|
|stand5 = [[Pluricentric language#Serbo-Croatian|Pluricentric Standard Serbo-Croatian]]
|dia1 = [[Eastern Herzegovinian dialect|Eastern Herzegovinian]]
|dia2 = [[Western Ikavian|Younger Ikavian]]: [[Bunjevac dialect|Bunjevac]]
|dia3 = EastEastern Bosnian
|dia4 = [[Šumadija–Vojvodina dialect|Šumadija–Vojvodina]]
|dia5 = [[Slavonian dialect|Slavonian]]
|dia6 = [[Zeta–South Sandžak dialect|Zeta–South Sandžak]]
|dia7 = [[Smederevo-VršacSmederevo–Vršac dialect|Smederevo-VršacSmederevo–Vršac]]
|dia8 = Kosovo–Resava
|dia9 = Prizren–South Morava
|dia10 = Svrljig-ZaplanjeSvrljig–Zaplanje
|dia11 = [[Timok-LužnicaTimok–Lužnica dialect|Timok-LužnicaTimok–Lužnica]]
|iso1=sh
|iso3=hbs
{{South Slavic languages sidebar}}
The [[Slavic migrations to theSoutheastern BalkansEurope|early medieval Slavs]] who later spoke various [[Bulgarian dialects|Bulgarian]] and Serbo-Croatian dialects migrated across [[Moldavia]] and [[Pannonia]].{{sfn|Kortlandt|1982|p=3}} According to [[Frederik Kortlandt]], the shared innovations originate from a "Trans-Carpathian" homeland, and by the 4th and 6th century, "the major dialect divisions of Slavic were already established".{{sfn|Kortlandt|2003|p=215}} Dialectologists and Slavists maintain that when the separation of Western South Slavic speeches happened, they separated into five divergent groups, more specifically two, one Slovene and a second Serbo-Croatian with four divergent groups - Kajkavian, Chakavian, Western Shtokavian and Eastern Shtokavian.{{sfn|Matasović|2008|p=66}}<ref name="Loncaric88Lončarić-1988">{{cite journal |last=Lončarić |first=Mijo |author-link=Mijo Lončarić |date=1988 |title=Rani razvitak kajkavštine |trans-title=Early development of Kajkavian |url=https://hrcak.srce.hr/69872 |language=hr |journal=Rasprave |volume=14 |issue=1 |pages=80–81, 84–85, 92 |access-date=14 February 2023}}</ref>{{sfn|Zubčić|2017|p=63–64}} The latter group can be additionally divided into a first (Kajkavian, Chakavian, Western Shtokavian) and second (Eastern Shtokavian, Torlakian).{{sfn|Lukežić|1996|p=226–227, 235}} As noted by [[Ranko Matasović]], "the Shtokavian dialect, on the other hand, was from the earliest times very non-unique, with the Western Shtokavian dialects leaning towards Kajkavian, and the Eastern Shtokavian to [[Torlakian]]".{{sfn|Matasović|2008|p=35}} According to isoglosses, and presumed end of existence of the common Southwestern Slavic language around the 8th-9th century, the formation of the Proto-Western Shtokavian and Proto-Eastern Shtokavian linguistic and territorial unit would be around the 9th-10th century (Proto-Western Shtokavian closer to Proto-Chakavian, while Proto-Eastern Shtokavian shared an old isogloss with Bulgarian).<ref name="Loncaric88Lončarić-1988"/>{{sfn|Matasović|2008|p=65–66}}{{sfn|Lukežić|1996|p=226–227, 235}} According to [[Ivo Banac]] in the area of today's [[Slavonia]], [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]] (west of [[Brčko]], [[Vlasenica]] and [[Neretva]] line) and on the littoral between the [[Bay of Kotor]] and [[Cetina]], medieval Croats spoke an old West Shtokavian dialect, for which, some believe, that occursstemmed from the [[Chakavian]], while medieval Serbs spoke two dialects, old East Shtokavian and Torlakian.<ref name="Banac-1984">{{cite book |last=Banac |first=Ivo |author-link=Ivo Banac |date=1984 |title=The National Question in Yugoslavia: Origins, History, Politics |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KfqbujXqQBkC |location= |publisher=Cornell University Press |page=47 |isbn=0801416752}}</ref> Many linguists noted a close connection between Chakavian and Western Shtokavian, for example [[Pavle Ivić]] saw Chakavian as an arhaic peripheral zone of Shtokavian, while [[Dalibor Brozović]] derivedsaw the majority of Chakavian dialects as derived from the same accentological core as Western Shtokavian.{{sfn|Zubčić|2017|p=46–48, 56–62}} Western Shtokavian was principally characterized by a three-accent system, whereas Eastern Shtokavian was mostly marked by a two-accent system.{{sfn|Kapović|2015|p=56–57, 645–649, 651}}
Western Shtokavian covered the major part of present-day Bosnia and Herzegovina, Slavonia and part of Southern [[Dalmatia]] in [[Croatia]]. Eastern Shtokavian was dominant in [[Serbia]], easternmost Bosnia and Herzegovina and greater parts of [[Montenegro]]. From the 12th century, both dialects started separating further from Chakavian and Kajkavian idioms.<ref name="Banac-1984"/> According to research of historical linguistics, Old-Shtokavian was well established by the mid-15th century. In this period it was still mixed with Church Slavonic to varying degrees. However, the ultimate development of Western Shtokavian and Eastern Shtokavian was not [[Divergence (linguistics)|divergent]] (like in the case of Chakavian and Kajkavian), but [[Language convergence|convergent]]. It was the result of migrations (particularly of Neoshtokavian-Eastern Shtokavian speakers), political-cultural border change and elsealso caused by the [[Ottoman wars in Europe|Ottoman invasion]] (since the 16th century).<ref name="Loncaric88Lončarić-1988"/> Initially two separate proto-idioms started to resemble each other so greatly that, according to Brozović (1975), "[today] we can no longer speak of an independent Western Shtokavian, but only about the better or weaker preservation of former West Shtokavian features in some dialects of the unique Shtokavian group of dialects".<ref name="Loncaric88Lončarić-1988"/>
As can be seen from the image on the right, originally the Shtokavian dialect covered a significantly smaller area than it covers today, meaning that the Shtokavian speech has spread for the last five centuries, overwhelmingly at the expense of Chakavian and Kajkavian idioms. ModernThe modern areal distribution of these three dialects as well as their internal stratification (Shtokavian and Chakavian in particular) is primarily a result of the [[Human migration|migrations]] resulting from the spread of the [[Ottoman Empire]] in the [[Balkans]].<ref>{{harvcoltxt|Okuka|2008|p=15}}</ref> Migratory waves were particularly strong in the 16th–18th century, bringing about large-scale linguistic and ethnic changes onin the Central South Slavic area (see also [[Great Serb Migrations]]).
By far the most numerous, mobile and expansionist migrations were those of Ijekavian-Shtokavian speakers of eastern [[Herzegovina]], who have spread into most of Western Serbia, many areas of eastern and western [[Bosnia]], large swathes of Croatia ([[Banovina (region)|Banovina]], [[Kordun]], [[Lika]], parts of [[Gorski kotar]], continental parts of northern [[Dalmatia]], some places north of [[Kupa]], parts of [[Slavonia]], southeastern [[Baranya (region)|Baranya]] etc.).<ref>{{harvcoltxt|Okuka|2008|p=16}}</ref> This is the reason [[Eastern Herzegovinian dialect|Eastern Herzegovinian]] is the most spoken Serbo-Croatian dialect today, and why it bears theits name that is only descriptive of its area of origin. These migrations also played thea pivotal role in the spread of Neo-Shtokavian innovations.<ref>{{harvcoltxt|Okuka|2008|p=17}}</ref>
===Earliest texts of Shtokavian dialect===
Proto-Shtokavian, or Church Slavic with ingredientselements of nascent Shtokavian, were recorded in legal documents like the [[charter of Ban Kulin]], regulating the commerce between [[Bosnia]] and Dubrovnik in Croatia, dated 1189, and in liturgical texts like [[Gršković's fragment of the Acts of the Apostles|Gršković's]] and [[Mihanović's fragment of the Acts of the Apostles|Mihanović's fragments]], ca. {{circa|1150}}, in southern Bosnia or Herzegovina. Experts' opinions are divided with regard to the extent these texts, especially the Kulin ban parchment, contain contemporary Shtokavian vernacular. Mainly Shtokavian, with ingredients of Church Slavic, are numerousNumerous legal and commercial documents from pre-Ottoman [[Bosnia (region)|Bosnia]], [[Zahumlje|Hum]], [[Serbia]], [[Principality of Zeta|Zeta]], and southern [[Dalmatia]], especially [[Dubrovnik]] are mainly Shtokavian, with elements of Church Slavic. The first major comprehensive vernacular Shtokavian text is the [[Vatican Croatian Prayer Book]], written in [[Dubrovnik]] a decade or two before 1400. In the next two centuries Shtokavian vernacular texts had been written mainly in Dubrovnik, other Adriatic cities and islands influenced by Dubrovnik, as well as in Bosnia, by Bosnian Franciscans and BosniakBosnian Muslim vernacular ''[[alhamiadoaljamiado]]'' literature – the first example being "[[Chirvat-türkisi]]" or "Croatian song", dated 1589.
==Relationship towards neighboring dialects==
# Accentuation ("Old-Shtokavian" and "Neo-Shtokavian"; see section below)
# [[Yat]] reflex ("Ikavian", "Ijekavian", "Ekavian"; see section below)
# Young [[Proto-Slavic]] (600–750 AD{{sfn|Kortlandt|1982|p=4}}) [[palatal consonant]] [[isogloss]]: ''*šć''-''*žƷ'' ({{lang|sh|Šćakavski}} - Schakavian; "Western Shtokavian" including Slavonian, Eastern Bosnian and transitory Western ikavian dialect) and ''*št'' & ''*žd'' ({{lang|sh|Štakaviski}} - Shtakavian; "Eastern Shtokavian" including Eastern Herzegovinian-Krajina, Šumadija-Vojvodina, Kosovo-Resava, Zeta-Raška dialect). The isogloss developed between 7th and 8/9th century, and the former relates those dialects with Chakavian and Kajkavian, while the latter relates those dialects with Bulgarian.<ref name="Loncaric88Lončarić-1988"/>{{sfn|Kortlandt|1982|p=7}}<ref>{{cite journal |last=Kortlandt |first=Frederik |author-link=Frederik Kortlandt |date=2006 |title=On the relative chronology of Slavic accentual developments |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24750220 |journal=Wiener Slavistisches Jahrbuch |volume=52 |pages=4–6 |jstor=24750220 |access-date=14 February 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Kortlandt |first=Frederik |author-link=Frederik Kortlandt |date=2016 |title=On the relative chronology of Slavic consonantal developments |url=https://hrcak.srce.hr/177714 |journal=Rasprave |volume=42 |issue=2 |pages=465–469 |access-date=14 February 2023}}</ref>
==Accentuation== <!-- Section linked from [[Shtokavian accentuation]] -->
In the process known as "Neo-Shtokavian [[metatony]]" or "retraction", length of the old syllables was preserved, but their quality changed. Stress (intensity) on the inner syllables moved to the preceding syllable, but they kept the high pitch. That process produced the "rising" accents characteristic for Neo-Shtokavian, and yielded the modern four-tone system. Stress on the initial syllables remained the same in quality and pitch.
Most speakers of Shtokavian, native or taught, from Serbia and Croatia do not distinguish between short rising and short falling tones.<ref name="alexander356Alexander">{{Harvcoltxt|Alexander|2006|p=356}}</ref> They also pronounce most unstressed long vowels as short, with some exceptions, such as genitive plural endings.<ref name="alexander356Alexander"/>
The following notation is used for Shtokavian accents:
====Slavonian====
{{Main article|Slavonian dialect}}
Also called the ''Archaic Šćakavian'', it is spoken by [[Croat]]s who live in some parts of [[Slavonia]], [[Bačka]], [[Baranja region|Baranja]], [[Syrmia]], in Croatia and Vojvodina, as well as in northern Bosnia. It is divided into two [[subdialects]]: southern (Posavian / ''posavski'') and northern (Podravian / ''podravski''). The Slavonian dialect has mixed Ikavian and Ekavian pronunciations. Ikavian accent is predominant in the Posavina, Baranja, Bačka, and in the Slavonian subdialect enclave of [[Derventa]], whereas Ekavian accent is predominant in [[Podravina]]. There are enclaves of one accent in the territory of the other, as well as mixed Ekavian–Ikavian and Jekavian–Ikavian areas. In some villages in Hungary, the original ''yat'' is preserved. Local variants can widely differ in the degree of Neo-Shtokavian influences. In two villages in [[Posavina]], Siče and Magića Male, the ''l'', as in the verb ''nosil'', has been retained in place of the modern ''nosio''. In some villages in the Podravina, ''čr'' is preserved instead of the usual ''cr'', for example in ''črn'' instead of ''crn''. Both forms are usual in Kajkavian but very rare in Shtokavian.
{{Unreferenced section|date=June 2023}}
{{Main if exists|Eastern Bosnian dialect}}
Also called ''Jekavian-Šćakavian'', or ''Central/Middle Bosnian'' because has misleading name (not located in geographically true Eastern Bosnia in [[Podrinje]] where's spoken Eastern Herzegovinian dialect).{{sfn|Kapović|2015|p=42}} ItEastern is a base for the [[Bosnian language]]. Itdialect has Jekavian pronunciations in the vast majority of local forms and it is spoken by the majority of Bosniaks living in that area, which includes the bigger Bosnian cities [[Sarajevo]], [[Tuzla]], and [[Zenica]], and by most of Croats and Serbs that live in that area ([[Vareš]], [[Usora Municipality|Usora]], etc.). Together with basic Jekavian pronunciation, mixed pronunciations exist in [[Tešanj]] and [[Maglaj]] ''dete–djeteta'' (Ekavian–Jekavian) and around [[Žepče]] and [[Jablanica, Bosnia and Herzegovina|Jablanica]] ''djete–diteta'' (Jekavian–ikavian). In the central area of the subdialect, the [[diphthong]] ''uo'' exists in some words instead of the archaic ''l'' and more common ''u'' like ''vuok'' or {{lang|bs|stuop}}, instead of the standard modern ''vuk'' and ''stup''.
====Zeta–Raška====
====Bosnian–Dalmatian====
{{Main article|WesternYounger Ikavian dialect}}
{{See also|Bunjevac dialect|Slavomolisano dialect}}
Also called ''Bunjevac'', or ''YoungerWestern Ikavian''. The majority of its speakers are [[Croats]] who live in [[Lika]], [[Kvarner]], [[Dalmatia]], [[Herzegovina]], and of north [[Bačka]], around Subotica, in Serbia, and south [[Bács-Kiskun]] of Hungary, and in [[Molise]] in Italy. The minority speakers of it include [[Bosniaks]] in western Bosnia, mostly around the city of [[Bihać]], and also in central Bosnia where Croats and Bosniaks (e.g. [[Travnik]], [[Jajce]], [[Bugojno]], [[Vitez]]) used to speak this dialect. Exclusively Ikavian accent, Bosnian and Herzegovinian forms use ''o'' in verb participle, whereas those in Dalmatia and Lika use ''-ija'' or ''ia'' like in ''vidija/vidia''. Local form of [[Bačka]] was proposed as the base for the Danubian branch of the [[Bunjevac dialect]] of Bunjevac Croats ([[Bunjevci]]) in [[Vojvodina]], Serbia.
====Dubrovnik====
{{Unreferenced section|date=June 2023}}
{{Main article|Dubrovnik subdialect}}
Also known as ''Western Ijekavian'', in earlier centuries, this subdialect was the independent subdialect of Western Shtokavian dialect. It is spoken by [[Croat]]s and [[Serb]]s who live in some parts of [[Dubrovnik]] area. The Dubrovnik dialect has mixed Jekavian and Ikavian pronunciations or mixed Shtokavian and Chakavian vocabulary. Some vocabulary from [[Dalmatian language|Dalmatian]], older [[Venetian language|Venetian]] and modern [[Italian language|Italian]] are also present. It is a base for the [[Croatian language]]. The dialect today is considered to be a part of East Herzegovina subdialect because it is similar to it. It retained certain unique features that distinguish it from the original East Herzegovina subdialect.
====Šumadija–Vojvodina====
* Its south-eastern form is characterised by the total lack of {{IPA|/x/}} sound that is sometimes not only left out or replaced by more common {{IPA|/j/}} or {{IPA|/v/}} but is replaced as well by less common {{IPA|/k/}} and {{IPA|/ɡ/}} ({{lang|sh|bijak}}, {{lang|sh|bijaku}} imperfect of verb ''biti''). Local forms in the [[Žumberak]] enclave and around [[Dubrovnik]] or [[Slunj]] have some special Croatian features, influenced from [[Chakavian dialect|Chakavian]] and the [[#Bosnian–Dalmatian|western subdialect]], whereas forms in [[Bjelovar]] or [[Pakrac]] are influenced from [[Kajkavian dialect|Kajkavian]].
==Yat reflexes{{Anchor|Ijekavian|Ekavian|Ikavian}}==
[[File:Serbo-Croatian dialects.png|thumb|Present-day spread of the three [[yat]] pronunciations in Serbo-Croatian{{imagefact|date=November 2022}}:
{{legend|#ffff80|Ijekavian}}
The Ikavian pronunciation is the only one that is not part of any standard variety of Serbo-Croatian today, though it was a variant used for a significant literary output between the 15th and 18th centuries. This has led to a reduction in its use and an increase in the use of Ijekavian in traditionally Ikavian areas since the standardization. For example, most people in formerly fully Ikavian [[Split, Croatia]] today use both Ikavian and Ijekavian words in everyday speech, without a clearly predictable pattern (usually more emotionally charged or intimate words are Ikavian and more academic, political, generally standardised words Ijekavian, but it is not a straight out rule).
The [[IETF language tag]]s have assigned the variants {{code|sr-ekavsk}} and {{code|sr-ijekavsk}} to Ekavian and Ijekavian pronunciations, respectively.<ref name="IETF">{{cite web |title=IETF language subtag registry |url=https://www.iana.org/assignments/language-subtag-registry/language-subtag-registry |publisher=IANA |access-date=10 September 2021 |language=en |date=2021-08-06}}</ref>
==Ethnic affiliation of native speakers of Shtokavian dialect==
==Standard language==
The standard [[Bosnian language|Bosnian]], [[Croatian language|Croatian]], [[Montenegrin language|Montenegrin]], and [[Serbian language|Serbian]] variants of the [[Pluricentric language#Serbo-Croatian|pluricentric Serbo-Croatian]] [[standard language]] are all based on the Neo-Shtokavian dialect.<ref>{{harvcoltxt| Brozović |1992|pp=347–380}}</ref><ref>{{harvcoltxt| Blum |2002|p=134}}</ref><ref>{{harvcoltxt|Kordić|2010|pp=99–101}}</ref> as it was formalized in [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|SFR Yugoslavia]].{{citation needed|date=March 2024}}
However, it must be stressed that standard variants, irrespectively of their mutual differences, have been stylised in such manners that parts of the Neo-Shtokavian dialect have been retained—for instance, declension—but other features were purposely omitted or altered—for instance, the phoneme "h" was reinstated in the standard language.
The Croatian, Serbian, and Bosnian standard variants, although all based on the East Herzegovinian subdialect of Neo-Shtokavian and mutually intelligible, do differ slightly, as is the case with other pluricentric languages (English, Spanish, [[Standard German#Pluricentricity|German]] and Portuguese, among others), but not to a degree which would justify considering them as [[Language secessionism#In Serbo-Croatian|different languages]].<ref>{{harvcoltxt| Pohl |1996|p=219}}</ref><ref>{{harvcoltxt| Blum |2002|pp=125–126}}</ref><ref>{{harvcoltxt| Bunčić |2008|p=93}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Zanelli|first=Aldo|year=2018|title=Eine Analyse der Metaphern in der kroatischen Linguistikfachzeitschrift Jezik von 1991 bis 1997|trans-title=Analysis of Metaphors in Croatian Linguistic Journal ''Language'' from 1991 to 1997|language=de|series=Studien zur Slavistik ; 41|location=Hamburg|publisher=Kovač|pages=21|isbn=978-3-8300-9773-0|oclc=1023608613}} [http://katalog.nsk.hr/F/?func=direct&doc_number=001013945 (NSK)]. [https://koha.ffzg.hr/cgi-bin/koha/opac-detail.pl?biblionumber=385977 (FFZG)]</ref> Their structures are grammatically and phonologically almost identical, but have differences in vocabulary and semantics: "Lexical differences between the ethnic variants are extremely limited, even when compared with those between closely related Slavic languages (such as standard Czech and Slovak, Bulgarian and Macedonian), and grammatical differences are even less pronounced. More importantly, complete understanding between the ethnic variants of the standard language makes translation and second language teaching impossible."<ref>{{cite book|last=Šipka|first=Danko|author-link=Danko Sipka|year=2019|title=Lexical layers of identity: words, meaning, and culture in the Slavic languages|location=New York|publisher=Cambridge University Press|page=166|doi=10.1017/9781108685795|isbn=978-953-313-086-6|s2cid=150383965|lccn=2018048005 |oclc=1061308790}}</ref> See [[Differences between standard Bosnian, Croatian and Serbian]].
In 2017, numerous prominent writers, scientists, journalists, activists and other public figures from Croatia, Bosnia- and Herzegovina, Montenegro and Serbia signed the [[Declaration on the Common Language]], which states that in Croatia, Serbia, Bosnia- and Herzegovina and Montenegro a common [[Polycentric language|polycentric standard language]] is used, consisting of several standard varieties, similar to the situation in [[German language|German]], English, or Spanish.<ref>{{cite web|first=Sven|last=Milekić|date=30 March 2017|title=Post-Yugoslav 'Common Language' Declaration Challenges Nationalism|url=http://www.balkaninsight.com/en/article/post-yugoslav-common-language-declaration-challenges-nationalism-03-29-2017|publisher=[[Balkan Insight]]|archive-date=27 April 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170427234436/http://www.balkaninsight.com/en/article/post-yugoslav-common-language-declaration-challenges-nationalism-03-29-2017|url-status=live|location=London|access-date=6 June 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=J.|first=T.|date=10 April 2017|title=Is Serbo-Croatian a Language?|url=http://www.economist.com/blogs/economist-explains/2017/04/economist-explains-4|newspaper=[[The Economist]]|archive-date=10 April 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170410083158/http://www.economist.com/blogs/economist-explains/2017/04/economist-explains-4|url-status=live|location=London|issn=0013-0613|access-date=4 May 2017}} [http://www.b92.net/info/vesti/index.php?yyyy=2017&mm=04&dd=10&nav_category=12&nav_id=1248942 Alt URL]</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Trudgill|first=Peter|author-link=Peter Trudgill|date=30 November 2017|page=46|title=Time to Make Four Into One|url=https://archive.org/details/PeterTrudgillTimeToMakeFourIntoOne2017|publisher=[[The New European]]|access-date=1 July 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine|first=Dan|last=Nosovitz|date=11 February 2019|title=What Language Do People Speak in the Balkans, Anyway?|url=https://www.atlasobscura.com/articles/what-language-is-spoken-in-the-balkans|magazine=[[Atlas Obscura]]|archive-date=11 February 2019|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190211191959/https://www.atlasobscura.com/articles/what-language-is-spoken-in-the-balkans|access-date=7 April 2019}}</ref>
==See also==
|