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{{Fiqh|military}}
{{Jihadism sidebar}}
'''Jihad''' ({{IPAc-en|dʒ|ɪ|ˈ|h|ɑː|d}}; {{lang-ar|جِهَاد|jihād}} {{IPA-ar|dʒiˈhaːd|}}) is an Arabic word which literally means "striving" or "struggling", especially with a praiseworthy aim.<ref name="ODI">{{cite encyclopedia|title=Jihad|editor=John L. Esposito|encyclopedia=The Oxford Dictionary of Islam|location=[[Oxford]] |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|year=2014|url=http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t125/e1199|access-date=29 August 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140903062853/http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t125/e1199|archive-date=3 September 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="OEIP"/><ref name="EI2">{{cite encyclopedia |author-last=Tyan |author-first=E. |year=1965 |title=D̲j̲ihād |editor1-last=Bosworth |editor1-first=C. E. |editor1-link=Clifford Edmund Bosworth |editor2-last=van Donzel |editor2-first=E. J. |editor2-link=Emeri Johannes van Donzel |editor3-last=Heinrichs |editor3-first=W. P. |editor3-link=Wolfhart Heinrichs |editor4-last=Lewis |editor4-first=B. |editor5-last=Pellat |editor5-first=Ch. |editor5-link=Charles Pellat |editor6-last=Schacht |editor6-first=J. |editor6-link=Joseph Schacht |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopaedia of Islam#2nd edition, EI2|Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition]] |location=[[Leiden]] |publisher=[[Brill Publishers]] |volume=2 |doi=10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0189 |isbn=978-90-04-16121-4}}</ref><ref name=":0" /> In an Islamic context, it can refer to almost any exertion of effort to make personal and social life conform with [[God in Islam|God]]'s guidance, such as [[introspection|internal struggle]] against one's evil inclinations, [[Dawah|proselytizing]], or efforts toward the
In classical [[Sharia|Islamic law]] (''sharia''), the term refers to armed struggle against unbelievers, particularly [[Paganism|polytheistic pagans]],<ref name="OEIP" /><ref name="EI2" /> while [[Islamic modernism|modernist Islamic scholars]] generally equate military ''jihad'' with defensive warfare.<ref name="hallaq334" /><ref>{{Cite book|first=Rudolph|last=Peters|year=2015|title=Islam and Colonialism: The Doctrine of Jihad in Modern History|publisher=De Gruyter Mouton|url=https://www.degruyter.com/view/product/6260|via=[[De Gruyter]]|url-access=subscription|page=124|isbn=9783110824858|doi=10.1515/9783110824858|access-date=24 January 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161025124838/https://www.degruyter.com/view/product/6260|archive-date=25 October 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> The [[Quran]] states that people following [[Monotheism|monotheistic religions]] who are [[People of the Book|guided by earlier revelations]], such as [[Judaism]] and [[Christianity]], should be allowed to continue practising their religion, with a preference for them being [[Dhimmi|under Muslim rule]], especially so in the classical interpretation which was employed during the [[early Muslim conquests]] in the 7th century CE.<ref>{{harvnb|Sharon|2004}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Madigan|2001}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Vajda|1960–2007}}</ref> In [[Sufi]] circles, spiritual and moral jihad has been traditionally emphasized under the name of ''greater jihad''.<ref name="DeLong-Bas 2018" /><ref name="ER">{{cite encyclopedia|author=Rudolph Peters|title=Jihad|editor=Lindsay Jones|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Religion|edition=2nd|publisher=MacMillan Reference|year=2005|volume=7|page=4917}}</ref><ref name="EI2" /> The term has gained additional attention in recent decades through its use by various [[insurgent]] [[Islamic extremism|Islamic extremist]], [[militant]] [[Islamism|Islamist]], and [[Islamic terrorism|terrorist]] individuals and organizations whose ideology is based on the Islamic notion of ''jihad''.<ref name="DeLong-Bas 2018" /><ref name="Badara 2017" /><ref name="Cook 2015">{{cite book |last=Cook |first=David |author-link=David Cook (historian) |year=2015 |origyear=2005 |chapter=Radical Islam and Contemporary Jihad Theory |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SqE2DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA93 |title=Understanding Jihad |location=[[Berkeley, California|Berkeley]] |publisher=[[University of California Press]] |edition=2nd |pages=93–127 |isbn=9780520287327 |jstor=10.1525/j.ctv1xxt55.10 |lccn=2015010201}}</ref><ref name="Jalal 2009">{{cite book |last=Jalal |first=Ayesha |author-link=Ayesha Jalal |year=2009 |chapter=Islam Subverted? Jihad as Terrorism |title=Partisans of Allah: Jihad in South Asia |location=[[Cambridge, Massachusetts]] |publisher=[[Harvard University Press]] |pages=239–240 |doi=10.4159/9780674039070-007 |isbn=9780674039070 |s2cid=152941120}}</ref>
The word ''jihad'' appears frequently in the [[Qur'an]] with and without military connotations,<ref name=Daw56>{{harvnb|Al-Dawoody|2011|p=56}}: Seventeen derivatives of jihād occur altogether forty-one times in eleven Meccan texts and thirty Medinan ones, with the following five meanings: striving because of religious belief (21), war (12), non-Muslim parents exerting pressure, that is, jihād, to make their children abandon Islam (2), solemn oaths (5), and physical strength (1).</ref> often in the idiomatic expression "striving in the path of God ''(al-jihad fi sabil [[Allah]])''",<ref name="morgan2010">{{cite book|title=Essential Islam: A Comprehensive Guide to Belief and Practice|last=Morgan|first=Diane|year=2010|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-0313360251|page=[https://archive.org/details/essentialislamco0000morg/page/87 87]|url=https://archive.org/details/essentialislamco0000morg|url-access=registration|access-date=5 January 2011}}</ref><ref name="MIC">{{cite encyclopedia|editor=[[Josef W. Meri]]|encyclopedia=Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BFZsBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA419|publisher=[[Routledge]]|year=2005|isbn=978-0415966900|title=Medieval Islamic Civilization}}, ''Jihad'', p. 419.</ref> conveying a sense of self-exertion.{{sfn|Esposito|1988|p=54}} They{{Who|date=January 2023}} developed an elaborate set of rules pertaining to ''jihad'', including prohibitions on harming those who are not engaged in combat.<ref>{{cite web |author=Bernard Lewis |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB1001547201928681240 |title=Jihad vs. Crusade |publisher=Opinionjournal.com |date=27 September 2001 |access-date=4 August 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160816162048/http://www.wsj.com/articles/SB1001547201928681240 |archive-date=16 August 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Blankinship|first=Khalid Yahya|author-link=Khalid Yahya Blankinship|year=2011|title=Parity of Muslim and Western Concepts of Just War|journal=The Muslim World|volume=101|issue=3|page=416|doi=10.1111/j.1478-1913.2011.01384.x|issn=1478-1913|quote=In classical Muslim doctrine on war, likewise, genuine non-combatants are not to be harmed. These include women, minors, servants and slaves who do not take part in the fighting, the blind, monks, hermits, the aged, those physically unable to fight, the insane, the delirious, farmers who do not fight, traders, merchants, and contractors. The main criterion distinguishing combatants from non-combatants is that the latter do not fight and do not contribute to the war effort.}}</ref>▼
In the modern era, the notion of ''jihad'' has lost its jurisprudential relevance and instead given rise to an ideological and political discourse.<ref name="DeLong-Bas 2018"/><ref name="hallaq334">{{cite book|title=Sharī'a: Theory, Practice, Transformations|author=Wael B. Hallaq|publisher=Cambridge University Press (Kindle edition)|year=2009|pages=334–38}}</ref> While [[Islamic modernism|modernist Islamic scholars]] have emphasized the defensive and non-military aspects of ''jihad'', some [[Islamism|Islamists]] have advanced aggressive interpretations that go beyond the classical theory.<ref name=hallaq334/><ref name="Jalal 2009"/>▼
Jihad is classified into inner ("greater") ''jihad'', which involves a struggle against one's own base impulses, and external ("lesser") ''jihad'', which is further subdivided into ''jihad of the pen/tongue'' (debate or persuasion) and ''jihad of the sword''.<ref name="DeLong-Bas 2018" />{{sfn|Bonner|2006|p=13}}<ref name="ER" />
▲The word ''jihad'' appears frequently in the [[Qur'an]] with and without military connotations,<ref name="Daw56">{{harvnb|Al-Dawoody|2011|p=56}}: Seventeen derivatives of jihād occur altogether forty-one times in eleven Meccan texts and thirty Medinan ones, with the following five meanings: striving because of religious belief (21), war (12), non-Muslim parents exerting pressure, that is, jihād, to make their children abandon Islam (2), solemn oaths (5), and physical strength (1).</ref> often in the idiomatic expression "striving in the path of God ''(al-jihad fi sabil [[Allah]])''",<ref name="morgan2010">{{cite book|title=Essential Islam: A Comprehensive Guide to Belief and Practice|last=Morgan|first=Diane|year=2010|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-0313360251|page=[https://archive.org/details/essentialislamco0000morg/page/87 87]|url=https://archive.org/details/essentialislamco0000morg|url-access=registration|access-date=5 January 2011}}</ref><ref name="MIC">{{cite encyclopedia|editor=[[Josef W. Meri]]|encyclopedia=Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BFZsBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA419|publisher=[[Routledge]]|year=2005|isbn=978-0415966900|title=Medieval Islamic Civilization}}, ''Jihad'', p. 419.</ref> conveying a sense of self-exertion.{{sfn|Esposito|1988|p=54}} They{{Who|date=January 2023}} developed an elaborate set of rules pertaining to ''jihad'', including prohibitions on harming those who are not engaged in combat.<ref>{{cite web |author=Bernard Lewis |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB1001547201928681240 |title=Jihad vs. Crusade |publisher=Opinionjournal.com |date=27 September 2001 |access-date=4 August 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160816162048/http://www.wsj.com/articles/SB1001547201928681240 |archive-date=16 August 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Blankinship|first=Khalid Yahya|author-link=Khalid Yahya Blankinship|year=2011|title=Parity of Muslim and Western Concepts of Just War|journal=The Muslim World|volume=101|issue=3|page=416|doi=10.1111/j.1478-1913.2011.01384.x|issn=1478-1913|quote=In classical Muslim doctrine on war, likewise, genuine non-combatants are not to be harmed. These include women, minors, servants and slaves who do not take part in the fighting, the blind, monks, hermits, the aged, those physically unable to fight, the insane, the delirious, farmers who do not fight, traders, merchants, and contractors. The main criterion distinguishing combatants from non-combatants is that the latter do not fight and do not contribute to the war effort.}}</ref>
The sense of jihad as armed resistance was first used in the context of persecution faced by Muslims, as when Muhammad was at Mecca, when the community had two choices: emigration (hijra) or jihad.{{sfn|Esposito|1988|p=30}} In [[Twelver]] [[Shi'a Islam]], ''jihad'' is one of the [[Ancillaries of the Faith]].<ref name="practices">{{cite web|title=Part 2: Islamic Practices|url=http://www.al-islam.org/invitation-to-islam-moustafa-al-qazwini/part-2-islamic-practices|publisher=al-Islam.org|access-date=27 August 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140907022817/http://www.al-islam.org/invitation-to-islam-moustafa-al-qazwini/part-2-islamic-practices|archive-date=7 September 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> A person engaged in ''jihad'' is called a ''[[Mujahideen|mujahid]]'' (plural: ''mujahideen''). The term ''jihad'' is often rendered in English as "Holy War",<ref name="holy">{{cite book|last1=Lloyd Steffen|first1=Lloyd|title=Holy War, Just War: Exploring the Moral Meaning of Religious Violence|date=2007|publisher=Rowman& Littlefield|page=221|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JRe_AAAAQBAJ&pg=PA221|isbn=978-1461637394}}</ref><ref>cf., e.g., {{Cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/8537925.stm |newspaper=BBC News |date=26 February 2010 |title=Libya's Gaddafi urges 'holy war' against Switzerland |access-date=27 March 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100304071616/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/8537925.stm |archive-date=4 March 2010 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Peter-Jihad-3">[[Rudolph F. Peters]], ''Jihad in Medieval and Modern Islam'' (Brill, 1977), p. 3</ref> although this translation is controversial.<ref>{{cite book | last=Crone | first=Patricia | title=Medieval Islamic Political Thought | publisher=Edinburgh University Press | year=2005 | isbn=0-7486-2194-6 | oclc=61176687 | page=363}}</ref><ref>[[Khaled Abou El Fadl]] stresses that the Islamic theological tradition did not have a notion of "Holy war" (in Arabic ''al-harb al-muqaddasa''), which is not an expression used by the Quranic text or Muslim theologians. He further states that in Islamic theology, war is never holy; it is either justified or not. He then writes that the Quran does not use the word ''jihad'' to refer to warfare or fighting; such acts are referred to as ''qital''. Source: {{cite book|last1=Abou El Fadl|first1=Khaled|title=The Great Theft: Wrestling Islam from the Extremists|date=23 January 2007|publisher=HarperOne|isbn=978-0061189036|page=222|author1-link=Khaled Abou El Fadl}}</ref> Today, the word ''jihad'' is often used without religious connotations, like the English ''crusade''.<ref name=ODI/><ref name=OEIP/>▼
▲In the modern era, the notion of ''jihad'' has lost its jurisprudential relevance and instead given rise to an ideological and political discourse.<ref name="DeLong-Bas 2018" /><ref name="hallaq334">{{cite book|title=Sharī'a: Theory, Practice, Transformations|author=Wael B. Hallaq|publisher=Cambridge University Press (Kindle edition)|year=2009|pages=334–38}}</ref> While [[Islamic modernism|modernist Islamic scholars]] have emphasized the defensive and non-military aspects of ''jihad'', some [[Islamism|Islamists]] have advanced aggressive interpretations that go beyond the classical theory.<ref name="hallaq334" /><ref name="Jalal 2009" />
▲The sense of jihad as armed resistance was first used in the context of persecution faced by Muslims, as when Muhammad was at Mecca, when the community had two choices: emigration (hijra) or jihad.{{sfn|Esposito|1988|p=30}} In [[Twelver]] [[Shi'a Islam]], ''jihad'' is one of the [[Ancillaries of the Faith]].<ref name="practices">{{cite web |title=Part 2: Islamic Practices |url=http://www.al-islam.org/invitation-to-islam-moustafa-al-qazwini/part-2-islamic-practices |
==Etymology and literary origins==
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</ref>
==Defensive and offensive lesser jihad==
The Historian and Jurist [[Ibn Khaldun]] explains how Islamic concept of Jihad was unqiue among all other religions:<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2w3YBgAAQBAJ|title=Muslim and Christian Contact in the Middle Ages|page=307|isbn=9781442604247 |last1=Rodriguez |first1=Jarbel |date=30 January 2015 |publisher=University of Toronto Press }}</ref>
{{quote|In the Muslim community, the holy war [Jihad] is a religious duty, because of the universalism of the [Muslim] mission and [the obligation to] convert everybody to Islam either by persuasion or by force. The other religious groups did not have a universal mission, and the holy war was not a religious duty for them, save only for purposes of defense. Islam is under obligation to gain power over other nations.}}
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Up until the [[Crusades]], Muslim jurists disallowed the use of [[mangonels]] because the weapon killed indiscriminately with the potential of harming noncombatants. But during Crusades this ruling was reversed out of military need.{{sfn|Cook|2005|p=55-56}} Jurists also grappled with the question of attacking an enemy that used women, children or Muslims as [[human shields]]. Most jurists held that it was permissible to attack the enemy in cases of [[military necessity]], but steps should be taken to direct at the attack towards the combatants and avoiding the human shield.{{sfn|Al-Dawoody|2011|p=117}} Abu Hanifa argued that if Muslims stopped combat for fear of killing noncombatants, then such a rule would make fighting impossible, as every city had civilians.<ref name=handbook295>{{cite book|author=Madeleine Pelner Cosman, Linda Gale Jones|title=Handbook to Life in the Medieval World|pages=295–296|publisher=[[Infobase publishing]]}}</ref> Mutilating the dead bodies of the enemy is prohibited.{{sfn|Kelsay|2009|p=101}}
There are two conflicting rulings on destruction of enemy property. In one military battle, Prophet [[Muhammad]] ordered the destruction of an enemy's palm trees as a means of ending a siege without bloodshed.{{citation needed|date=May 2024}} By contrast, [[Abu Bakr]] prohibited destruction of trees, buildings and livestock.{{sfn|Al-Dawoody|2011|p=126-128}} Most jurists did not allow unnecessary destruction of enemy property,<ref name=handbook295/> but allowed it in cases of military necessity, such as destroying buildings in which the enemy is taking shelter.{{sfn|Al-Dawoody|2011|p=126-128}} Some jurists also allowed destruction if it would weaken the enemy or win the war.{{sfn|Al-Dawoody|2011|p=126-128}} Many jurists cautioned against "unnecessary devastation", not just out of humanitarian concerns, but practical ones: it is more useful to capture an enemy's property than to destroy it.{{sfn|Vanhullebusch|2015|p=39}} Islamic scholars prohibited killing animals, unless due to military necessity (such as killing horses in battle). This is because, unlike other enemy property, animals are capable of feeling pain.{{sfn|Al-Dawoody|2011|p=126-128}}
==History of usage and practice==
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* {{cite book|author=[[Majid Khadduri]]|title=War and Peace in the Law of Islam|publisher=[[Lawbook Exchange]]|year=2006|ref={{sfnRef|Khadduri|2006}}}}
*{{cite book|last1=Bonner|first1=Michael|title=Jihad in Islamic History: Doctrines and Practice|date=2006|publisher=[[Princeton University Press]]|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Qxq7eykoJgoC&q=jihad+history|isbn=978-1400827381}}
* {{cite encyclopedia|last1=Madigan|first1=Daniel|date=2001|title=Book|editor1-last=McAuliffe|editor1-first=Jane Dammen|editor1-link=Jane Dammen McAuliffe|encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of the Qurʾān|doi=10.1163/1875-3922_q3_EQCOM_00027}}
*{{cite book|title=War and Law in the Islamic World|url=https://brill.com/view/title/31941|first=Matthias|last=Vanhullebusch|year=2015|publisher=[[Brill publishers]]|isbn=9789004298248}}▼
* {{cite encyclopedia|last1=Sharon|first1=Moshe|author1-link=Moshe Sharon|date=2004|title=People of the Book|editor1-last=McAuliffe|editor1-first=Jane Dammen|editor1-link=Jane Dammen McAuliffe|encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of the Qurʾān|doi=10.1163/1875-3922_q3_EQSIM_00319}}
* {{cite encyclopedia|last1=Vajda|first1=Georges|author1-link=Georges Vajda|date=1960–2007|title=Ahl al-Kitāb|editor1-last=Bearman|editor1-first=P.|editor1-link=Peri Bearman|editor2-last=Bianquis|editor2-first=Th.|editor2-link=Thierry Bianquis|editor3-last=Bosworth|editor3-first=C.E.|editor3-link=Clifford Edmund Bosworth|editor4-last=van Donzel|editor4-first=E.|editor4-link=Emeri Johannes van Donzel|editor5-last=Heinrichs|editor5-first=W.P.|editor5-link=Wolfhart Heinrichs|encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition|doi=10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_0383}}
▲* {{cite book|title=War and Law in the Islamic World|url=https://brill.com/view/title/31941|first=Matthias|last=Vanhullebusch|year=2015|publisher=[[Brill publishers]]|isbn=9789004298248}}
{{refend}}
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