisoned by the Turks. After besieging this town for more than sixty days, he was compelled to withdraw. Napoleon then returned to Egypt and found a great Turkish army just about to attack the troops he had left there; but he conquered them in a single battle and once more hastened back to France, where he was warmly welcomed by the people, and was the idol of the army. At that time France was governed by five men who were called “The Directory,” or ruling body of France. There was also a “Council 373

FAMOUS MEN OF MODERN TIMES of Five Hundred,” something like our House of Representatives. The Directory resigned; and since many of the Council of Five Hundred disliked him, Napoleon had them turned out of office. Napoleon and two associates were then made rulers of France, under the title of Consuls; and, although he was known as the “First Consul,” he was the real governor of the French nation. One of the first things Napoleon did after being made First Consul, was to write a letter to George III, king of England, proposing that England and France should make peace. The English government replied that the easiest thing for France to do, if she desired peace with the other powers of Europe, would be to restore the royal family to the throne. Napoleon then made his famous attack on Italy, which had been lost to France while he was in Egypt. Sixty thousand men were ordered to cross the Alps. They were to go by four different passes and then to meet in Italy. Cannon had to be dragged over the snow; and sometimes a hundred men were required to handle a single large gun. They passed the Monastery of St. Bernard and descended into Italy. A desperate battle was fought at Marengo; and, after a partial defeat, the French were again victorious. The conqueror returned home in triumph, but his enemies attempted to assassinate him by exploding a barrel of gunpowder under his carriage. The carriage, however, had got safely past before the explosion took place. This incident led to giving him still greater power, and Napoleon was from that time considered as the emperor of the French. In 1801, the very next year after the victory at Marengo, British troops landed in Egypt, and in one short campaign drove the French out of that country. When Napoleon heard that Egypt was lost, he said, “Well! There remains only the descent on Britain;” and in a short time one hundred and sixty thousand men were ready to invade England. An immense number of flat-bottomed boats were prepared to carry this force across the channel. But Lord Nelson was guarding the English coasts by day and by night. Napoleon knew that Nelson’s guns would soon sink his boats; and so a treaty of peace was made in 374

Napoleon in Egypt

FAMOUS MEN OF MODERN TIMES 1802, and the struggle with England was again postponed. Napoleon was as great a tyrant as Louis XVI; and he tried to be as tyrannical in foreign countries as he was at home. The people of northern Italy were so alarmed by his victories at Lodi, Mantua, and Marengo, that they allowed him to take from them all independence and make their states a province of France. He treated Switzerland in the same way. The peace between France and England lasted but one year, and then Napoleon again prepared for an invasion. A large army was assembled in camps along the coasts of France and Holland, but the French were again hindered from sailing by the vigilance of Nelson. The coronation of the emperor and empress, on May 18, 1804, was a very grand affair; and the French people seemed to be well satisfied with their new rulers. A few months later Napoleon went to Milan and there crowned himself “King of Italy” with the famous iron crown of Charlemagne. This angered the Austrians and Russians, and Russia and England became the allies of Austria. Napoleon continued to wage war until his very name became a terror, and after his great victory at Austerlitz men feared him more and more. At the battle of Jena (ya΄ na), where he fought against the Prussians, he was again triumphant, and he carried himself as though he was the master of the world. He divorced his wife Josephine, and married Maria Louisa, daughter of the Emperor of Austria. Troubles again arose with Russia, and Napoleon’s advisors tried to persuade him not Napoleon in coronation robes (Gerard) to go to war; but he said, “The 376

NAPOLEON BONAPARTE states of Europe must be melted into one nation, and Paris must be its capital.” The Russian army was only about half as large as that of the French. By a system of carefully arranged retreats it lured Napoleon and his men into the very heart of Russia. Near Moscow a battle was fought which lasted all day, and neither party could claim the victory. Next morning the Russians had disappeared, and the French army entered the city and pillaged it. But so many fires occurred that Napoleon was obliged to leave the city just as the terrible Russian winter began. When the French entered Moscow, over one hundred thousand soldiers answered the roll-call; but when they returned to France only twelve thousand were alive. It has been well said that “the fortunes of Napoleon were buried in the Russian snows.” England, Russia, Prussia, Sweden and Austria now declared war against him. He was defeated at Leipzig and again driven back into France. The allied armies pursued him, captured Paris, forced him to abdicate, and placed Louis XVIII on the throne. Napoleon was banished to a little island in the Mediterranean, called Elba.

Napoleon at the Battle of Jena (Vernet)

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FAMOUS MEN OF MODERN TIMES Louis XVIII tried to govern as his brother had done before the revolution, and the French again became discontented. When, therefore, the news was heard that Napoleon had escaped from Elba and was again in France, the whole nation broke into the wildest rejoicing, and Napoleon was once more emperor. He marched into Belgium, and there fought his last battle. He had a fine army, and the English and Prussian generals, Wellington and Blucher, were equally well equipped. Napoleon managed to get between the English and Prussian armies. He defeated the Prussians on June 16, but in turn was beaten by the English. Then on the heights about Waterloo, the decisive battle was fought, June 18, 1815. Both sides fought with great bravery. In front of the English was a sunken road cut into the hill like a ditch; and this was concealed from the French by a hedge. Three thousand five hundred of the French cavalry plunged into this ditch, as they rode up rank after rank; and the survivors were compelled to ride over the struggling bodies of their comrades. Then the English, drawn up in solid masses, received the French charge on the points of their bayonets, and, at the same time, poured a heavy fire into their broken ranks. At about five in the afternoon Blucher appeared and united his troops with those of Wellington. Napoleon’s famous “Old Guard” made a charge which Wellington himself said was “splendid;” but the French army was thrown into confusion and Wellington won the day. A month later Napoleon went on board the Bellerophon, an English man-of-war, and surrendered himself to the captain. He was afterwards taken by the British to an island in the Atlantic Ocean, called St. Helena, and was kept a prisoner there until his death in 1821. In 1840, the French government requested the English to allow them to bring his body to France. In Paris the body was received by Louis Philippe, who was then king of France. More than a million people gathered in the streets through which the funeral procession passed; and thirty thousand were present at the funeral service, which closed with a requiem sung by three hundred voices. 378

Napoleon on board the Bellerophon (Orchardson)

Horatio Nelson 1758-1805 Horatio Nelson was born in 1758. At twelve years of age he asked permission to go to sea with an uncle named Suckling; but as his uncle did not sail that year, he was sent in charge of a friend, on a voyage to the West Indies. It was not many days before the sailor boy knew the name of every rope on the ship, and the use of each. He could “box the compass,” that is, repeat the names of all the thirty-two points backwards and forwards, and could tell in what direction the ship was sailing. When he returned to England he was fonder of the sea than ever. Some time after reaching home he heard that two ships of the navy were going to the North Pole, and he obtained permission to go with them. The vessels after sailing far toward the north, were becalmed. The weather became very cold, and they were surrounded by great fields of ice. One night, while they were frozen up in the ice fields, Nelson and one of his comrades stole away from their ship to attack a huge polar bear. Pretty soon they were missed; but although they were not far away a thick fog prevented those on board from seeing them. The captain became alarmed, the signal for their return was fired, and Nelson, much disappointed; went back to the ship. Fortunately, a wind soon sprang up from the east and a current drifted them into clear water. In due time they sighted “Old England” once more. Nelson’s next voyage was to the East Indies, and there he cruised about for eighteen months. The hot climate did not agree with him, and he was finally sent home; but on the voyage his health improved so much that when he reached England he was ready to go to sea again. The Spaniards then claimed Central and South America; and 380

HORATIO NELSON England was at war with Spain. So a plan was proposed to seize that part of South America where the canal is now being cut to connect the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. There the Spaniards had two forts, and Nelson was sent to capture them. When he got near one of them he leaped ashore from his boat. He alighted on ground so soft that he sank into it and lost his shoes. But this did not stop him. Barefoot he led on his men and took one fort. The other was also soon taken; but the climate of the region was far more deadly than the guns of the Spaniards; and Nelson was obliged to return to England on sick leave. It was three months before he was well enough to go to sea again. He was then appointed to the Albemarle, a vessel of twenty-eight guns. This was at the time that George III was trying to conquer the American colonies; and Nelson was sent to cruise in the waters of Canada and New England. After the surrender of the British at Yorktown, Nelson wrote home: â&#x20AC;&#x153;I have closed the war without a fortune; but there is not a speck on my character.â&#x20AC;? After the execution of Louis XVI, England, as we have said, was at war with France, and Nelson was put in command of the Agamemnon, a ship of sixty-four guns. The French, at about this time, took possession of the little island of Corsica on which Napoleon was born. They placed a garrison in a fortified town called Calvi; and the English laid siege to it. The Agamemnon was ordered to aid the land forces; and so Nelson took his men and guns ashore, and fought on the land. Calvi was taken and Corsica was annexed to Great Britain; but for Nelson this battle proved a serious matter. A shot struck the ground near him and drove some sand and gravel into his eye. He thought, at first, that no great harm had been done; but the sight of the eye was lost. A short time after this the English admiral under whom Nelson was serving, learned that a French fleet of twenty-two vessels, with over sixteen thousand men, was not far off. The English fleet consisted of only fifteen ships, with half as many men as the French. However, when they came in sight of the French they gave chase. The Agamemnon with her sixty-four guns followed a French 381

FAMOUS MEN OF MODERN TIMES frigate of eighty-four, called the Ca Ira. Nelson was all alone, for the other ships of the English fleet were several miles distant. Near the Ca Ira were three other French vessels of one hundred and thirty guns. Nelson sailed close up to the big ship, and when about one hundred yards astern of her, suddenly ordered the helm to be put to the right, and fired his whole broadside—that is, all the guns on one side of his vessel. Then he ordered the helm hard to the left and started after the Frenchmen again; and when he came near he turned and fired another broadside. This he did again and again for two hours and a quarter, always keeping out of the range of the enemy’s guns. But so many other French ships came upon the scene that, fearing that they would prove too much for him, he sailed away and joined the English fleet. Next morning the French fleet was again discovered about five miles away; but the Ca Ira had been so much injured that she had to be towed, and was only about three and a half miles distant. Nelson attacked both the Ca Ira and the vessel which was towing her. The French fought gallantly, but the guns of the Agamemnon were so well aimed that the two French ships lost about three hundred men. Then both of them lowered their colors and surrendered. Spain was now in alliance with France and fighting against England. Nelson attacked a Spanish frigate, and after conquering her had the captain brought on board his ship. Then four more Spanish vessels hove in sight and Nelson prudently sailed away. As soon as he reached a port, he gave the Spanish captain his liberty and sent him to his friends under a flag of truce. Not long after this the English fleet of nineteen vessels was signaled to keep in line of battle all night. At daybreak a Spanish fleet of thirty-eight vessels was in sight. Sir John Jervis, finding that they were much scattered, ordered the English ships to sail in among them and attack them. Nelson was so much afraid that the Spanish ships would escape that he was soon engaged with seven Spanish vessels which had in all about six hundred guns. Fortunately two British vessels came up to the assistance of Nelson’s ship. Both these ships were damaged by shots from the guns of the Spaniards; but at length Nelson managed to steer alongside of 382

Nelson boarding the St. Nicholas

FAMOUS MEN OF MODERN TIMES one of the Spanish vessels called the St. Nicholas, and he and his men boarded her. The Spanish officers took refuge in the cabin, and fired at the boarding party through the windows; but the English forced the doors and the Spaniards surrendered their swords to Nelson. Another Spanish vessel called the San Joseph lay close to the St. Nicholas; and the English, led by Nelson himself, forced her to surrender. For his great bravery Nelson was made a Knight of the Bath, and so became Sir Horatio Nelson. His next adventure was an attack upon Teneriffe; and there he was so severely injured in the right arm that he was obliged to have it amputated. After recovering from his wound he was again placed in command. His vessel was the Vanguard. Napoleon was preparing his great expedition for the conquest of Egypt. Nelson sailed in search of the French and defeated them in the great battle of the Nile. In this engagement he was again wounded, but not so seriously as was at first supposed. After the battle he again returned to England. When he entered the harbor of Yarmouth every ship in port hoisted her colors; and in London he was drawn in triumph through the streets, and presented by the City Council with a gold-hilted sword studded with diamonds. Napoleon was now at the height of his power. Denmark, Sweden and Russia had formed an alliance with France to try and take from England her sovereignty of the seas. The hostile fleets met off Copenhagen. Part of the English fleet was under Nelson’s command. The admiral who was chief in command was at some distance when the battle began. Thinking that the engagement was going against them, he gave the signal to cease firing; and the officer on Nelson’s ship whose duty it was to watch for signals reported this to Nelson. Nelson put his spyglass to his blind eye and looking toward the admiral’s ship, said, “I really do not see the signal. Keep mine flying for closer battle.” Soon white flags were flying from the mastheads of many of the Danish vessels. Nelson had disobeyed orders, but he had gained the 384

HORATIO NELSON victory, and the enemy’s fleet was disabled. In 1804 France induced Spain to join her in a war against England, and a French and Spanish fleet sailed to the West Indies to attack the English and take possession there. But they returned to Europe, and Nelson learning that they were at Cadiz, went there to meet them. Soon after his arrival, one of his frigates on the lookout, gave the signal that the French and Spanish fleet was coming out of port. Just before they went into battle Nelson wrote a remarkable prayer and his last wishes. Then he ordered the famous signal to be made to the fleet, “England expects every man to do his duty.” The French had some Tyrolese riflemen on one of their ships; and a ball from one of their rifles struck Nelson on the shoulder. He fell. When taken up he said to his captain, “They have done for me at last, Hardy. My backbone is shot through.” He knew that his wound was fatal, and when carried to the cockpit told the surgeon to attend to the others, “for” said he, “you can do nothing for me.” About an hour after he was wounded Captain Hardy came to see him. “Well, Hardy,” said he, “how goes the day with us?” “Very well,” said Hardy, “ten ships have struck.” In less than an hour the captain returned and taking Nelson’s hand, congratulated him on having gained a complete victory. Presently the dying man said, “Kiss me, Hardy.” Hardy knelt down and kissed his cheek: and Nelson said, “Now I am satisfied. Thank God I have done my duty.” These words he repeated several times; and they were his last. Thus Admiral Nelson, perhaps the greatest of England’s naval commanders died on his good ship “Victory,” in Trafalgar Bay, on October 21, 1805. His body was carried back to England, and was buried with great pomp in St. Paul’s Cathedral in London.

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Nelson in the Battle of Trafalgar

Thadeus Kosciusko 1746-1817 Americans will never cease to honor the memory of the Polish patriot, Thaddeus Kosciusko (kos si us΄ ko). In his early manhood he was one of the noble band of libertyloving foreigners, who came to the United States and aided the American patriots in their struggle for independence. Kosciusko was born in Poland in 1746. After a long and thorough course of study in the best military schools of Europe, he was appointed a Kosciusko captain in the Polish army. When the American revolution began, he determined to take part in it. He came to the United States and sought General Washington, who was commander-in-chief of the American army. “General,” he said, when he stood before Washington, “I have come to offer myself as a volunteer to fight for American independence.” “You are heartily welcome, captain,” replied Washington, warmly shaking the hand of Kosciusko. “The patriot cause has need of the services of everyone who is willing to aid it. What can you do?” “Try me,” said Kosciusko modestly. Washington smiled. “I will try you, captain,” he said cordially, “and I do not doubt that you will perform valuable service.” Kosciusko was appointed colonel of engineers, and soon showed by his skill in constructing fortifications that he could, indeed, render 387

FAMOUS MEN OF MODERN TIMES valuable service to the American army. He was subsequently made one of Washington’s staff officers, and served with the great commander for some time. “Never have I known better or more faithful service from anyone,” said Washington once when speaking of Kosciusko’s work as a staff officer. “He was prompt, diligent, full of enthusiasm, while at the same time he was a man of large education and accomplishments. I regarded him almost as a younger brother, and trusted him with my most important plans.” Toward the close of the war, Kosciusko was honored with the public thanks of the Continental Congress for his gallant deeds. He was appointed brigadier general, and for some months commanded a large force of the American army. When the revolution ended, Kosciusko went back to Poland, proud to have taken part in the patriotic struggle. His countrymen welcomed him home with enthusiasm; and later he was made major general in the Polish army. In 1791, the Poles were forced to resist an invasion of their country by the Russians and Prussians. Kosciusko took part in the war, and on two occasions by skillful management saved the Polish force from entire destruction. At the battle of Dubienka, with only about four thousand men, he kept at bay a Russian army of twenty thousand, and finally made his retreat without great loss. The Poles were generally out-numbered by the Russians and they fought gallantly; but they were completely over-powered. Russia and Prussia both annexed large parts of Poland. This annexation is known as the second partition of Poland. The first partition had taken place twenty years before, when Austria, Russia, and Prussia each took parts of the little kingdom. In 1794 the Poles were so angry at the loss of their country that they took up arms once more. A revolt was secretly planned, and on a certain day in the spring of 1794, Kosciusko suddenly appeared in the city of Cracow. “The Russians must be driven from Poland; they must not rule our fair land,” said Kosciusko to those of his countrymen who assembled at his call. “We can free ourselves from Russian slavery if we will fight.” 388

THADEUS KOSCIUSKO

Kosciusko at Raclawice The Poles hastily armed themselves, many with nothing but scythes, and advanced to meet the Russian army. After a sharp contest the enemy was driven out of Cracow. A week later, at Raclawice (rat sla vit΄ se), a Polish army of five thousand, led by Kosciusko, routed a great force of Russians, and returned triumphantly to Cracow. The rebellion went on for several months with some success. On October 10, 1794, an immense force of Russians advanced against the Poles. The little army of patriots numbered only four thousand. The Poles were defeated with heavy loss; and Kosciusko, fighting desperately, fell from his horse severely wounded. He was made prisoner by the Russians, and taken to St. Petersburg, where he suffered a rigorous imprisonment. The Russian general, Suwaroff, captured Warsaw, and the kingdom of Poland came to an end; for now Russia, Prussia and Austria took to themselves all that remained of the Polish territory. When Kosciusko had been in confinement two years, the czar gave him his liberty. “You are an enemy of Russia;” said the czar to him, “but you have shown great heroism; and I cannot help admiring a brave man.” 389

FAMOUS MEN OF MODERN TIMES The czar seeing that Kosciusko had no sword, offered him one. “I have no need of a sword,” said Kosciusko. “I have no country now to defend.” Immediately after his release from the Russian prison, Kosciusko went to England and then came to the United States. The Americans received him with great honor, and Congress gave him a liberal pension for his services in the Revolutionary War. For some years afterwards he lived in France. Toward the close of his life he made his home in Switzerland, where he engaged in agricultural pursuits. He died in 1817 in consequence of a fall from a horse. His body was taken to Cracow and buried in the cathedral near the graves of other Polish patriots. After the burial, the Polish people brought earth from all the battlefields on which Kosciusko had fought for Poland, and erected, near Cracow, a great mound, one hundred and fifty feet high, in honor of their hero.

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Abraham Lincoln 1809-1865 Abraham Lincoln, the sixteenth president of the United States, was the son of poor parents, and his childhood and youth were full of trial and hardship. His father, Thomas Lincoln, was a pioneer farmer in Kentucky; and there, in a one-roomed log cabin of the poorer sort, Abraham Lincoln was born on February 12, 1809. His mother was Nancy, the daughter of Joseph Hanks, a neighbor who was also trying to earn a livelihood out of the soil. Abraham had also one sister, of whom not much has been recorded. As there was little to encourage his stay in Kentucky, Abrahamâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s father moved into Indiana, and built a log cabin in the midst of the forest at Pigeon Creek. Here most of Lincolnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s boyhood was passed. In 1818, Mrs. Lincoln died, and Abraham Lincoln was left motherless. Eighteen months later his father married Mrs. Sarah Bush Johnston, a widow who had been a neighbor in Kentucky. She was a good woman and treated Abraham with the same care and tenderness which she showed to her own children. Abraham Lincoln formed a strong attachment for his stepmother, which lasted all through his life. She was really able to do more for him than his own mother had been. He was not only better clothed and better fed; but he also had considerable help in his struggle for an education. By the time he was ten he was working hard to help his father to clear some land and turn a little piece of the forest into a farm. He had little or no schooling. He once said, later on in life, that he did not think that all his schooling as a lad amounted to more than six months. He learned to write by using a charred stick for a pencil, and a piece of board for a slate. There were no books in his home excepting 391

FAMOUS MEN OF MODERN TIMES

Birthplace of Abraham Lincoln a Bible, a catechism and a spelling book. But he would walk miles to borrow a book, and he read with great care everything that he could find. He thus gathered a store of information that was of service to him throughout his wonderful career. At sixteen years of age he had almost reached the height of six feet and four inches for which he was noted in after years. His bodily strength was very great, and his services were very much in demand. He did everything he could to help his parents. In 1830 the Lincoln family moved into Illinois and from that time their fortunes began to improve. Lincoln was now twenty-one. One who knew him well at that time, thus describes his personal appearance: “He was tall, angular, and ungainly, and wore trousers made of flax and tow, cut tightly at the ankles and loosely at the knees. He was very poor, but was welcome in every house in the neighborhood.” He built a flatboat, with his father’s consent, and carried a load of farm produce down the river to market. It was on this trip that he earned his first dollar by carrying two gentlemen and their trunks out to a steamer on the Ohio, a fact of which he was very proud and of which he often spoke in after years. He afterwards made other trips as a boatman and was very successful in them. It was on one of these trips that he witnessed, in New Orleans, the brutality of the slave trade. This led him to say, “If ever 392

ABRAHAM LINCOLN I get a chance to hit that institution, I’ll hit it hard.” He next entered the employ of a Mr. Offutt who put him in charge of a general store at New Salem. While tending this store, Lincoln once sold to a woman goods for which she paid the amount of two dollars, six and a quarter cents. He discovered later that a mistake had been made, and that the store owed the customer the six and a quarter cents. After he had closed the store that night, he walked several miles in the darkness to return the amount. At another time a woman bought a pound of tea. Lincoln discovered the next morning that a smaller weight was on the scales. He at once weighed out the remainder, and walked some distance before breakfast to deliver it. It was by such deeds as these that he earned the name of “Honest Abe.” He gained the good will of his neighbors who called upon him to settle their disputes, and always found him fair and upright in his decisions. Misfortune overtook Mr. Offutt and Lincoln entered the service of the state of Illinois in what is known as the Black Hawk War. He was elected captain of the company, but neither he nor his men were called upon to do any actual fighting. At the close of the war he returned to New Salem, and was urged to become a member of the legislature of Illinois; but he failed to be elected. Like Washington he took up the business of a surveyor. In 1833 he was made postmaster of New Salem. In the following year, 1834, another election of the members of the state legislature took place, and this time he was successful and became a member for Sangamon County. The two political parties were then known as the Democrats and the Whigs, and Lincoln belonged to the Whigs. He was still so poor that he was obliged to borrow money with which to purchase suitable clothing before he could take his seat in the House. His entering the legislature was an important event in his life. The capital of the state was soon afterwards changed from Vandalia to Springfield; and Lincoln who was rapidly rising into fame took up 393

FAMOUS MEN OF MODERN TIMES the study of law. As a lawyer he was decidedly successful. He formed several partnerships with lawyers of eminence, and his days of biting poverty were over. He still continued his general studies and became one of the best informed men in the state. He gave his first legal fee to his stepmother in the shape of one hundred and sixty acres of land, in memory of her great kindness to him as a boy. In November, 1842, Abraham Lincoln married Miss Mary Todd, of Lexington, Kentucky, and the next ten years were the happiest of his whole life. In 1846 he was elected a member of the United States Congress. He took his seat in the House of Representatives at Washington on December 6th, of that year. His first important speech in Congress was one in which he denounced the war then being carried on between the United States and Mexico; a speech in which he dealt the pro-slavery party a severe blow. At the end of his first term in Congress, Mr. Lincoln determined not to seek re-election. He therefore returned to Springfield and resumed the practice of law. When, in 1854, a bill was passed which put aside the Missouri Compromise and gave greater powers to the friends of slavery, Lincoln again entered politics. He became a candidate for the Illinois legislature and was elected. Mr. Stephen A. Douglas was then at the height of his power, and was bitterly opposed to Lincoln. In 1860, with Douglas as his most formidable competitor, Mr. Lincoln was elected president; and in February 1861, he left Springfield for Washington and was duly inaugurated in March of that year. In the election of Abraham Lincoln as president, the South feared that the institution of slavery was in the gravest danger; and they put forth every possible effort for its defense. Some of the Southern states voted to secede from the Union, Fort Sumter was fired upon, and the terrible Civil War began. Lincoln called for men, and readily obtained them. It is to the honor of Mr. Douglas that when he saw the real danger in which the country stood, he acknowledged himself in the wrong and became 394

ABRAHAM LINCOLN one of Lincoln’s friends and supporters. This war, sometimes called the “War of the Union,” lasted from 1861 to 1865. It was the saddest event in the history of our land; and every American boy and girl should make a careful study of its details from the fall of Fort Sumter to the surrender of General Lee at Appomattox. These were trying days for President Lincoln; and at times his sufferings were intense. But he never flinched from what he felt to be his duty; and he was warmly supported by the generals, the army, and the people of the North. During the progress of the war, after due warning, he issued his famous Emancipation Proclamation; and on January 1, 1863, most of the slaves in the South were declared free.

Part of the autograph copy of the proclamation In 1864, the year before the close of the war, Abraham Lincoln was again elected president; and on March 4, 1865, he entered upon his second term of office. His majority at his second election was the largest ever given to any president up to that time. When the war closed there was great rejoicing; and on April 11, two days after Lee’s surrender, Lincoln made a speech in Congress in which he strongly urged that the states which had seceded should be treated with leniency and restored to their proper relations to the central government as quickly and as quietly as possible. On April 14, 1865, the fourth anniversary of the fall of Fort Sumter, a general holiday was observed; and in the evening the President attended a special performance in Ford’s theatre. During the progress of the performance a retired actor gained access to the president’s box and, placing a pistol over Lincoln’s chair, shot him through the head. The assassin escaped amid the general confusion, but was 395

Reading the Emancipation Proclamation

ABRAHAM LINCOLN discovered, a few days later, in lower Maryland while hiding in a barn. He refused to surrender, and was shot dead by one of the soldiers who had been sent to capture him.

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Garibaldi 1807-1882 Giuseppe Garibaldi, a descendant of an old family of Lombards of North Italy, was born in Nice, on July 4, 1807. At an early age he became an expert swimmer, and it is recorded that while still a lad he saved several persons from drowning. He had an excellent mother, and his love for her was both tender and true; and she seems to have been instrumental in developing in him that strong patriotic feeling which formed the leading feature in his character. It was under the direction of his mother, with the assistance of the village priest as school-master, that he received his education. His father was a seaman, and young Garibaldi accompanied him on several of his voyages, particularly to Rome and Constantinople. By the time Garibaldi reached the age of twenty-four he had become warmly interested in the revolutionary movements of â&#x20AC;&#x153;Young Italy.â&#x20AC;? His interest was greatly quickened through his becoming acquainted with Mazzini (mat zeĂŠ nee), who was just then preparing to invade Italy by sea. The effort was unsuccessful, and Garibaldi hastily left the country and thus found himself an exile at the very beginning of his career. He took refuge in Marseilles, and afterwards joined the French navy. As soon as he could get himself free from his entanglements he started on a sea voyage; and in 1836 we find him in Rio de Janeiro where he remained for about twelve years. These years were filled with romantic adventures, from some of which he barely escaped with his life. Rio Grande do Sul, one of the states of Brazil, possessing a vast territory, was at war with the Brazilian emperor, and Garibaldi threw in his lot with the revolutionists. He first took command of a privateer, a small boat with only twelve men as crew. But a little later he was successful in seizing, as 398

Garibaldi and his son (By courtesy of Womanâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Home Companion)

FAMOUS MEN OF MODERN TIMES a prize, a much larger and better equipped vessel; and although not always successful in his encounters with the Brazilians he began to make himself felt as one of the factors to be dealt with in the war. He passed over into the Argentine territory, and there fell into the hands of a brutish Spanish American who struck him across the face with a horse-whip, and who also caused him to suffer several hours of torture on the rack, after which he was cast into a dungeon. Through the kindness of Madame Alleman, whom Garibaldi afterwards spoke of as â&#x20AC;&#x153;an angel of charity,â&#x20AC;? his sufferings were not so intense as they otherwise might have been. Shortly afterwards through the intervention of the governor he escaped from his tormentor. On leaving the Argentine territory he crossed over again into Rio Grande and devoted himself anew to the cause of the revolutionists. This time he met with better success, fighting many battles, sometimes with only a handful of men. The difficulties he met with were tremendous; but he never lost his courage, and showed so much skill and such strong personality as gave great authority to his counsels. He also softened the stern discipline under which the soldiers had fretted for years; and this made him popular with the army. In a hurricane off the coast of Santa Catharina he was wrecked; and while detained there he met Anita, the talented woman who became his wife. She was a woman of heroic mold, and proved herself both true and helpful in all the hardships which befell him. After the defeat of the revolutionists at the battle of Las Austras, Garibaldi seems to have grown discouraged as to the outcome of the war. He therefore bade farewell to his friends at Rio Grande and settled for a while in Montevideo. At Montevideo he became a teacher of mathematics in one of the city schools; but the life of a teacher was too tame for a man of his adventurous spirit and he soon gave up his position and again entered upon the life of a soldier. Some men who had become jealous of his successes in Rio Grande now plotted to have him assassinated; but in this they failed. He was then put in charge of a small squadron and sent out to meet a much superior force, in the hope that he might be destroyed. But he won such glory in the battle of San Antonio as to earn for 400

GARIBALDI himself the proud title of “the Hero of Montevideo.” Through all his wanderings and adventures his heart remained true to the cause of his native country; and after an absence of over twelve years he decided to return to Italy. With great difficulty he procured the money for his voyage, and he landed at Nice with his wife and a few faithful comrades in 1848. On his arrival Garibaldi offered his services to the Italian government, but they were refused. Finally the government of Lombardy gave him command of a small body of volunteers. When Rome was attacked by the French, the Italians, regardless of party, gathered their forces about Garibaldi and drove the French back. But the Italians suffered a terrible defeat in a three months’ siege of Rome a little later on, and many valuable lives were lost. The French took possession of the city; and Garibaldi, with a few devoted volunteers, set out to join the attack then being made on Austria. He and his followers were met on all sides by the overwhelming forces of Austria and were compelled to disband and flee to the woods. Garibaldi sought shelter for his brave wife Anita; but she was unable to endure the hardships which followed, and died in the arms of her husband. Our heart-broken hero again became a wanderer. A friend supplied him with means to reach Tunis, and obtained for him a pension, which he gladly accepted. Garibaldi again crossed the ocean, this time to the United States. He became a successful business man in New York, where he remained until his return to Europe in 1855. When he reached home he purchased a part of the islet of Caprera on the coast of Sardinia; and built a little home which he called “The Hermitage.” Four years later he was again called to defend the cause of Italy. He was given command of a regiment, and again went forth to meet the Austrians whom he defeated at Varese. He continued in the service until the peace of Villa-franca, to which Napoleon was a party; and this treaty brought the long struggle for Italian independence to a successful close. 401

FAMOUS MEN OF MODERN TIMES Victor Emmanuel was now on the throne of Italy, and Garibaldi, who was popularly known as “the hero of the red shirt,” was warmly welcomed by him. It was in Victor Emmanuel that the hopes of the patriots now centered for the freedom of Italy, and they were not disappointed; for by the wise policy of Count Cavour, the prime minister, and the many victories of Garibaldi, it was established on a firm basis. After meeting Victor Emmanuel and hailing him as king, Garibaldi retired to his hermitage; but a great part of Italy still longed to possess Rome as its capital. The French upheld the power of the Pope; but the FrancoPrussian war of 1870 caused France to withdraw her troops from Rome. When the French republic was established Victor Emmanuel was officially told that France would no longer uphold the Papal power; and the Italian government informed the Pope that Rome would thereafter be considered a part of the kingdom of Italy. On July 2, 1872, Victor Emmanuel took up his residence in Rome, and the palace of the Vatican became the Pope’s place of residence. In 1875 Garibaldi became a member of the Italian parliament. Titles and honors were offered him but he declined to accept them. His health was rapidly failing. So he retired again to his hermitage, where he died on June 2, 1882, at the age of seventy-five.

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William Ewert Gladstone 1809-1898 William Ewart Gladstone was born of Scotch parents, and he was one of the very few Scotchmen who have taken a prominent part in British statecraft. He was sent to the great public school at Eton when twelve years of age. There he was always noted for his good behavior and for his regular attendance at the chapel services. It is also recorded of him that he could recite more verses of scripture than any other boy in the school. The character of Mr. Gladstone is very hard to analyse because of its many-sidedness; and for that reason he was often misunderstood and lost many friends. He graduated from Christ Church College, Oxford, when twentytwo years of age, having won the highest honors the college could bestow. An account of his appearance, published at the time of his graduation says, “In features he is handsome; his face is bold and masculine; his eyes are of piercing luster; and his hair, which he tosses back in debate, is like a lion’s mane. He speaks five languages, is an excellent tenor singer, is on more than speaking terms with many of the greatest men in England, and besides all this he is rich in English gold.” His influence at college was so abiding that Cardinal Manning has said that, “There was less wine drunk at Oxford during the forties than would have been the case if Gladstone had not been there in the thirties.” It appears to have been his intention to become a clergyman of the English church, and he studied with this object in view. His father had other plans for him and half forced him into politics; so that immediately on leaving college he ran for Parliament, was elected, and at once made his influence felt in the House of Commons. 403

Gladstone (Hamilton)

WILLIAM EWERT GLADSTONE For more than sixty years thereafter, he was one of the powers to be reckoned with on all questions connected with the English government. At thirty-three years of age he was a member of the British Cabinet; but three years later his absolute honesty compelled him to resign from the Ministry. His opponents said, “Gladstone is an extinct volcano.” But they were continually discovering that a volcano is a difficult thing to subdue. In his home life he was gentle, amiable and hospitable. His social instincts were large and his disposition was kindly. He was always true to his friends, and they revered him to a point little short of idolatry. He delivered his maiden speech in Parliament on a subject connected with the great movement for the emancipation of the West Indian slaves; but he seemed to have confined himself mainly to a defense of the manner in which his father’s estates were managed, the course of the debate having brought out some charges against the management of the elder Gladstone’s possessions in one of the West Indian Islands. In January, 1835, Sir Robert Peel appointed Gladstone to the office of a Junior Lord of the Treasury. In the next year Peel, who was quick to appreciate the great abilities and the sound commercial knowledge of his new recruit, gave him the important post of Undersecretary for the Colonies. Peel went out of office very soon after he had made Mr. Gladstone Undersecretary for the colonies. Lord John Russell brought forward a series of motions on the subject of the Irish Church, and Peel being defeated, resigned. It is almost needless to say that Gladstone went with him. In 1841, Sir Robert Peel again came into power, and Gladstone was given a seat in his Cabinet as President of the Board of Trade. At the general election in 1847, Mr. Gladstone, still accepted as a Tory, was chosen one of the representatives of the University of Oxford. Up to the time of the movement which led to the abolition of the Corn Laws, Mr. Gladstone had been a Tory of a rather old-fashioned school. The corn-law agitation probably first set him thinking over the possible defects of the social and legislative system, and showed 405

FAMOUS MEN OF MODERN TIMES him the necessity for reform at least in one direction. By the death of Sir Robert Peel, in 1850, Mr. Gladstone lost a trusted leader, and a dear friend. But the loss of his leader brought Gladstone himself more directly to the front. It was not until after Peel’s death that he compelled the House of Commons and the country to recognize in him a supreme master of parliamentary debate. The first really great speech made by Mr. Gladstone in Parliament was made in the debate on Mr. Disraeli’s budget in the winter of 1852, the first session of the new Parliament. Mr. Disraeli sat down at two o’clock in the morning, and then Mr. Gladstone rose to reply to him. Most men in the House, even on the opposition side, were filled with the belief that it would be impossible to make any real impression on the House after such a speech as that of Mr. Disraeli. Long before Mr. Gladstone had concluded, everyone admitted that the effect of Mr. Disraeli’s speech had been outdone, and Gladstone became fully recognized as the man of the hour; a man to rank with Bolingbroke, Pitt, and Fox. With that speech began the long parliamentary duel between these two great masters of debate, Mr. Gladstone and Mr. Disraeli, which was carried on for four and twenty years. On the fall of the short-lived Tory administration, Lord Aberdeen came into office. He formed the famous Coalition Ministry. Lord Palmerston took what most people would have thought the uncongenial office of Home Secretary. Mr. Gladstone, who with other of the “Peelites,” as they were called, had joined the new administration, was made Chancellor of the Exchequer. His speech on the introduction of his first budget was waited for with great interest, but none of those who listened to it would have wished it to be shortened by a sentence. A budget speech by Mr. Gladstone was a triumph in the realm of fine arts. The Crimean War broke up the Coalition Ministry; but the year 1859 saw Lord Palmerston back in office, and Mr. Gladstone in his old place as Chancellor of the Exchequer. The death of Lord Palmerston, in 1865, called Lord Russell to the position of prime minister, and made Mr. Gladstone leader of the House of Commons. Mr. Gladstone’s mind had long been turning in the direction of 406

WILLIAM EWERT GLADSTONE an extension, or rather expansion, of the suffrage. It was assumed by everyone that Lord Russell and Mr. Gladstone being now at the head of affairs, a reform bill would be sure to come. It did come in 1866, a very moderate and cautious bill, enlarging the area of the franchise in boroughs and counties. The Conservative party opposed it. The bill was defeated, and the Liberal statesman went out of office. Somewhere about this time the attention of Mr. Gladstone began to be attracted to the condition of Ireland. The distress and distracted state of Ireland, the unceasing popular agitation and discontent, and the Fenian insurrection, with its contemplated attack on Chester Castle, led Mr. Gladstone to the conviction that the time had come when statesmanship must seek through Parliament for some process of remedy. In 1868 the Liberals returned to power, and Mr. Gladstone became prime minister. In his first session of government he disestablished and disendowed the state church in Ireland. In the next session he passed a measure which for the first time recognized the right of the Irish tenant to the value of the improvements he had himself made at his own cost and labor. Never probably was there such a period of energetic reform in almost every direction as that which set in when Mr. Gladstone became prime minister. It was also at this time, and quite largely through Mr. Gladstoneâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s efforts, that the first system of national education was established in England. The Ballot Act was passed for the protection of the voters so that they might vote as they wished without having to suffer painful consequences after the election was over. These two measures have been of great value to the English people and they prize them very highly. For a while Mr. Gladstone occupied himself in literary and historical studies, and published quite a number of essays and pamphlets. But even in his literary career Mr. Gladstone would appear to have always kept glancing at the House of Commons, as Charles V in his monastery kept his eyes on the world of politics outside. The atrocious conduct of the Turkish officials in Bulgaria aroused his generous anger, and he flung down his books and rushed out from his study to preach a crusade against the Ottoman power in Europe. 407

FAMOUS MEN OF MODERN TIMES It was an unpropitious hour at which to return to office. There were troubles in Egypt; there was impending war in the Sudan and in South Africa. There was something like an agrarian revolution going on in Ireland; and the Home Rule party in the House of Commons was under new, resolute, and uncompromising leadership. He was out of office in a few months; and then the general elections came on. These elections were to give the first opportunity to the newly made voters under Mr. Gladstone’s latest reform act; and these voters sent him back into office and he once again took the helm and strove to guide the ship of state through the troubled seas which beat upon it from every point of the compass. Under his leadership a home-rule bill for Ireland was passed by the Commons in spite of most bitter opposition. It was rejected almost unanimously by the House of Lords. But time was beginning to tell upon the “Grand Old Man;” for he was now eighty-four years old and felt himself unequal to the gigantic struggle of the hour. He therefore resigned his offices and retired into private life in March 1894. Mr. Gladstone sat in Parliament for sixty-three years; and for twenty-six years he was the leader of his party. The three most notable acts of his political career were, the Disestablishment of the Irish Church, in 1866; his opposition to England’s support of Turkey in 1876; and his work in favor of Home Rule for Ireland in 1886; while he had also much to do with the two great Reform Bills of 1855 and 1884. Mr. Gladstone affords a splendid example of a man who devoted his life to the political service of his country, and still preserved his moral and religious character. He died at his home, Hawarden Castle, in 1898.

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Count Von Bismark 1815-1898 Otto Eduard Leopold Bismarck was born on the estate of Schonhausen, near Stendal, in Prussian Saxony, on April 1, 1815. His ancestors had been famous both in war and in diplomatic circles for several generations. They were descended from the Prussian nobility; and his grandfather had held the office of Privy Counsellor to Frederick the Great. At the age of six he entered a boarding school in Berlin, where he tells us they â&#x20AC;&#x153;served elastic meat, always accompanied with parsnips.â&#x20AC;? When he was twelve he came under the influence of Dr. Prevost who did much for the broadening of his mind and the strengthening of his character. During his vacations he developed his powers of endurance by participating in manly sports; and then, at the age of seventeen, he entered the University of Gottingen for the purpose of studying law. As a student he was not a brilliant success. He did not hold himself strictly to the prescribed studies of his course. During the first year of his university life he fought twenty-eight duels; in one of these he was wounded on the left cheek and he carried the scar left by the wound all through his later life. On leaving Gottingen, in 1833, he went to Berlin. After a couple of years of study there he received the diploma necessary to enable him to enter upon a professional career, but decided to devote his time to the care of his estate. When thirty-two years of age he was elected a member of the General Diet. He at once began to impress the people with his great tact and forethought, and each year their confidence in him was deepened. He exercised a large amount of outward patience toward those who opposed him; but he was simply awaiting the time when he could strike such decisive blows as would assure his ultimate success. This 409

Napoleon III and Bismark at Sedan

COUNT VON BISMARK was one of the marked characteristics of his whole career. It would seem that from the very beginning of his political life the people decided to take him just as he was; and they grew to be very fond of him. His aim was to preserve the peace of Europe. With great skill he avoided trouble both for himself and for his countrymen; and he quickly made for himself a name both at home and abroad. His early life was lived among the Prussians, but he became objectionable to them because of his desire for power. At the first Prussian Parliament in which he sat, in 1847, he said in one of his speeches, “Away with the cities. I hope to see them all levelled to the ground;” and these words had in them the ring of that social hatred which he always showed toward the liberal class. He followed very closely in the footprints of Garibaldi in the struggle for the unity and independence of Italy; and it would seem to be equally certain that Bismarck’s methods were also followed by Garibaldi on several occasions. There were many non-Prussians who greatly admired Bismarck on account of his endeavors for German unity; but the people in the southern part of Germany were equally strong in their dislike for him. Through many discouragements he continued to press calmly onward in what he felt to be the path of duty, and for over twenty years his career was unusually prosperous. At different periods Bismarck was appointed ambassador to Austria, Russia, and France. In 1862, at the age of forty-seven, he became Minister of the King’s household, and also Minister of Foreign Affairs in Prussia. The brother of the king was very much opposed to Bismarck’s plan of excluding Austria from a place in the remodelled German Confederation. Even the queen looked upon this measure with fear, for she had been brought up under the principles of constitutional government. The Princess Royal of England also showed a bitter spirit toward him, for she was anxious for the future of her children. But King William was a true friend to him, and Bismarck never regretted that he had placed confidence in the king’s faithfulness. In May, 1866, a fanatic by the name of Kohn attempted to kill 411

King William I of Prussia proclaimed German emperor (Werner)

COUNT VON BISMARK Bismarck; and there were some who openly expressed their regret that the attempt was not successful. Bismarck devoted his efforts to two main purposes, to transfer Austria to a position in the East, and to give to Germany political unity under Prussia. He seems to have felt that if Austria were removed from her position within the federal body, she would become a permanent ally of the New Germany; and that, in time, it would be better for her own interests and for those of Europe. Bismarck had two powerful antagonists in the persons of Napoleon III of France and Earl Russell of England; and some thought he was working to bring about the union of France and Russia. But he was only measuring the men with whom he had to do, and studying out the plans he had in mind for the strengthening and consolidation of the German empire; and it has well been said, “It was Bismarck’s constant misfortune to be misunderstood.” In the Franco-Prussian War of 1870-71, France was severely humbled; but what was of most interest to Bismarck was that it caused such national enthusiasm among the Germans that, at Versailles, in January 1871, the New German Empire was established with the king of Prussia as its leader. It was also at this time that Bismarck was raised to the rank of prince. On May 10, 1871, at the Treaty of Frankfort, France was obliged to give to Germany the province of Alsace, the greater part of Lorraine, and to pay an indemnity of five billion francs. Bismarck now paid close attention to the interests of the “fatherland.” Germany was a federation, not greatly admired by some of the German people themselves; but accepted because it avoided making any radical changes in political affairs. Under Bismarck’s skillful management, it had been made so strong a power that war with France was no longer dreaded. Germany is also indebted to Bismarck for its colonial policy; and although there are but few German colonial ports they command a very large trade. But it required all his tact and perseverance to make the people see the advantages which this policy would bring them. After the death of William I, Prince Frederick ascended the 413

Bismark at Versailles (Wagner)

COUNT VON BISMARK throne; but he lived only a short time. When William II came into power it was soon apparent that the emperor and the chancellor were not in accord; and Bismarck resigned his office on March 20, 1890, and retired to private life. The emperor presented him with the Dukedom of Lauenburg; and he took great interest in all the affairs of the German nation until his death in 1898. THE END

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