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List of inventoried conifers in the United States

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Silvics of North America (1991),[1] a forest inventory compiled and published by the United States Forest Service, includes many conifers in states from the Pacific to the Mississippi River.[a] It superseded Silvics of Forest Trees of the United States (1965), which was the first extensive American tree inventory. The 1991 inventory has limited coverage outside Canada and the continental United States, and is not used outside these areas in the list below.[3]

people around the trunk of a large tree in the forest
Giant sequoia

All of the conifers in the inventory except the larches and some bald cypresses are evergreens.[4] Except for one species in the yew family, all are in either the pine family (including firs, larches, spruces, pines, Douglas firs and hemlocks) or the cypress family (including junipers, redwoods, giant sequoias, bald cypresses and four genera of cedars).[2][5][6][b]

Softwood from North American conifers has a variety of commercial uses. The sturdier timber is used for plywood, wood veneer and construction framing, including structural support beams and studs. Milled logs can be fashioned into posts, poles and railroad ties. Less sturdy timber is often ground and processed into pulpwood, principally for papermaking. Resins from sap yield pine tar, turpentine and other terpenes.[7]

Key

 WashingtonOregonCaliforniaAlaskaIdahoMontanaNorth DakotaSouth DakotaNevadaUtahArizonaWyomingColoradoNew MexicoNebraskaKansasOklahomaTexasMinnesotaIowaMissouriArkansasLouisiana

States in this list (see the Distribution column): AK Alaska AR Arkansas AZ Arizona CA California CO Colorado IA Iowa ID Idaho KS Kansas LA Louisiana MN Minnesota MO Missouri MT Montana ND North Dakota NE Nebraska NM New Mexico NV Nevada OK Oklahoma OR Oregon SD South Dakota TX Texas UT Utah WA Washington WY Wyoming

These are often divided up into:

A column of five states on the western bank of the Mississippi River: AR IA LA MN MO (including the parts of LA and MN that are east of the river)
A column of six states that overlap the Great Plains: KS ND NE OK SD TX
The continental Western United States: AK AZ CA CO ID MT NM NV OR UT WA WY

Conifers

Conifers
Species and a common name[2][8][9] Notes and commercial uses In Canada's
inventory?

Distri­bution[9]

avg height;
growth rate

Limits for soil pH, annual precipitation and low temperature Tolerance to
drought (D),
fire (F),
liming (L) and
shade (S) 		Landscapes, bark and cones with foliage
Abies amabilis (Pacific silver fir) Can reach 230 ft (70 m) in height. The timber is lightweight, with low resin content. The species can easily be distinguished from non-fir conifers by the grey, blistery trunk and rigid branches.

Uses: construction, landscaping, pulpwood, veneers, winter holiday decorations.[10][11]

Yes

AK CA OR WA

165 ft (50 m); slow[10]

pH 3.3–6.0

38–260 in (97–660 cm)
−28 °F (−33 °C)[10]

D: low
F: none
L: low
S: tolerant [10]
Abies concolor (white fir) Grows best, up to 180 ft (55 m) or more, in the mid-latitudes of California's Sierra Nevada.

Uses: construction, landscaping, pulpwood, veneers, winter holiday decorations[12][13]

No

AZ CO ID NM NV OR UT WY

120 ft (37 m); slow [12]

pH 5.5–7.8

18–80 in (46–203 cm)
−38 °F (−39 °C)[12]

D: medium
F: medium
L: low
S: intermediate [12]
Abies grandis (grand fir) Can reach 230 ft (70 m) in height. The foliage has a distinct orange-like scent. The wood is soft, and not as durable as in other fir species.

Uses: construction, landscaping, pulpwood, veneers, winter holiday decorations.[14][15]

Yes

CA ID MT OR WA

150 ft (46 m); moderate [14]

pH 4.5–7.5

11–100 in (28–254 cm)
−33 °F (−36 °C)[14]

D: medium
F: high
L: low
S: tolerant [14]
Abies lasiocarpa (subalpine fir) Provides habitat for wildlife and nutrition for livestock.

Uses: construction, landscaping, pulpwood, winter holiday decorations.[16][17][18]

Yes

All the continental Western states

90 ft (27 m); slow[17]

pH 4.0–6.5

20–150 in (51–381 cm)
−51 °F (−46 °C)[17]

D: low
F: low
L: low
S: tolerant [17]
Abies magnifica (California red fir) Prevalent near many natural water sources at high altitudes in California.

Uses: construction, landscaping, pulpwood, veneers, winter holiday decorations[19][20]

No

CA NV OR

150 ft (46 m); slow [19]

pH 5.0–6.1

33–64 in (84–163 cm)
−23 °F (−31 °C)[19]

D: low
F: low
L: low
S: tolerant [19]
Abies procera (noble fir) Limited to the Cascade Range and coastal mountain ranges west of that range. It is the largest fir. The wood is stronger (and generally more expensive) than in other firs.

Uses: construction, landscaping, pulpwood, veneers, winter holiday decorations[21][22]

No

CA OR WA

230 ft (70 m); rapid [21]

pH 6.0–7.5

64–120 in (160–300 cm)
−23 °F (−31 °C)[21]

D: low
F: low
L: low
S: intermediate [21]
Callitropsis nootkatensis (Alaska cedar)[23] Formerly a significant timber tree providing durable, multi-use wood. Most of the trees have already been cleared, aside from limited numbers in protected areas. It is listed as Chamaecyparis nootkatensis in the 1991 inventory.

Uses: construction, landscaping.[24][23][25]

Yes

AK CA OR WA

75 ft (23 m); slow[24]

pH 5.5–7.0

45–100 in (110–250 cm)
−22 °F (−30 °C)[24]

D: low
F: low
L: none
S: tolerant [24]
Calocedrus decurrens (incense cedar) Known as Libocedrus decurrens in the 1991 inventory. The heartwood is often used for siding.

Uses: construction, posts, veneers[26][27]

No

CA NV OR

100 ft (30 m); slow [26]

pH 4.6–7.1

20–80 in (51–203 cm)
−25 °F (−32 °C)[26]

D: medium
F: low
L: low
S: intermediate [26]
Chamaecyparis lawsoniana (Port Orford cedar) Susceptible to root rot. The logs are frequently exported to Japan. As an ornamental tree, it has more than 200 known cultivars.

Uses: construction[28][29]

No

CA OR

200 ft (61 m); moderate [28]

pH 4.2–7.5

49–110 in (120–280 cm)
−12 °F (−24 °C)[28]

D: low
F: medium
L: medium
S: tolerant [28]
Juniperus occidentalis (western juniper) Used locally since the 19th century for durable poles and as firewood, and now also for furniture, toys and paneling.

Uses: landscaping, posts, veneers[30][31]

No

CA ID NV OR WA

33 ft (10 m); slow [30]

pH 6.0–8.5

8–24 in (20–61 cm)
−33 °F (−36 °C)[30]

D: high
F: low
L: high
S: intolerant [30]
Juniperus scopulorum (Rocky Mountain juniper) Usually a shrub or small tree. The wood is durable, especially when seasoned, and suitable for furniture. The resins are aromatic.

Uses: landscaping, posts, veneers.[32][33]

Yes

All states in this list, not including AK, CA or the Mississippi River states

50 ft (15 m); slow[32]

pH 5.0–8.5

9–26 in (23–66 cm)
−38 °F (−39 °C)[32]

D: high
F: low
L: high
S: intolerant [32]
Juniperus virginiana (eastern red cedar) An important support species for wildlife throughout its range. Although the tree has limited commercial use, the wood is highly valued for its appearance and robustness. The resins are aromatic. J. silicicola is also listed in the 1991 inventory, but this is now a synonym of a variety of J. virginiana.

Uses: landscaping, posts, veneers, winter holiday decorations.[34][35]

Yes

AR CO IA KS LA MN MO ND NE OK OR SD TX

50 ft (15 m); slow[34]

pH 4.7–8.0

15–68 in (38–173 cm)
−43 °F (−42 °C)[34]

D: high
F: low
L: high
S: medium [34]
Larix laricina (tamarack) Adapted to a variety of poor soil conditions, including peatland. The tree has one of the widest distributions among North American conifers.

Uses: construction, landscaping, posts, pulpwood.[36][37]

Yes

AK MN

80 ft (24 m); rapid[36]

pH 5.5–6.5

7–55 in (18–140 cm)
−79 °F (−62 °C)[36]

D: low
F: none
L: low
S: intolerant [36]
Larix lyallii (subalpine larch) Distinguishable from western larch by its woolly buds and new growth. In its range, the subalpine larch is often found growing higher on cold mountain slopes than other trees.

Uses: landscaping.[38][39]

Yes

ID MT WA

40 ft (12 m); slow[38]

pH 3.9–5.6

26–95 in (66–241 cm)
−58 °F (−50 °C)[38]

D: high
F: low
L: none
S: intolerant [38]
Larix occidentalis (western larch) The largest larch, and the most important one commercially for its timber. Also a significant source of arabinogalactan, a gum used as a thickening agent.

Uses: construction, landscaping, posts, pulpwood, veneers.[40][41]

Yes

ID MT OR UT WA WY

200 ft (61 m); rapid[40]

pH 6.0–7.0

13–50 in (33–127 cm)
−43 °F (−42 °C)[40]

D: low
F: low
L: low
S: intolerant [40]
Picea breweriana (Brewer spruce) Also called "weeping spruce", for the fringe-like branchlets that hang from the horizontal branches. It is a popular tree for landscaping in Europe.

Uses: construction, landscaping[42][43]

No

CA OR

100 ft (30 m); slow [42]

pH 4.6–7.5

21–110 in (53–279 cm)
−13 °F (−25 °C)[42]

D: low
F: low
L: none
S: tolerant [42]
Picea engelmannii (Engelmann spruce) Typically contains many small wood knots that lower the grade of the timber. The light colour, long fibres and very low resin content contribute to the quality of its pulpwood.

Uses: construction, landscaping, posts, pulpwood, terpenes, veneers.[44][45]

Yes

All the continental Western states

120 ft (37 m); slow[44]

pH 6.0–8.0

21–160 in (53–406 cm)
−50 °F (−46 °C)[44]

D: low
F: low
L: high
S: tolerant [44]
Picea glauca[c] (white spruce) Used to build furniture, pallets and musical instruments.

Uses: construction, pulpwood.[46][47][48]

Yes

AK ID MN MT SD WY

100 ft (30 m); slow[46]

pH 4.0–8.2

7–50 in (18–127 cm)
−65 °F (−54 °C)[46]

D: high
F: low
L: low
S: medium [46]
Picea mariana (black spruce)

Mainly harvested for pulpwood; construction uses are limited by the small size (for a spruce). The pale yellow wood is lightweight but strong.

Uses: construction, landscaping, pulpwood, terpenes, winter holiday decorations.[49][50]

Yes

AK MN

65 ft (20 m); slow[49]

pH 4.7–6.5

5–60 in (13–152 cm)
−79 °F (−62 °C)[49]

D: low
F: none
L: low
S: tolerant [49]
Picea pungens (blue spruce) The brittle wood has little economic value, but the tree's symmetry and unusual color make it a popular ornamental tree with at least 38 cultivars.

Uses: landscaping, winter holiday decorations[51][52]

No

AZ CO ID MN NM UT WY

100 ft (30 m); slow [51]

pH 5.5–7.8

20–45 in (51–114 cm)
−38 °F (−39 °C)[51]

D: medium
F: low
L: high
S: intermediate [51]
Picea sitchensis (Sitka spruce) The largest spruce. The strong wood is used in light aircraft, masts and turbine blades. It is also used in many musical instruments for its resonance.

Uses: construction, pulpwood, terpenes.[53][54]

Yes

AK CA OR WA

200 ft (61 m); moderate [53]

pH 3.9–5.7

22–225 in (56–572 cm)
−33 °F (−36 °C)[53]

D: low
F: none
L: medium
S: tolerant [53]
Pinus albicaulis (whitebark pine) A slow-growing and long-lived pioneer species that helps reduce the movement of soil and snow. The seeds are a source of nutrition for birds, small mammals, black bears and grizzly bears.

Uses: no significant economic uses.[55][56]

Yes

CA ID MT NV OR WA WY

65 ft (20 m); slow[55]

pH 4.8–8.0

18–72 in (46–183 cm)
−58 °F (−50 °C)[55]

D: high
F: none
L: low
S: medium [55]
Pinus banksiana (jack pine) Sometimes milled for utility poles and railroad ties.

Uses: construction, landscaping, posts, pulpwood, terpenes.[57][58]

Yes

MN MO ND

80 ft (24 m); rapid[57]

pH 6.0–8.2

15–35 in (38–89 cm)
−53 °F (−47 °C)[57]

D: low
F: none
L: low
S: intolerant [57]
Pinus clausa (sand pine) Grown on plantations for biofuel.

Uses: construction, pulpwood, winter holiday decorations[59][60]

No

TX

80 ft (24 m); slow [59]

pH 4.2–5.5

40–65 in (100–170 cm)
2 °F (−17 °C)[59]

D: low
F: low
L: none
S: intermediate [59]
Pinus contorta (lodgepole pine) Used in paneling, and sometimes milled for utility poles and railroad ties. The trees usually grow rapidly when young and can be harvested economically.

Uses: construction, posts, pulpwood, terpenes, veneers.[61][62]

Yes

SD and all the continental Western states except AZ NM

99 ft (30 m); rapid[61]

pH 6.2–7.5

18–25 in (46–64 cm)
−70 °F (−57 °C)[61]

D: low
F: low
L: high
S: intolerant [61]
Pinus echinata (shortleaf pine) One of the most economically important softwood trees in the Southeastern US, mainly providing pulpwood and construction timber.

Uses: construction, landscaping, posts, pulpwood, terpenes, veneers, winter holiday decorations[63][64]

No

AR LA MO OK TX

100 ft (30 m); rapid [63]

pH 4.0–6.0

34–65 in (86–165 cm)
−18 °F (−28 °C)[63]

D: medium
F: high
L: low
S: intolerant [63]
Pinus edulis (twoneedle pinyon) The large, edible seeds are the most valuable product of the tree. Many isolated communities in the southwestern US have relied on the trees for firewood.

Uses: landscaping, posts, winter holiday decorations[65][66]

No

AZ CA CO NM NV OK TX UT WY

50 ft (15 m); slow [65]

pH 6.5–8.5

9–27 in (23–69 cm)
−31 °F (−35 °C)[65]

D: high
F: low
L: low
S: intolerant [65]
Pinus elliottii (slash pine) Still one of the most frequently planted North American timber trees, it has supplied much of the world's demand for turpentine and resin since the 1700s. It is native to the Southeastern US.

Uses: construction, landscaping, posts, pulpwood, terpenes, veneers[67][68]

No

LA TX

100 ft (30 m); rapid [67]

pH 4.0–6.4

40–80 in (100–200 cm)
−18 °F (−28 °C)[67]

D: low
F: low
L: low
S: intolerant [67]
Pinus flexilis (limber pine) A slow-growing species not usually planted for its timber, but sometimes harvested along with other species. It is adapted to harsh climates, including windy and dry conditions, and provides the only tree cover available on some sites. The species is long-lived; one specimen was found to be 1650 years old.

Uses: construction, landscaping, edible seeds[69][70]

Yes

ND NE SD and all the continental Western states except WA

66 ft (20 m); slow[69]

pH 5.7–6.5

20–70 in (51–178 cm)
−43 °F (−42 °C)[69]

D: high
F: low
L: medium
S: intolerant [69]
Pinus jeffreyi (Jeffrey pine) Discovered in 1852 by John Jeffrey, the tree produces wood similar in structure and quality to ponderosa pine wood.

Uses: construction, landscaping, posts, pulpwood, terpenes, veneers[71][72]

No

CA NV OR

180 ft (55 m); rapid [71]

pH 5.6–8.4

20–80 in (51–203 cm)
−38 °F (−39 °C)[71]

D: medium
F: medium
L: none
S: intolerant [71]
Pinus lambertiana (sugar pine) The largest and tallest pine, and one of the oldest, sometimes living 500 years or more. Mature trees often have long cones weighing down the tips of the upper branches.

Uses: construction, pulpwood, veneers[73][74]

No

CA NV OR

229 ft (70 m); rapid [73]

pH 5.6–8.0

25–90 in (64–229 cm)
−28 °F (−33 °C)[73]

D: medium
F: low
L: none
S: intermediate [73]
Pinus monophylla (singleleaf pinyon) One of the slowest-growing conifers. Many of the trees are wider than they are tall. The edible seeds are harvested and sold commercially.

Uses: landscaping, posts, winter holiday decorations[75][76]

No

AZ CA NV ID NM UT

50 ft (15 m); slow [75]

pH 6.2–7.5

11–20 in (28–51 cm)
−23 °F (−31 °C)[75]

D: high
F: low
L: high
S: intolerant [75]
Pinus monticola (western white pine) Straight-grained, lightweight and low in resin, the timber is often used in framing and woodworking.

Uses: construction, landscaping, pulpwood, terpenes, veneers.[77][78]

Yes

CA ID MT NV OR UT WA

200 ft (61 m); rapid[77]

pH 5.5–7.0

15–30 in (38–76 cm)
−33 °F (−36 °C)[77]

D: low
F: low
L: medium
S: medium [77]
Pinus palustris (longleaf pine) A traditional provider of turpentine and resins for naval and other uses. Forest of these trees may once have covered 60 million acres (240,000 km2), but have been reduced to less than one-fifteenth of that.

Uses: construction, landscaping, posts, pulpwood, terpenes, veneers[79][80]

No

AR LA TX

120 ft (37 m); rapid [79]

pH 6.0–7.0

40–60 in (100–150 cm)
−3 °F (−19 °C)[79]

D: medium
F: medium
L: low
S: intolerant [79]
Pinus ponderosa (ponderosa pine) Can reach more than 70 m (230 ft) in height. It is a widely distributed tree in western North America, and one of the main sources of timber, with a relatively fast growth rate.

Uses: construction, landscaping, posts, pulpwood, terpenes, veneers.[81][82]

Yes

All states in this list, not including AK, KS or the Mississippi River states

223 ft (68 m); moderate [81]

pH 5.0–9.0

15–25 in (38–64 cm)
−36 °F (−38 °C)[81]

D: high
F: high
L: low
S: intolerant [81]
Pinus radiata (Monterey pine) Internationally, the most widely planted pine species, mainly for timber and pulpwood. The wood tends to be lower-grade and is not widely sold in the US.

Uses: landscaping, winter holiday decorations[83][84]

No

CA

120 ft (37 m); rapid [83]

pH 4.5–5.2

16–30 in (41–76 cm)
23 °F (−5 °C)[83]

D: low
F: none
L: low
S: intermediate [83]
Pinus sabiniana (California foothill pine) Not widely used today, but it provided food and was crafted into baskets and drums by Indigenous peoples of California.

Uses: landscaping[85][86]

No

CA OR

80 ft (24 m); slow [85]

pH 6.0–8.3

14–24 in (36–61 cm)
12 °F (−11 °C)[85]

D: high
F: low
L: medium
S: intolerant [85]
Pinus taeda (loblolly pine) The most economically valuable forest tree in the Southern US, representing more than half of the total volume of erect pines.

Uses: construction, posts, pulpwood, terpenes, veneers[87][88]

No

AR LA MO OK TX

100 ft (30 m); rapid [87]

pH 4.0–7.0

35–65 in (89–165 cm)
−8 °F (−22 °C)[87]

D: low
F: high
L: medium
S: intolerant [87]
Pseudotsuga macrocarpa (bigcone Douglas fir) The wood is sturdy and strong but not durable. It is no longer harvested commercially for its coarse lumber.

Uses: landscaping[89][90]

No

CA

75 ft (23 m); moderate [89]

pH 5.0–7.0

12–40 in (30–102 cm)
−13 °F (−25 °C)[89]

D: high
F: low
L: none
S: intolerant [89]
Pseudotsuga menziesii (Douglas fir) Worldwide, one of the most commercially successful timber trees.

Uses: construction, landscaping, posts, pulpwood, terpenes, veneers, winter holiday decorations.[91][92]

Yes

MN TX and all the continental Western states

200 ft (61 m); moderate [91]

pH 5.0–7.5

18–100 in (46–254 cm)
−33 °F (−36 °C)[91]

D: low
F: low
L: low
S: medium [91]
Sequoia sempervirens (redwood) Closely related to the giant sequoia (Sequoiadendron), this tree relies on the wet winters and foggy summers prevalent along the central and northern coasts of California. Its decay-resistant wood and very hard bark have a variety of uses in construction and landscaping.

Uses: construction, landscaping, posts, pulpwood, veneers[93][94]

No

CA OR

250 ft (76 m); rapid [93]

pH 5.0–7.0

20–200 in (51–508 cm)
7 °F (−14 °C)[93]

D: low
F: low
L: low
S: tolerant [93]
Sequoiadendron giganteum (giant sequoia) Grown as an ornamental tree in many countries. Because of the tree's extreme size and longevity and restricted natural habitat, most giant sequoia forests have been granted protected status. Uses: construction, landscaping[95][96] No

CA

200 ft (61 m); slow [95]

pH 5.5–7.5

35–55 in (89–140 cm)
−24 °F (−31 °C)[95]

D: medium
F: none
L: low
S: intolerant [95]
Taxodium distichum (bald cypress) Grows on soggy or flooded ground in coastal plains in the Southern US. Often displays cypress knees near the base of the trunk.

Uses: construction, landscaping, posts, terpenes[97][98]

No

AR LA MO OK TX

130 ft (40 m); rapid [97]

pH 4.5–6.0

40–65 in (100–170 cm)
−18 °F (−28 °C)[97]

D: low
F: low
L: none
S: intermediate [97]
Taxus brevifolia (western yew) A shade-tolerant tree of the Yew family. When competing with taller and faster-growing trees, it becomes part of the undergrowth. The seed cones have red arils.

Uses: landscaping, posts.[99][100]

Yes

AK CA ID MT NV OR WA

40 ft (12 m); slow[99]

pH 6.2–7.5

24–60 in (61–152 cm)
−18 °F (−28 °C)[99]

D: medium
F: low
L: low
S: tolerant [99]
Thuja plicata (western redcedar) The only native Thuja species in western North America. The lightweight, durable wood makes good insulation, and is often used in shingles and other roofing materials.

Uses: construction, landscaping, posts, pulpwood, veneers.[101][102]

Yes

AK CA ID MT OR WA

150 ft (46 m); slow[101]

pH 5.1–7.1

30–120 in (76–305 cm)
−33 °F (−36 °C)[101]

D: low
F: low
L: medium
S: tolerant [101]
Tsuga heterophylla (western hemlock) Used widely in construction. It is also a good source of wood fibre.

Uses: construction, landscaping, pulpwood, veneers.[103][104]

Yes

AK CA ID MT OR WA

170 ft (52 m); slow[103]

pH 4.5–6.0

38–150 in (97–381 cm)
−23 °F (−31 °C)[103]

D: low
F: low
L: none
S: tolerant [103]
Tsuga mertensiana (mountain hemlock) Grows well in snow-covered subalpine zones.

Uses: construction, landscaping, pulpwood, veneers.[105][106]

Yes

AK CA ID MT NV OR WA

125 ft (38 m); slow[105]

pH 4.5–7.3

42–140 in (110–360 cm)
−18 °F (−28 °C)[105]

D: low
F: low
L: low
S: tolerant [105]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Including the state of Minnesota, which is partially divided by the river, but excluding Hawaii, which does not appear in the 1991 inventory. The taxonomy (classification) on this page comes from Plants of the World Online except as noted, and omits hybrids and varieties.[2]
  2. ^ Alaska cedars, incense cedars, white cedars and thuja cedars
  3. ^ Of these sources, only Plants of the World Online lists this as Picea laxa.[2]

Citations

  1. ^ Burns & Honkala 1991.
  2. ^ a b c d POWO.
  3. ^ Burns & Honkala 1991, pp. i–vi.
  4. ^ National Plant Data Team 2023, Characteristics, Leaf Retention.
  5. ^ National Plant Data Team & Stevens 2023, Thuja occidentalis': Plant Guide; Characteristics.
  6. ^ Johnston 1991, pp. 580, 587.
  7. ^ National Plant Data Team 2023, Help Document.
  8. ^ Burns & Honkala 1991, pp. v–vi.
  9. ^ a b National Plant Data Team 2023.
  10. ^ a b c d National Plant Data Team & Wilken 2023, Abies amabilis: Plant Guide; Characteristics.
  11. ^ Crawford & Oliver 1991, pp. 22, 23.
  12. ^ a b c d National Plant Data Team 2023, Abies concolor: Characteristics.
  13. ^ Laacke 1991, pp. 36–46.
  14. ^ a b c d National Plant Data Team & Nesom 2023, Abies grandis: Plant Guide; Characteristics.
  15. ^ Foiles, Graham & Olson 1991, pp. 52–58.
  16. ^ POWO, Abies bifolia.
  17. ^ a b c d National Plant Data Team & Nesom 2023, Abies lasiocarpa: Plant Guide; Characteristics.
  18. ^ Alexander, Shearer & Shepperd 1991, pp. 60–68.
  19. ^ a b c d National Plant Data Team 2023, Abies magnifica: Characteristics.
  20. ^ Laacke 1991, pp. 71–79.
  21. ^ a b c d National Plant Data Team 2023, Abies procera: Characteristics.
  22. ^ Franklin 1991, pp. 80–87.
  23. ^ a b Harris 1991, pp. 97–102.
  24. ^ a b c d National Plant Data Team 2023, Callitropsis nootkatensis: Characteristics.
  25. ^ POWO, Chamaecyparis.
  26. ^ a b c d National Plant Data Team 2023, Calocedrus decurrens: Characteristics.
  27. ^ Powers & Oliver 1991, pp. 173–180.
  28. ^ a b c d National Plant Data Team 2023, Chamaecyparis lawsoniana: Characteristics.
  29. ^ Zobel 1991, pp. 88–96.
  30. ^ a b c d National Plant Data Team 2023, Juniperus occidentalis: Characteristics.
  31. ^ Dealy 1991, pp. 109–115.
  32. ^ a b c d National Plant Data Team & Stevens 2023, Juniperus scopulorum: Plant Guide; Characteristics.
  33. ^ Noble 1991, pp. 116–126.
  34. ^ a b c d National Plant Data Team et al. 2023, Juniperus virginiana: Plant Guide; Characteristics.
  35. ^ Lawson 1991, pp. 131–140.
  36. ^ a b c d National Plant Data Team & Nesom 2023, Larix laricina: Plant Guide; Characteristics.
  37. ^ Johnston 1991, pp. 141–151.
  38. ^ a b c d National Plant Data Team 2023, Larix lyallii: Characteristics.
  39. ^ Arno 1991, pp. 152–159.
  40. ^ a b c d National Plant Data Team 2023, Larix occidentalis: Characteristics.
  41. ^ Schmidt & Shearer 1991, pp. 160–172.
  42. ^ a b c d National Plant Data Team 2023, Picea breweriana: Characteristics.
  43. ^ Thornburgh 1991, pp. 181–186.
  44. ^ a b c d National Plant Data Team & Nesom 2023, Picea engelmannii: Plant Guide; Characteristics.
  45. ^ Alexander & Shepperd 1991, pp. 187–203.
  46. ^ a b c d National Plant Data Team & Nesom 2023, Picea glauca: Plant Guide; Characteristics.
  47. ^ POWO, Picea glauca.
  48. ^ Nienstaedt & Zasada 1991, pp. 204–226.
  49. ^ a b c d National Plant Data Team & Nesom 2023, Picea mariana: Plant Guide; Characteristics.
  50. ^ Viereck & Johnston 1991, pp. 227–237.
  51. ^ a b c d National Plant Data Team 2023, Picea pungens: Characteristics.
  52. ^ Fechner 1991, pp. 238–249.
  53. ^ a b c d National Plant Data Team & Moore 2023, Picea sitchensis: Plant Guide; Characteristics.
  54. ^ Harris 1991, pp. 260–267.
  55. ^ a b c d National Plant Data Team et al. 2023, Pinus albicaulis: Plant Guide; Characteristics.
  56. ^ Arno & Hoff 1991, pp. 268–279.
  57. ^ a b c d National Plant Data Team, Moore & Wilson 2023, Pinus banksiana: Plant Guide; Characteristics.
  58. ^ Rudolph & Laidly 1991, pp. 280–293.
  59. ^ a b c d National Plant Data Team 2023, Pinus clausa: Characteristics.
  60. ^ Brendemuehl 1991, pp. 294–301.
  61. ^ a b c d National Plant Data Team 2023, Pinus contorta: Characteristics.
  62. ^ Lotan & Critchfield 1991, pp. 302–315.
  63. ^ a b c d National Plant Data Team 2023, Pinus echinata: Characteristics.
  64. ^ Lawson 1991, pp. 316–326.
  65. ^ a b c d National Plant Data Team 2023, Pinus edulis: Characteristics.
  66. ^ Ronco 1991, pp. 327–337.
  67. ^ a b c d National Plant Data Team 2023, Pinus elliottii: Characteristics.
  68. ^ Lohrey & Kossuth 1991, pp. 338–348.
  69. ^ a b c d National Plant Data Team 2023, Pinus flexilis: Characteristics.
  70. ^ Steele 1991, pp. 348–354.
  71. ^ a b c d National Plant Data Team 2023, Pinus jeffreyi: Characteristics.
  72. ^ Jenkinson 1991, pp. 359–369.
  73. ^ a b c d National Plant Data Team 2023, Pinus lambertiana: Characteristics.
  74. ^ Kinloch & Scheuner 1991, pp. 370–379.
  75. ^ a b c d National Plant Data Team 2023, Pinus monophylla: Characteristics.
  76. ^ Meeuwig, Budy & Everett 1991, pp. 380–384.
  77. ^ a b c d National Plant Data Team 2023, Pinus monticola: Characteristics.
  78. ^ Graham 1991, pp. 385–394.
  79. ^ a b c d National Plant Data Team 2023, Pinus palustris: Characteristics.
  80. ^ Boyer 1991, pp. 405–413.
  81. ^ a b c d National Plant Data Team & Wennerberg 2023, Pinus ponderosa: Plant Guide; Characteristics.
  82. ^ Oliver & Ryker 1991, pp. 413–424.
  83. ^ a b c d National Plant Data Team 2023, Pinus radiata: Characteristics.
  84. ^ McDonald & Laacke 1991, pp. 433–441.
  85. ^ a b c d National Plant Data Team 2023, Pinus sabiniana: Characteristics.
  86. ^ Powers 1991, pp. 463–469.
  87. ^ a b c d National Plant Data Team 2023, Pinus taeda: Characteristics.
  88. ^ Baker & Langdon 1991, pp. 497–512.
  89. ^ a b c d National Plant Data Team 2023, Pseudotsuga macrocarpa: Characteristics.
  90. ^ McDonald 1991, pp. 520–526.
  91. ^ a b c d National Plant Data Team & Stevens 2023, Pseudotsuga menziesii: Characteristics.
  92. ^ Hermann & Lavender 1991, pp. 527, 537.
  93. ^ a b c d National Plant Data Team 2023, Sequoia sempervirens: Characteristics.
  94. ^ Olson, Roy & Walters 1991, pp. 541–551.
  95. ^ a b c d National Plant Data Team 2023, Sequoiadendron giganteum: Characteristics.
  96. ^ Weatherspoon 1991, pp. 552–562.
  97. ^ a b c d National Plant Data Team 2023, Taxodium distichum: Characteristics.
  98. ^ Wilhite & Toliver 1991, pp. 563–572.
  99. ^ a b c d National Plant Data Team & Stevens 2023, Taxus brevifolia: Characteristics.
  100. ^ Bolsinger & Jaramillo 1991, pp. 573, 577, 578.
  101. ^ a b c d National Plant Data Team & Stevens 2023, Thuja plicata': Plant Guide; Characteristics.
  102. ^ Minore 1991, pp. 590, 598.
  103. ^ a b c d National Plant Data Team & Stevens 2023, Thuja heterophylla': Plant Guide; Characteristics.
  104. ^ Packee 1991, pp. 613, 621.
  105. ^ a b c d National Plant Data Team & Stevens 2023, Tsuga mertensiana': Plant Guide; Characteristics.
  106. ^ Means 1991, pp. 623, 630.

References

All growth requirements from the USDA Plants Database were last retrieved on March 17, 2024, or later.
  • Alexander, Robert R.; Shearer, Raymond C.; Shepperd, Wayne D. (1991). "Abies lasiocarpa". In Burns, Russell M.; Honkala, Barbara H. (eds.). Silvics of North America, Volume 1. Conifers. Washington, DC: US Forest Service, Department of Agriculture (US Government Printing Office). pp. 60–68. ISBN 978-0160292606.
  • Alexander, Robert R.; Shepperd, Wayne D. (1991). "Picea engelmannii". In Burns, Russell M.; Honkala, Barbara H. (eds.). Silvics of North America, Volume 1. Conifers. Washington, DC: US Forest Service, Department of Agriculture (US Government Printing Office). pp. 187–203. ISBN 978-0160292606.
  • Arno, Stephen F. (1991). "Larix lyallii". In Burns, Russell M.; Honkala, Barbara H. (eds.). Silvics of North America, Volume 1. Conifers. Washington, DC: US Forest Service, Department of Agriculture (US Government Printing Office). pp. 152–159. ISBN 978-0160292606.
  • Arno, Stephen F.; Hoff, Raymond J. (1991). "Pinus albicaulis". In Burns, Russell M.; Honkala, Barbara H. (eds.). Silvics of North America, Volume 1. Conifers. Washington, DC: US Forest Service, Department of Agriculture (US Government Printing Office). pp. 268–279. ISBN 978-0160292606.
  • Baker, James B.; Langdon, O. Gordon (1991). "Pinus taeda". In Burns, Russell M.; Honkala, Barbara H. (eds.). Silvics of North America, Volume 1. Conifers. Washington, DC: US Forest Service, Department of Agriculture (US Government Printing Office). pp. 497–512. ISBN 978-0160292606.
  • Bolsinger, Charles L.; Jaramillo, Annabelle E. (1991). "Taxus brevifolia". In Burns, Russell M.; Honkala, Barbara H. (eds.). Silvics of North America, Volume 1. Conifers. Washington, DC: US Forest Service, Department of Agriculture (US Government Printing Office). pp. 573–578. ISBN 978-0160292606.
  • Boyer, W. D. (1991). "Pinus palustris". In Burns, Russell M.; Honkala, Barbara H. (eds.). Silvics of North America, Volume 1. Conifers. Washington, DC: US Forest Service, Department of Agriculture (US Government Printing Office). pp. 405–413. ISBN 978-0160292606.
  • Brendemuehl, R. H. (1991). "Pinus clausa". In Burns, Russell M.; Honkala, Barbara H. (eds.). Silvics of North America, Volume 1. Conifers. Washington, DC: US Forest Service, Department of Agriculture (US Government Printing Office). pp. 294–301. ISBN 978-0160292606.
  • Burns, Russell M.; Honkala, Barbara H., eds. (1991). Silvics of North America, Volume 1. Conifers. Washington, DC: US Forest Service, Department of Agriculture (US Government Printing Office). ISBN 978-0160292606.
  • CNFI (2014). "Canada's National Forest Inventory". Ottawa, Ontario: Government of Canada. Retrieved October 15, 2023.
  • Crawford, Peggy D.; Oliver, Chadwick Dearing (1991). "Abies amabilis". In Burns, Russell M.; Honkala, Barbara H. (eds.). Silvics of North America, Volume 1. Conifers. Washington, DC: US Forest Service, Department of Agriculture (US Government Printing Office). pp. 17–23. ISBN 978-0160292606.
  • Dealy, J. Edward (1991). "Juniperus occidentalis". In Burns, Russell M.; Honkala, Barbara H. (eds.). Silvics of North America, Volume 1. Conifers. Washington, DC: US Forest Service, Department of Agriculture (US Government Printing Office). pp. 109–115. ISBN 978-0160292606.
  • Fechner, Gilbert H. (1991). "Picea pungens". In Burns, Russell M.; Honkala, Barbara H. (eds.). Silvics of North America, Volume 1. Conifers. Washington, DC: US Forest Service, Department of Agriculture (US Government Printing Office). pp. 238–249. ISBN 978-0160292606.
  • Foiles, Marvin W.; Graham, Russel T.; Olson, David F. Jr. (1991). "Abies grandis". In Burns, Russell M.; Honkala, Barbara H. (eds.). Silvics of North America, Volume 1. Conifers. Washington, DC: US Forest Service, Department of Agriculture (US Government Printing Office). pp. 52–58. ISBN 978-0160292606.
  • Franklin, Jerry F. (1991). "Abies procera". In Burns, Russell M.; Honkala, Barbara H. (eds.). Silvics of North America, Volume 1. Conifers. Washington, DC: US Forest Service, Department of Agriculture (US Government Printing Office). pp. 80–87. ISBN 978-0160292606.
  • Graham, Russell T. (1991). "Pinus monticola". In Burns, Russell M.; Honkala, Barbara H. (eds.). Silvics of North America, Volume 1. Conifers. Washington, DC: US Forest Service, Department of Agriculture (US Government Printing Office). pp. 385–394. ISBN 978-0160292606.
  • Harris, A. S. (1991). "Callitropsis nootkatensis; Picea sitchensis". In Burns, Russell M.; Honkala, Barbara H. (eds.). Silvics of North America, Volume 1. Conifers. Washington, DC: US Forest Service, Department of Agriculture (US Government Printing Office). pp. 97–102, 260–267. ISBN 978-0160292606.
  • Hermann, Richard K.; Lavender, Denis P. (1991). "Pseudotsuga menziesii". In Burns, Russell M.; Honkala, Barbara H. (eds.). Silvics of North America, Volume 1. Conifers. Washington, DC: US Forest Service, Department of Agriculture (US Government Printing Office). pp. 527–537. ISBN 978-0160292606.
  • Jenkinson, James L. (1991). "Pinus jeffreyi". In Burns, Russell M.; Honkala, Barbara H. (eds.). Silvics of North America, Volume 1. Conifers. Washington, DC: US Forest Service, Department of Agriculture (US Government Printing Office). pp. 359–369. ISBN 978-0160292606.
  • Johnston, William F. (1991). "Larix laricina; Thuja occidentalis". In Burns, Russell M.; Honkala, Barbara H. (eds.). Silvics of North America, Volume 1. Conifers. Washington, DC: US Forest Service, Department of Agriculture (US Government Printing Office). pp. 141–151, 580–587. ISBN 978-0160292606.
  • Kinloch, Bohun B. Jr.; Scheuner, William H. (1991). "Pinus lambertiana". In Burns, Russell M.; Honkala, Barbara H. (eds.). Silvics of North America, Volume 1. Conifers. Washington, DC: US Forest Service, Department of Agriculture (US Government Printing Office). pp. 370–379. ISBN 978-0160292606.
  • Laacke, Robert J. (1991). "Abies concolor and Abies magnifica". In Burns, Russell M.; Honkala, Barbara H. (eds.). Silvics of North America, Volume 1. Conifers. Washington, DC: US Forest Service, Department of Agriculture (US Government Printing Office). pp. 36–46, 71–79. ISBN 978-0160292606.
  • Lawson, Edwin R. (1991). "Juniperus virginiana and Pinus echinata". In Burns, Russell M.; Honkala, Barbara H. (eds.). Silvics of North America, Volume 1. Conifers. Washington, DC: US Forest Service, Department of Agriculture (US Government Printing Office). pp. 131–140, 316–326. ISBN 978-0160292606.
  • Lohrey, Richard E.; Kossuth, Susan V. (1991). "Pinus elliottii". In Burns, Russell M.; Honkala, Barbara H. (eds.). Silvics of North America, Volume 1. Conifers. Washington, DC: US Forest Service, Department of Agriculture (US Government Printing Office). pp. 338–348. ISBN 978-0160292606.
  • Lotan, James E.; Critchfield, William B. (1991). "Pinus contorta". In Burns, Russell M.; Honkala, Barbara H. (eds.). Silvics of North America, Volume 1. Conifers. Washington, DC: US Forest Service, Department of Agriculture (US Government Printing Office). pp. 302–315. ISBN 978-0160292606.
  • McDonald, Philip M.; Laacke, Robert J. (1991). "Pinus radiata". In Burns, Russell M.; Honkala, Barbara H. (eds.). Silvics of North America, Volume 1. Conifers. Washington, DC: US Forest Service, Department of Agriculture (US Government Printing Office). pp. 433–441. ISBN 978-0160292606.
  • McDonald, Philip M. (1991). "Pseudotsuga macrocarpa". In Burns, Russell M.; Honkala, Barbara H. (eds.). Silvics of North America, Volume 1. Conifers. Washington, DC: US Forest Service, Department of Agriculture (US Government Printing Office). pp. 520–526. ISBN 978-0160292606.
  • Means, Joseph E. (1991). "Tsuga mertensiana". In Burns, Russell M.; Honkala, Barbara H. (eds.). Silvics of North America, Volume 1. Conifers. Washington, DC: US Forest Service, Department of Agriculture (US Government Printing Office). pp. 623–630. ISBN 978-0160292606.
  • Meeuwig, R. O.; Budy, J. D.; Everett, R. L. (1991). "Pinus monophylla". In Burns, Russell M.; Honkala, Barbara H. (eds.). Silvics of North America, Volume 1. Conifers. Washington, DC: US Forest Service, Department of Agriculture (US Government Printing Office). pp. 380–384. ISBN 978-0160292606.
  • Minore, Don (1991). "Thuja plicata". In Burns, Russell M.; Honkala, Barbara H. (eds.). Silvics of North America, Volume 1. Conifers. Washington, DC: US Forest Service, Department of Agriculture (US Government Printing Office). pp. 590–598. ISBN 978-0160292606.
  • National Plant Data Team (2023). "USDA Plants Database". Washington, DC, US: Natural Resources Conservation Service, US Department of Agriculture. Retrieved October 16, 2023.
  • National Plant Data Team; Moore, Lincoln M. (2023). "USDA Plants Database". Washington, DC, US: Natural Resources Conservation Service, US Department of Agriculture. Picea sitchensis; Pinus resinosa. Retrieved October 16, 2023.
  • National Plant Data Team; Moore, Lincoln M.; Wilson, Jeffrey D. Walker (2023). "USDA Plants Database". Washington, DC, US: Natural Resources Conservation Service, US Department of Agriculture. Pinus banksiana. Retrieved October 16, 2023.
  • National Plant Data Team; Nesom, Guy (2023). "USDA Plants Database". Washington, DC, US: Natural Resources Conservation Service, US Department of Agriculture. Abies grandis, Abies lasiocarpa, Larix laricina, Picea engelmannii, Picea glauca; Picea mariana. Retrieved October 16, 2023.
  • National Plant Data Team; Stevens, Michelle (2023). "USDA Plants Database". Washington, DC, US: Natural Resources Conservation Service, US Department of Agriculture. Juniperus scopulorum. Retrieved October 16, 2023.
  • National Plant Data Team; Stevens, Michelle; Kaiser, Jerry; Dozier, Ivan (2023). "USDA Plants Database". Washington, DC, US: Natural Resources Conservation Service, US Department of Agriculture. Juniperus virginiana. Retrieved October 16, 2023.
  • National Plant Data Team; Tilley, Derek; St. John, Loren; Ogle, Dan (2023). "USDA Plants Database". Washington, DC, US: Natural Resources Conservation Service, US Department of Agriculture. Pinus albicaulis. Retrieved October 16, 2023.
  • National Plant Data Team; Wennerberg, Sarah (2023). "USDA Plants Database". Washington, DC, US: Natural Resources Conservation Service, US Department of Agriculture. Pinus ponderosa. Retrieved October 16, 2023.
  • National Plant Data Team; Wilken, Dieter (2023). "USDA Plants Database". Washington, DC, US: Natural Resources Conservation Service, US Department of Agriculture. Abies amabilis. Retrieved October 16, 2023.
  • Nienstaedt, Hans; Zasada, John C. (1991). "Picea glauca". In Burns, Russell M.; Honkala, Barbara H. (eds.). Silvics of North America, Volume 1. Conifers. Washington, DC: US Forest Service, Department of Agriculture (US Government Printing Office). pp. 204–226. ISBN 978-0160292606.
  • Noble, Daniel L. (1991). "Juniperus scopulorum". In Burns, Russell M.; Honkala, Barbara H. (eds.). Silvics of North America, Volume 1. Conifers. Washington, DC: US Forest Service, Department of Agriculture (US Government Printing Office). pp. 116–126. ISBN 978-0160292606.
  • Oliver, William W.; Ryker, Russell A. (1991). "Pinus ponderosa". In Burns, Russell M.; Honkala, Barbara H. (eds.). Silvics of North America, Volume 1. Conifers. Washington, DC: US Forest Service, Department of Agriculture (US Government Printing Office). pp. 413–424. ISBN 978-0160292606.
  • Olson, David F. Jr.; Roy, Douglass F.; Walters, Gerald A. (1991). "Sequoia sempervirens". In Burns, Russell M.; Honkala, Barbara H. (eds.). Silvics of North America, Volume 1. Conifers. Washington, DC: US Forest Service, Department of Agriculture (US Government Printing Office). pp. 541–551. ISBN 978-0160292606.
  • Packee, E. C. (1991). "Tsuga heterophylla". In Burns, Russell M.; Honkala, Barbara H. (eds.). Silvics of North America, Volume 1. Conifers. Washington, DC: US Forest Service, Department of Agriculture (US Government Printing Office). pp. 613–621. ISBN 978-0160292606.
  • Powers, Robert F.; Oliver, William W. (1991). "Calocedrus decurrens". In Burns, Russell M.; Honkala, Barbara H. (eds.). Silvics of North America, Volume 1. Conifers. Washington, DC: US Forest Service, Department of Agriculture (US Government Printing Office). pp. 173–180. ISBN 978-0160292606.
  • Powers, Robert F. (1991). "Pinus sabiniana". In Burns, Russell M.; Honkala, Barbara H. (eds.). Silvics of North America, Volume 1. Conifers. Washington, DC: US Forest Service, Department of Agriculture (US Government Printing Office). pp. 463–469. ISBN 978-0160292606.
  • POWO (2019). "Plants of the World Online". London: Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Retrieved January 10, 2023. See their terms-of-use license.
  • Ronco, Frank P. Jr. (1991). "Pinus edulis". In Burns, Russell M.; Honkala, Barbara H. (eds.). Silvics of North America, Volume 1. Conifers. Washington, DC: US Forest Service, Department of Agriculture (US Government Printing Office). pp. 327–337. ISBN 978-0160292606.
  • Rudolph, T. D.; Laidly, P. R. (1991). "Pinus banksiana". In Burns, Russell M.; Honkala, Barbara H. (eds.). Silvics of North America, Volume 1. Conifers. Washington, DC: US Forest Service, Department of Agriculture (US Government Printing Office). pp. 280–293. ISBN 978-0160292606.
  • Schmidt, Wyman C.; Shearer, Raymond C. (1991). "Larix occidentalis". In Burns, Russell M.; Honkala, Barbara H. (eds.). Silvics of North America, Volume 1. Conifers. Washington, DC: US Forest Service, Department of Agriculture (US Government Printing Office). pp. 160–172. ISBN 978-0160292606.
  • Steele, Robert (1991). "Pinus flexilis". In Burns, Russell M.; Honkala, Barbara H. (eds.). Silvics of North America, Volume 1. Conifers. Washington, DC: US Forest Service, Department of Agriculture (US Government Printing Office). pp. 348–354. ISBN 978-0160292606.
  • Thornburgh, Dale (1991). "Picea breweriana". In Burns, Russell M.; Honkala, Barbara H. (eds.). Silvics of North America, Volume 1. Conifers. Washington, DC: US Forest Service, Department of Agriculture (US Government Printing Office). pp. 181–186. ISBN 978-0160292606.
  • Viereck, Leslie A.; Johnston, William F. (1991). "Picea mariana". In Burns, Russell M.; Honkala, Barbara H. (eds.). Silvics of North America, Volume 1. Conifers. Washington, DC: US Forest Service, Department of Agriculture (US Government Printing Office). pp. 227–237. ISBN 978-0160292606.
  • Weatherspoon, C. Phillip (1991). "Sequoiadendron giganteum". In Burns, Russell M.; Honkala, Barbara H. (eds.). Silvics of North America, Volume 1. Conifers. Washington, DC: US Forest Service, Department of Agriculture (US Government Printing Office). pp. 552–562. ISBN 978-0160292606.
  • Wilhite, L. P.; Toliver, J. R. (1991). "Taxodium distichum". In Burns, Russell M.; Honkala, Barbara H. (eds.). Silvics of North America, Volume 1. Conifers. Washington, DC: US Forest Service, Department of Agriculture (US Government Printing Office). pp. 563–572. ISBN 978-0160292606.
  • Zobel, Donald B. (1991). "Chamaecyparis lawsoniana". In Burns, Russell M.; Honkala, Barbara H. (eds.). Silvics of North America, Volume 1. Conifers. Washington, DC: US Forest Service, Department of Agriculture (US Government Printing Office). pp. 88–96. ISBN 978-0160292606.
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