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{{Fiqh|military}}
{{Jihadism sidebar}}
'''Jihad''' ({{IPAc-en|dʒ|ɪ|ˈ|h|ɑː|d}}; {{lang-ar|
In classical [[Sharia|Islamic law]] (''sharia''), the term refers to armed struggle against unbelievers, particularly [[Paganism|polytheistic pagans]],<ref name="OEIP" /><ref name="EI2" /> while [[Islamic modernism|modernist Islamic scholars]] generally equate military ''jihad'' with defensive warfare.<ref name="hallaq334" /><ref>{{Cite book|first=Rudolph|last=Peters|year=2015|title=Islam and Colonialism: The Doctrine of Jihad in Modern History|publisher=De Gruyter Mouton|url=https://www.degruyter.com/view/product/6260|via=[[De Gruyter]]|url-access=subscription|page=124|isbn=9783110824858|doi=10.1515/9783110824858|access-date=24 January 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161025124838/https://www.degruyter.com/view/product/6260|archive-date=25 October 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> The [[Quran]] states that people following [[Monotheism|monotheistic religions]] who are [[People of the Book|guided by earlier revelations]], such as [[Judaism]] and [[Christianity]], should be allowed to continue practising their religion, with a preference for them being [[Dhimmi|under Muslim rule]], especially so in the classical interpretation which was employed during the [[early Muslim conquests]] in the 7th century CE.<ref>{{harvnb|Sharon|2004}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Madigan|2001}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Vajda|1960–2007}}</ref> In [[Sufi]] circles, spiritual and moral jihad has been traditionally emphasized under the name of ''greater jihad''.<ref name="DeLong-Bas 2018" /><ref name="ER">{{cite encyclopedia|author=Rudolph Peters|title=Jihad|editor=Lindsay Jones|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Religion|edition=2nd|publisher=MacMillan Reference|year=2005|volume=7|page=4917}}</ref><ref name="EI2" /> The term has gained additional attention in recent decades through its use by various [[insurgent]] [[Islamic extremism|Islamic extremist]], [[militant]] [[Islamism|Islamist]], and [[Islamic terrorism|terrorist]] individuals and organizations whose ideology is based on the Islamic notion of ''jihad''.<ref name="DeLong-Bas 2018" /><ref name="Badara 2017" /><ref name="Cook 2015">{{cite book |last=Cook |first=David |author-link=David Cook (historian) |year=2015 |origyear=2005 |chapter=Radical Islam and Contemporary Jihad Theory |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SqE2DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA93 |title=Understanding Jihad |location=[[Berkeley, California|Berkeley]] |publisher=[[University of California Press]] |edition=2nd |pages=93–127 |isbn=9780520287327 |jstor=10.1525/j.ctv1xxt55.10 |lccn=2015010201}}</ref><ref name="Jalal 2009">{{cite book |last=Jalal |first=Ayesha |author-link=Ayesha Jalal |year=2009 |chapter=Islam Subverted? Jihad as Terrorism |title=Partisans of Allah: Jihad in South Asia |location=[[Cambridge, Massachusetts]] |publisher=[[Harvard University Press]] |pages=239–240 |doi=10.4159/9780674039070-007 |isbn=9780674039070 |s2cid=152941120}}</ref>
The word ''jihad'' appears frequently in the [[Qur'an]] with and without military connotations,<ref name=Daw56>{{harvnb|Al-Dawoody|2011|p=56}}: Seventeen derivatives of jihād occur altogether forty-one times in eleven Meccan texts and thirty Medinan ones, with the following five meanings: striving because of religious belief (21), war (12), non-Muslim parents exerting pressure, that is, jihād, to make their children abandon Islam (2), solemn oaths (5), and physical strength (1).</ref> often in the idiomatic expression "striving in the path of God ''(al-jihad fi sabil [[Allah]])''",<ref name="morgan2010">{{cite book|title=Essential Islam: A Comprehensive Guide to Belief and Practice|last=Morgan|first=Diane|year=2010|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-0313360251|page=[https://archive.org/details/essentialislamco0000morg/page/87 87]|url=https://archive.org/details/essentialislamco0000morg|url-access=registration|access-date=5 January 2011}}</ref><ref name="MIC">{{cite encyclopedia|editor=[[Josef W. Meri]]|encyclopedia=Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BFZsBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA419|publisher=[[Routledge]]|year=2005|isbn=978-0415966900|title=Medieval Islamic Civilization}}, ''Jihad'', p. 419.</ref> conveying a sense of self-exertion.{{sfn|Esposito|1988|p=54}} They{{Who|date=January 2023}} developed an elaborate set of rules pertaining to ''jihad'', including prohibitions on harming those who are not engaged in combat.<ref>{{cite web |author=Bernard Lewis |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB1001547201928681240 |title=Jihad vs. Crusade |publisher=Opinionjournal.com |date=27 September 2001 |access-date=4 August 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160816162048/http://www.wsj.com/articles/SB1001547201928681240 |archive-date=16 August 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Blankinship|first=Khalid Yahya|author-link=Khalid Yahya Blankinship|year=2011|title=Parity of Muslim and Western Concepts of Just War|journal=The Muslim World|volume=101|issue=3|page=416|doi=10.1111/j.1478-1913.2011.01384.x|issn=1478-1913|quote=In classical Muslim doctrine on war, likewise, genuine non-combatants are not to be harmed. These include women, minors, servants and slaves who do not take part in the fighting, the blind, monks, hermits, the aged, those physically unable to fight, the insane, the delirious, farmers who do not fight, traders, merchants, and contractors. The main criterion distinguishing combatants from non-combatants is that the latter do not fight and do not contribute to the war effort.}}</ref>▼
In the modern era, the notion of ''jihad'' has lost its jurisprudential relevance and instead given rise to an ideological and political discourse.<ref name="DeLong-Bas 2018"/><ref name="hallaq334">{{cite book|title=Sharī'a: Theory, Practice, Transformations|author=Wael B. Hallaq|publisher=Cambridge University Press (Kindle edition)|year=2009|pages=334–38}}</ref> While [[Islamic modernism|modernist Islamic scholars]] have emphasized the defensive and non-military aspects of ''jihad'', some [[Islamism|Islamists]] have advanced aggressive interpretations that go beyond the classical theory.<ref name=hallaq334/><ref name="Jalal 2009"/>▼
Jihad is classified into inner ("greater") ''jihad'', which involves a struggle against one's own base impulses, and external ("lesser") ''jihad'', which is further subdivided into ''jihad of the pen/tongue'' (debate or persuasion) and ''jihad of the sword''.<ref name="DeLong-Bas 2018" />{{sfn|Bonner|2006|p=13}}<ref name="ER" />
▲The word ''jihad'' appears frequently in the [[Qur'an]] with and without military connotations,<ref name="Daw56">{{harvnb|Al-Dawoody|2011|p=56}}: Seventeen derivatives of jihād occur altogether forty-one times in eleven Meccan texts and thirty Medinan ones, with the following five meanings: striving because of religious belief (21), war (12), non-Muslim parents exerting pressure, that is, jihād, to make their children abandon Islam (2), solemn oaths (5), and physical strength (1).</ref> often in the idiomatic expression "striving in the path of God ''(al-jihad fi sabil [[Allah]])''",<ref name="morgan2010">{{cite book|title=Essential Islam: A Comprehensive Guide to Belief and Practice|last=Morgan|first=Diane|year=2010|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-0313360251|page=[https://archive.org/details/essentialislamco0000morg/page/87 87]|url=https://archive.org/details/essentialislamco0000morg|url-access=registration|access-date=5 January 2011}}</ref><ref name="MIC">{{cite encyclopedia|editor=[[Josef W. Meri]]|encyclopedia=Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BFZsBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA419|publisher=[[Routledge]]|year=2005|isbn=978-0415966900|title=Medieval Islamic Civilization}}, ''Jihad'', p. 419.</ref> conveying a sense of self-exertion.{{sfn|Esposito|1988|p=54}} They{{Who|date=January 2023}} developed an elaborate set of rules pertaining to ''jihad'', including prohibitions on harming those who are not engaged in combat.<ref>{{cite web |author=Bernard Lewis |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB1001547201928681240 |title=Jihad vs. Crusade |publisher=Opinionjournal.com |date=27 September 2001 |access-date=4 August 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160816162048/http://www.wsj.com/articles/SB1001547201928681240 |archive-date=16 August 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Blankinship|first=Khalid Yahya|author-link=Khalid Yahya Blankinship|year=2011|title=Parity of Muslim and Western Concepts of Just War|journal=The Muslim World|volume=101|issue=3|page=416|doi=10.1111/j.1478-1913.2011.01384.x|issn=1478-1913|quote=In classical Muslim doctrine on war, likewise, genuine non-combatants are not to be harmed. These include women, minors, servants and slaves who do not take part in the fighting, the blind, monks, hermits, the aged, those physically unable to fight, the insane, the delirious, farmers who do not fight, traders, merchants, and contractors. The main criterion distinguishing combatants from non-combatants is that the latter do not fight and do not contribute to the war effort.}}</ref>
The sense of jihad as armed resistance was first used in the context of persecution faced by Muslims, as when Muhammad was at Mecca, when the community had two choices: emigration (hijra) or jihad.{{sfn|Esposito|1988|p=30}} In [[Twelver]] [[Shi'a Islam]], ''jihad'' is one of the [[Ancillaries of the Faith]].<ref name="practices">{{cite web|title=Part 2: Islamic Practices|url=http://www.al-islam.org/invitation-to-islam-moustafa-al-qazwini/part-2-islamic-practices|publisher=al-Islam.org|access-date=27 August 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140907022817/http://www.al-islam.org/invitation-to-islam-moustafa-al-qazwini/part-2-islamic-practices|archive-date=7 September 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> A person engaged in ''jihad'' is called a ''[[Mujahideen|mujahid]]'' (plural: ''mujahideen''). The term ''jihad'' is often rendered in English as "Holy War",<ref name="holy">{{cite book|last1=Lloyd Steffen|first1=Lloyd|title=Holy War, Just War: Exploring the Moral Meaning of Religious Violence|date=2007|publisher=Rowman& Littlefield|page=221|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JRe_AAAAQBAJ&pg=PA221|isbn=978-1461637394}}</ref><ref>cf., e.g., {{Cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/8537925.stm |newspaper=BBC News |date=26 February 2010 |title=Libya's Gaddafi urges 'holy war' against Switzerland |access-date=27 March 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100304071616/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/8537925.stm |archive-date=4 March 2010 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Peter-Jihad-3">[[Rudolph F. Peters]], ''Jihad in Medieval and Modern Islam'' (Brill, 1977), p. 3</ref> although this translation is controversial.<ref>{{cite book | last=Crone | first=Patricia | title=Medieval Islamic Political Thought | publisher=Edinburgh University Press | year=2005 | isbn=0-7486-2194-6 | oclc=61176687 | page=363}}</ref><ref>[[Khaled Abou El Fadl]] stresses that the Islamic theological tradition did not have a notion of "Holy war" (in Arabic ''al-harb al-muqaddasa''), which is not an expression used by the Quranic text or Muslim theologians. He further states that in Islamic theology, war is never holy; it is either justified or not. He then writes that the Quran does not use the word ''jihad'' to refer to warfare or fighting; such acts are referred to as ''qital''. Source: {{cite book|last1=Abou El Fadl|first1=Khaled|title=The Great Theft: Wrestling Islam from the Extremists|date=23 January 2007|publisher=HarperOne|isbn=978-0061189036|page=222|author1-link=Khaled Abou El Fadl}}</ref> Today, the word ''jihad'' is often used without religious connotations, like the English ''crusade''.<ref name=ODI/><ref name=OEIP/>▼
▲In the modern era, the notion of ''jihad'' has lost its jurisprudential relevance and instead given rise to an ideological and political discourse.<ref name="DeLong-Bas 2018" /><ref name="hallaq334">{{cite book|title=Sharī'a: Theory, Practice, Transformations|author=Wael B. Hallaq|publisher=Cambridge University Press (Kindle edition)|year=2009|pages=334–38}}</ref> While [[Islamic modernism|modernist Islamic scholars]] have emphasized the defensive and non-military aspects of ''jihad'', some [[Islamism|Islamists]] have advanced aggressive interpretations that go beyond the classical theory.<ref name="hallaq334" /><ref name="Jalal 2009" />
▲The sense of jihad as armed resistance was first used in the context of persecution faced by Muslims, as when Muhammad was at Mecca, when the community had two choices: emigration (hijra) or jihad.{{sfn|Esposito|1988|p=30}} In [[Twelver]] [[Shi'a Islam]], ''jihad'' is one of the [[Ancillaries of the Faith]].<ref name="practices">{{cite web |title=Part 2: Islamic Practices |url=http://www.al-islam.org/invitation-to-islam-moustafa-al-qazwini/part-2-islamic-practices |
==Etymology and literary origins==
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In [[Modern Standard Arabic]], the term ''jihad'' is used for a struggle for causes, both religious and [[Secularism|secular]].
It is sometimes used without religious connotation, with a meaning similar to the English word "[[crusade]]" (as in "a crusade against drugs").<ref name="OISO">{{cite web|title=Oxford Islamic Studies Online|url=http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t125/e1199|publisher=Oxford University Press|access-date=29 August 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140903062853/http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t125/e1199|archive-date=3 September 2014|url-status=
===Quran===
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{{blockquote|The Messenger of Allah was asked about the best jihad. He said: "The best jihad is the one in which your horse is slain and your blood is spilled."|cited by [[Ibn Nuhaas]] and narrated by Ibn Habbaan<ref>{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/TheBookOfJihadByIbnNuhass|title=The Book of Jihad|via=[[Internet Archive]]|author=Abi Zakaryya Al Dimashqi Al Dumyati|date=2016-10-23|pages=[https://archive.org/details/TheBookOfJihadByIbnNuhass/page/n43 107]|translator-last=Yamani|translator-first=Noor|access-date=2019-08-09}}</ref>}}
Ibn Nuhaas also cited a [[hadith]] from [[Musnad Ahmad ibn Hanbal]], where Muhammad states that the highest kind of jihad is "The person who is killed whilst spilling the last of his blood" (Ahmed 4/144).<ref>{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/TheBookOfJihadByIbnNuhass|title=The Book of Jihad|via=[[Internet Archive]]|author=Abi Zakaryya Al Dimashqi Al Dumyati|date=23 October 2016|pages=[https://archive.org/details/TheBookOfJihadByIbnNuhass/page/n177 177]|translator-last=Yamani|translator-first=Noor|access-date=9 August 2019}}</ref> Muhammad also said, “I cannot find anything” as meritorious as jihad; he further likened jihad to “praying ceaselessly and fasting continuously”.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1T4yAQAAQBAJ|title=The Intensification and Reorientation of Sunni Jihad Ideology in the Crusader Period|date=3 December 2012 |page=70, 145|publisher=BRILL |isbn=9789004242791 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CD9IdzJ4fFQC|title=Reconquest and Crusade in Medieval Spain|page=12|isbn=0812218892 |last1=O'Callaghan |first1=Joseph F. |date=24 February 2004 |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press }}</ref> Muhammad said that “if it were not a hardship for the Muslims, I would never idle behind from a raiding party going out to fight in the path of Allah.... I [would] love to raid in the path of Allah and be killed, to raid again and be killed, and to raid again and be killed”.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1T4yAQAAQBAJ|title=The Intensification and Reorientation of Sunni Jihad Ideology in the Crusader Period|date=3 December 2012 |page=147|publisher=BRILL |isbn=9789004242791 }}</ref> Muhammad also said that "Lining up for battle in the path of Allah [jihad] is worthier than 60 years of worship".<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1T4yAQAAQBAJ|title=The Intensification and Reorientation of Sunni Jihad Ideology in the Crusader Period|date=3 December 2012 |page=151|publisher=BRILL |isbn=9789004242791 }}</ref> Muhammad claimed that any muslim who refused to fight in Jihad “will be tortured like no other sinful human” in hell with confirmation from Quran 8:15-16.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1T4yAQAAQBAJ|title=The Intensification and Reorientation of Sunni Jihad Ideology in the Crusader Period|date=3 December 2012 |page=71|publisher=BRILL |isbn=9789004242791 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://quran.com/en/al-anfal/15-16 | title=Surah Al-Anfal - 15-16 }}</ref> Another hadith has Muhammad saying that “the sword wipes away all sins” and “being killed in the path of Allah washes away impurity”<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LuzFSDvKXJ4C|title=Understanding Jihad|date=23 May 2005 |page=15|publisher=University of California Press |isbn=9780520931879 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1T4yAQAAQBAJ|title=The Intensification and Reorientation of Sunni Jihad Ideology in the Crusader Period|date=3 December 2012 |page=183|publisher=BRILL |isbn=9789004242791 }}</ref>
According to another hadith,<ref>{{Citehadith|bukhari|5972|b=yl}}</ref> supporting one's parents is also an example of jihad.<ref name=Daw76>{{harvnb|Al-Dawoody|2011|p=76}}</ref> It has also been reported that Muhammad considered performing [[hajj]] well to be the best jihad for Muslim women.<ref>{{Citehadith|bukhari|2784|b=yl}}</ref>{{sfn|Al-Dawoody|2011|p=58}}
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[[Ibn Hazm]] lists four kinds of ''jihad fi sabilillah'' (struggle in the cause of God):
* Jihad of the heart ''(jihad bil qalb/nafs)'' is concerned with combatting [[the devil]] and in the attempt to escape his persuasion to evil. This type of Jihad was regarded{{cn|date=November 2023}} as the greater jihad (''al-jihad al-akbar'').
* Jihad by the tongue ''(jihad bil lisan)'' (also Jihad by the word, ''jihad al-qalam'') is concerned with speaking the truth and spreading the word of Islam with one's tongue.
* Jihad by the hand ''(jihad bil yad)'' refers to choosing to do what is right and to combat injustice and what is wrong with action.
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A related hadith tradition that has "found its way into popular Muslim literature",<ref>{{cite journal |title= Maudūdī's al-Jihād fi'l-Islām. A Neglected Document |first= Jamal |last= Malik |journal= Zeitschrift für Religionswissenschaft |volume= 17 |issue= 1 |doi= 10.1515/zfr.2009.17.1.61 |year= 2009 |s2cid= 179091977 |url= https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/zfr.2009.17.1.61/html}}</ref> and which has been said to "embody the Muslim mindset" of the [[Abbasid Caliphate#Islamic Golden Age| Islamic Golden Age]] (the period from the mid-8th century to mid-13th century following the relocation of the [[Abbasid Caliphate|Abbasid]] capital from [[Damascus]] to [[Baghdad]]),<ref>{{cite journal |url= http://ddms.usim.edu.my/bitstream/123456789/5427/1/%27Ulum%20Islamiyyah%20-%20Vol.7%20%28December%29%202011%20-%20Part%201.pdf |title= Refining Islamic Scholarship: Through Harmonising With Postmodern Social Sciences |first= Jonathan A. J. |last= Wilson |journal= 'Ulum Islamiyyah: The Malaysian Journal of Islamic Sciences |volume= 7 |date= 2011 |publisher= Universiti Sains Islam Malaysia |access-date= 29 November 2021 |archive-date= 22 January 2022 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20220122135543/http://ddms.usim.edu.my/bitstream/123456789/5427/1/%27Ulum%20Islamiyyah%20-%20Vol.7%20%28December%29%202011%20-%20Part%201.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> is: {{blockquote|"The ink of the scholar is more holy than the blood of the martyr."}}
The belief in the veracity of this hadith was a contributing factor in the efforts by successive caliphs to subsidize translations of "[[Greek language|Greek]], [[Hebrew language |Hebrew]] and [[Syriac language |Syriac]] science and philosophy texts",<ref>{{cite book|chapter= Islamic Science|first= Peter L.|last= Lutz |title= The Rise of Experimental Biology |pages=57–63 |url= https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007%2F978-1-59259-163-3_8.pdf |date=2002 |publisher= Humana Press |doi= 10.1007/978-1-59259-163-3_8 |doi-broken-date=
According to classical Islamic scholars like [[Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyya]], Jihad is against four types of enemies: the lower self (''nafs''), Satan, the unbelievers, and the hypocrites. The first two types of Jihad are purely peaceful spiritual struggles. According to Ibn Qayyim "Jihad against the lower self precedes jihad against external enemies". Confirming the central importance of the spiritual aspect of Jihad, [[Ibn Taymiyyah]] writes:{{blockquote|"Jihad against the lower self and whims is the foundation of jihad against the unbelievers and hypocrites, for a Muslim cannot wage jihad against them unless he has waged jihad against himself and his desires first, before he goes out against them."<ref name="yaqeeninstitute.org">{{Cite web|date= 15 May 2020 |title= Jihad in Islam: Just War Theory in the Quran and Sunnah | url= https://yaqeeninstitute.org/amp/justin-parrott/jihad-in-islam-just-war-theory-in-the-quran-and-sunnah |url-status=live|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20210119003851/https://yaqeeninstitute.org/amp/justin-parrott/jihad-in-islam-just-war-theory-in-the-quran-and-sunnah |archive-date=19 January 2021| website=Yaqeeninstitute.org}}</ref>}}
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</ref>
==Defensive and offensive lesser jihad==
The Historian and Jurist [[Ibn Khaldun]] explains how Islamic concept of Jihad was unqiue among all other religions:<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2w3YBgAAQBAJ|title=Muslim and Christian Contact in the Middle Ages|page=307|isbn=9781442604247 |last1=Rodriguez |first1=Jarbel |date=30 January 2015 |publisher=University of Toronto Press }}</ref>
{{quote|In the Muslim community, the holy war [Jihad] is a religious duty, because of the universalism of the [Muslim] mission and [the obligation to] convert everybody to Islam either by persuasion or by force. The other religious groups did not have a universal mission, and the holy war was not a religious duty for them, save only for purposes of defense. Islam is under obligation to gain power over other nations.}}
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Up until the [[Crusades]], Muslim jurists disallowed the use of [[mangonels]] because the weapon killed indiscriminately with the potential of harming noncombatants. But during Crusades this ruling was reversed out of military need.{{sfn|Cook|2005|p=55-56}} Jurists also grappled with the question of attacking an enemy that used women, children or Muslims as [[human shields]]. Most jurists held that it was permissible to attack the enemy in cases of [[military necessity]], but steps should be taken to direct at the attack towards the combatants and avoiding the human shield.{{sfn|Al-Dawoody|2011|p=117}} Abu Hanifa argued that if Muslims stopped combat for fear of killing noncombatants, then such a rule would make fighting impossible, as every city had civilians.<ref name=handbook295>{{cite book|author=Madeleine Pelner Cosman, Linda Gale Jones|title=Handbook to Life in the Medieval World|pages=295–296|publisher=[[Infobase publishing]]}}</ref> Mutilating the dead bodies of the enemy is prohibited.{{sfn|Kelsay|2009|p=101}}
There are two conflicting rulings on destruction of enemy property. In one military battle, Prophet [[Muhammad]] ordered the destruction of an enemy's palm trees as a means of ending a siege without bloodshed.{{citation needed|date=May 2024}} By contrast, [[Abu Bakr]] prohibited destruction of trees, buildings and livestock.{{sfn|Al-Dawoody|2011|p=126-128}} Most jurists did not allow unnecessary destruction of enemy property,<ref name=handbook295/> but allowed it in cases of military necessity, such as destroying buildings in which the enemy is taking shelter.{{sfn|Al-Dawoody|2011|p=126-128}} Some jurists also allowed destruction if it would weaken the enemy or win the war.{{sfn|Al-Dawoody|2011|p=126-128}} Many jurists cautioned against "unnecessary devastation", not just out of humanitarian concerns, but practical ones: it is more useful to capture an enemy's property than to destroy it.{{sfn|Vanhullebusch|2015|p=39}} Islamic scholars prohibited killing animals, unless due to military necessity (such as killing horses in battle). This is because, unlike other enemy property, animals are capable of feeling pain.{{sfn|Al-Dawoody|2011|p=126-128}}
==History of usage and practice==
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However, some argue martyrdom is never automatic because it is within God's exclusive province to judge who is worthy of that designation.<ref>According to [[Khaled Abou El Fadl]] martyrdom is within God's exclusive province; only God can assess the intentions of individuals and the justness of their cause, and ultimately, whether they deserve the status of being a martyr. The Quranic text does not recognize the idea of unlimited warfare, and it does not consider the simple fact that one of the belligerents is Muslim to be sufficient to establish the justness of a war. Moreover, according to the Quran, war might be necessary, and might even become binding and obligatory, but it is never a moral and ethical good. The Quran does not use the word jihad to refer to warfare or fighting; such acts are referred to as ''qital''. While the Quran's call to jihad is unconditional and unrestricted, such is not the case for qital. Jihad is a good in and of itself, while qital is not. Source: {{cite book|last1=Abou El Fadl |first1=Khaled |author-link=Khaled Abou El Fadl |title=The Great Theft: Wrestling Islam from the Extremists|date=23 January 2007|publisher=HarperOne|isbn=978-0061189036|pages=222–23}}</ref>
Classical manuals of Islamic jurisprudence often contained a section called ''Book of Jihad'', with [[Rules of war in Islam|rules governing the conduct of war]] covered at great length. Such rules include treatment of nonbelligerents, women, children (also cultivated or residential areas),<ref>Muhammad Hamidullah, ''The Muslim Conduct of State'', Ashraf Printing Press 1987, pp. 205–08</ref>{{sfn|Bonner|2006|p=3}} and division of spoils.{{sfn|Bonner|2006|p=99}} Such rules offered protection for civilians.<ref name="onlinelibrary.wiley.com">{{Cite journal|title=Armed Jihad in the Islamic Legal Tradition|first=Ahmed|last=
The first documentation of the law of jihad was written by 'Abd al-Rahman al-Awza'i and [[Muhammad ibn al-Hasan al-Shaybani]]. (It grew out of debates that surfaced following Muhammad's death.<ref name="Peters-jihad-OEIW"/>)
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A concept that played a role in anti-colonial jihad (or lack thereof) was the belief in ''[[Mahdi]]''.{{CN|date=September 2023}} According to Islamic eschatology, a messianic figure named Mahdi will appear and restore justice on earth. Such a belief sometimes discouraged Muslims from conducting jihad against the colonial powers, instead inducing them to passively wait for the messiah to come. Such messages were circulated in Algeria to undermine [[Emir Abdelkader]]'s jihad against the French.{{CN|date=September 2023}} On the other hand, this belief could be a powerful mobilizing force in cases when someone would proclaim himself Mahdi. Such mahdist rebellions happened in India (1810), Egypt (1865) and Sudan (1881).{{CN|date=September 2023}}
[[File:The story of the greatest nations; a comprehensive history, extending from the earliest times to the present, founded on the most modern authorities, and including chronological summaries and (14596551060).jpg|thumb|Charging [[Mahdist War|Mahdist army]] during the [[Battle of Omdurman]] in 1898]]
With the [[Islamic revival]], a new "[[Islamic fundamentalism|fundamentalist]]" movement arose, with some different interpretations of Islam, which often placed an increased emphasis on jihad. The [[Wahhabi]] movement which spread across the [[Arabian peninsula]] starting in the 18th century, emphasized jihad as armed struggle.<ref name=Gold>{{cite book|last1=Gold|first1=Dore|title=Hatred's Kingdom|date=2003|publisher=Regnery Publishing|location=Washington DC|pages=7–8|quote=... the revival of jihad, and its prioritization as a religious value, is found in the works of high-level Saudi religious officials like former chief justice Sheikh Abdullah bin Muhammad bin Humaid: `Jihad is a great deed indeed [and] there is no deed whose reward and blessing is as that of it, and for this reason, it is the best thing one can volunteer for.}}</ref> The so-called [[Fulbe jihad state]]s and a few other jihad states in West Africa were established by a series of offensive wars in the 19th century.{{citation needed|date=August 2021}} None of these jihad movements were victorious.<ref>Lewis, Bernard, ''Islam and the West'', Oxford University Press, 1993</ref> The most powerful, the [[Sokoto Caliphate]], lasted about a century until being incorporated into [[Colonial Nigeria]] in 1903.<ref>{{
When the Ottoman caliph [[Declaration of jihad by the Ottoman Empire|called for a "Great Jihad" by all Muslims against Allied powers during World War I]], there were hopes and fears that non-Turkish Muslims would side with Ottoman Turkey, but the appeal did not "[unite] the Muslim world",<ref name=Lewis-revolt/><ref name=Gold-2003-24>{{cite book|last1=Gold|first1=Dore|title=Hatred's Kingdom: How Saudi Arabia Supports the New Global Terrorism|date=2003|publisher=Regnery Publishing|page=24|edition=First}}</ref> and Muslims did not turn on their non-Muslim commanders in the Allied forces.<ref name="Ardic-2012-192">{{cite book|last1=Ardic|first1=Nurullah|title=Islam and the Politics of Secularism: The Caliphate and Middle Eastern ...|date=2012|publisher=Routledge|pages=192–93|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZAXNxxkJKYsC&pg=PA192|access-date=30 September 2015|isbn=9781136489846}}</ref> (The war led to the end of the caliphate as the Ottoman Empire entered on the side of the war's losers and surrendered by agreeing to "viciously punitive" conditions. These were overturned by the popular war hero [[Mustafa Kemal]], who was also a secularist and later abolished the caliphate.{{sfn|Kadri|2012|pp=157}})
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* "Intellectual" Jihad (very similar to missionary jihad).<ref name=whyislam/>
* "Economic" Jihad (good doing involving money such as spending within one's means, helping the "poor and the downtrodden")<ref name="whyislam">{{cite web|title=Why does Islam have the concept of Jihad or Holy War, Which Some Use to Justify VIolence or Terrorism|url=http://www.whyislam.org/jihad-2/jihad-faqs/islamic-concept-of-jihad-holy-war/|publisher=whyislam.org|access-date=26 August 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140916012323/http://www.whyislam.org/jihad-2/jihad-faqs/islamic-concept-of-jihad-holy-war/|archive-date=16 September 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> President [[Habib Bourguiba]] of Tunisia, used jihad to describe the struggle for economic development in [[Tunisia]].<ref name="Streusand-greater"/> Iran has a [[Ministry of Jihad for Agriculture]].{{sfn|Jalal|2010|p=240}}
* ''Jihad Al-Nikah,'' or [[sexual jihad]], "refers to women joining the jihad by offering sex to fighters to boost their morale".<ref name="strait">{{cite news|title=Malaysian women offer their bodies to ISIS militants in 'sexual jihad'; Najib slams Islamic radicals|url=http://www.straitstimes.com/news/asia/south-east-asia/story/malaysian-women-offer-their-bodies-isis-militants-sexual-jihad-repor#sthash.jdPWWEDG.dpuf|access-date=27 August 2014|work=Straits Times|date=27 August 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140830093901/http://www.straitstimes.com/news/asia/south-east-asia/story/malaysian-women-offer-their-bodies-isis-militants-sexual-jihad-repor
;Usage by some non-Muslims
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* {{cite book|author=[[Majid Khadduri]]|title=War and Peace in the Law of Islam|publisher=[[Lawbook Exchange]]|year=2006|ref={{sfnRef|Khadduri|2006}}}}
*{{cite book|last1=Bonner|first1=Michael|title=Jihad in Islamic History: Doctrines and Practice|date=2006|publisher=[[Princeton University Press]]|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Qxq7eykoJgoC&q=jihad+history|isbn=978-1400827381}}
* {{cite encyclopedia|last1=Madigan|first1=Daniel|date=2001|title=Book|editor1-last=McAuliffe|editor1-first=Jane Dammen|editor1-link=Jane Dammen McAuliffe|encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of the Qurʾān|doi=10.1163/1875-3922_q3_EQCOM_00027}}
*{{cite book|title=War and Law in the Islamic World|url=https://brill.com/view/title/31941|first=Matthias|last=Vanhullebusch|year=2015|publisher=[[Brill publishers]]|isbn=9789004298248}}▼
* {{cite encyclopedia|last1=Sharon|first1=Moshe|author1-link=Moshe Sharon|date=2004|title=People of the Book|editor1-last=McAuliffe|editor1-first=Jane Dammen|editor1-link=Jane Dammen McAuliffe|encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of the Qurʾān|doi=10.1163/1875-3922_q3_EQSIM_00319}}
* {{cite encyclopedia|last1=Vajda|first1=Georges|author1-link=Georges Vajda|date=1960–2007|title=Ahl al-Kitāb|editor1-last=Bearman|editor1-first=P.|editor1-link=Peri Bearman|editor2-last=Bianquis|editor2-first=Th.|editor2-link=Thierry Bianquis|editor3-last=Bosworth|editor3-first=C.E.|editor3-link=Clifford Edmund Bosworth|editor4-last=van Donzel|editor4-first=E.|editor4-link=Emeri Johannes van Donzel|editor5-last=Heinrichs|editor5-first=W.P.|editor5-link=Wolfhart Heinrichs|encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition|doi=10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_0383}}
▲* {{cite book|title=War and Law in the Islamic World|url=https://brill.com/view/title/31941|first=Matthias|last=Vanhullebusch|year=2015|publisher=[[Brill publishers]]|isbn=9789004298248}}
{{refend}}
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