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[[File:Gamma ray burst.jpg|thumb|300px|Artist's illustration showing the life of a [[star#Massive stars|massive star]] as [[nuclear fusion]] converts lighter elements into heavier ones. When fusion no longer generates enough pressure to counteract gravity, the star rapidly collapses to form a [[black hole]]. Theoretically, energy may be released during the collapse along the axis of rotation to form a GRB.]]
 
In [[gamma-ray astronomy]], '''gamma-ray bursts''' ('''GRBs''') are immensely energetic explosions that have been observed in distant [[Galaxy|galaxies]], being the brightest and most extreme explosive events in the entire universe,<ref>{{Cite journal |lastlast1=ThomasGehrels |firstfirst1=B.Neil C.|author-link=Neil Gehrels |last2=Mészáros |first2=Péter |author-link2=Péter Mészáros |date=20092012-08-24 |title=Gamma-ray burstsRay as a threat to life on EarthBursts |url=https://www.cambridgescience.org/coredoi/journals10.1126/international-journal-of-astrobiology/article/abs/gammaray-bursts-as-a-threat-to-life-on-earth/EED2E88320E43958BD6913C2F864C379science.1216793 |journal=International Journal of AstrobiologyScience |language=en |volume=8337 |issue=36097 |pages=183–186932–936 |doi=10.10171126/S1473550409004509science.1216793 |pmid=22923573 |issn=14750036-30068075|arxiv=1208.6522 |bibcode=2012Sci...337..932G }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |lastlast1=GehrelsMisra |firstfirst1=NeilKuntal |author-linklast2=Neil GehrelsGhosh |last2first2=MészárosAnkur |first2last3=PéterResmi |author-link2first3=Péter MészárosL. |date=2012-08-242023 |title=The Detection of Very High Energy Photons in Gamma- Ray Bursts |url=https://www.sciencetifr.orgres.in/doi~ipa1970/10.1126news/scienceV53-12/Vol53-12-A11.1216793pdf |journal=SciencePhysics |language=enNews |volumepublisher=337[[Tata |issue=6097Institute |pages=932–936of Fundamental Research]] |doivolume=10.1126/science.121679353 |issnpages=0036-807542–45}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=NASA Universe Web Team |date=2023-06-09 |title=Gamma-Ray Bursts: Black Hole Birth Announcements |url=https://science.nasa.gov/universe/gamma-ray-bursts-black-hole-birth-announcements/ |access-date=2024-05-18 |website=science.nasa.gov |language=en-US}}</ref> as [[NASA]] describes the bursts as the "most powerful class of explosions in the universe".<ref>{{Cite web |last=Reddy |first=Francis |date=2023-03-28 |title=NASA Missions Study What May Be a 1-In-10,000-Year Gamma-ray Burst - NASA |url=https://www.nasa.gov/universe/nasa-missions-study-what-may-be-a-1-in-10000-year-gamma-ray-burst/ |access-date=2023-09-29 |website=nasa.gov |language=en-US}}</ref> They are the most energetic and luminous [[Electromagnetic pulse|electromagnetic events]] since the [[Big Bang]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Gamma Rays|url=http://missionscience.nasa.gov/ems/12_gammarays.html|work=NASA|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120502232209/http://missionscience.nasa.gov/ems/12_gammarays.html|archive-date=2012-05-02}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Zhang |first=Bing |title=The Physics of Gamma-Ray Bursts |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2018 |isbn=978-1-107-02761-9 |pages=xv, 2 |language=en}}</ref> Gamma-ray bursts can last from ten milliseconds to several hours.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Atkinson|first=Nancy|date=2013-04-16|title=New Kind of Gamma Ray Burst is Ultra Long-Lasting|url=https://www.universetoday.com/101486/new-kind-of-gamma-ray-burst-is-ultra-long-lasting/|access-date=2022-01-03|website=Universe Today|language=en-US}}</ref><ref name="Kouveliotou" /> After the initial flash of [[gamma ray]]s, an "afterglow" is emitted, which is longer lived and usually emitted at longer wavelengths ([[X-ray]], [[ultraviolet]], [[visible spectrum|optical]], [[infrared]], [[microwave]] and [[radio waves|radio]]).<ref>[[#VedrenneAtteia|Vedrenne & Atteia 2009]]</ref>
 
The intense radiation of most observed GRBs is thought to be released during a [[supernova]] or [[superluminous supernova]] as a high-mass [[star]] implodes to form a [[neutron star]] or a [[black hole]]. A subclass of GRBs appears to originate from the merger of [[binary star|binary]] [[neutron stars]].<ref name="PhysRev" />
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=== More recent instruments ===
[[File:Swift spacecraft.jpg|thumb|left|[[NASA]]'s [[Swift Gamma-Ray Burst Mission|Swift Spacecraft]] launched in November 2004]]
BeppoSAX functioned until 2002 and [[Compton Gamma Ray Observatory|CGRO]] (with BATSE) was deorbited in 2000. However, the revolution in the study of gamma-ray bursts motivated the development of a number of additional instruments designed specifically to explore the nature of GRBs, especially in the earliest moments following the explosion. The first such mission, [[High Energy Transient Explorer|HETE-2]],<ref>[[#HETE|Ricker 2003]]</ref> was launched in 2000 and functioned until 2006, providing most of the major discoveries during this period. One of the most successful space missions to date, [[Swift Gamma-Ray Burst Mission|Swift]], was launched in 2004 and as of JanuaryMay 20232024 is still operational.<ref>[[#NASA2008|McCray 2008]]</ref><ref>[[#Gehrels04|Gehrels 2004]]</ref> Swift is equipped with a very sensitive gamma-ray detector as well as on-board X-ray and optical telescopes, which can be rapidly and automatically [[Slew (spacecraft)|slewed]] to observe afterglow emission following a burst. More recently, the [[Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope|Fermi]] mission was launched carrying the [[Fermi Gamma-ray Burst Monitor|Gamma-Ray Burst Monitor]], which detects bursts at a rate of several hundred per year, some of which are bright enough to be observed at extremely high energies with Fermi's [[Fermi LAT|Large Area Telescope]]. Meanwhile, on the ground, numerous optical telescopes have been built or modified to incorporate robotic control software that responds immediately to signals sent through the [[Gamma-ray Burst Coordinates Network]]. This allows the telescopes to rapidly repoint towards a GRB, often within seconds of receiving the signal and while the gamma-ray emission itself is still ongoing.<ref>[[#ROTSE|Akerlof 2003]]</ref><ref>[[#Akerlof99|Akerlof 1999]]</ref>
 
New developments since the 2000s include the recognition of short gamma-ray bursts as a separate class (likely from merging neutron stars and not associated with supernovae), the discovery of extended, erratic flaring activity at X-ray wavelengths lasting for many minutes after most GRBs, and the discovery of the most luminous ([[GRB 080319B]]) and the former most distant ([[GRB 090423]]) objects in the universe.<ref name="Bloom">[[#Bloom|Bloom 2009]]</ref><ref>[[#090423|Reddy 2009]]</ref> The most distant known GRB, [[GRB 090429B]], is now the most distant known object in the universe.
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Most observed events (70%) have a duration of greater than two seconds and are classified as long gamma-ray bursts. Because these events constitute the majority of the population and because they tend to have the brightest afterglows, they have been observed in much greater detail than their short counterparts. Almost every well-studied long gamma-ray burst has been linked to a galaxy with rapid star formation, and in many cases to a [[core-collapse supernova]] as well, unambiguously associating long GRBs with the deaths of massive stars.<ref name="Woosley06">[[#Woosley06|Woosley & Bloom 2006]]</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hjorth |first1=Jens |last2=Sollerman |first2=Jesper |last3=Møller |first3=Palle |last4=Fynbo |first4=Johan P. U. |last5=Woosley |first5=Stan E. |last6=Kouveliotou |first6=Chryssa |last7=Tanvir |first7=Nial R. |last8=Greiner |first8=Jochen |last9=Andersen |first9=Michael I. |last10=Castro-Tirado |first10=Alberto J. |last11=Castro Cerón |first11=José María |last12=Fruchter |first12=Andrew S. |last13=Gorosabel |first13=Javier |last14=Jakobsson |first14=Páll |last15=Kaper |first15=Lex |date=2003-06-19 |title=A very energetic supernova associated with the γ-ray burst of 29 March 2003 |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/nature01750 |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=423 |issue=6942 |pages=847–850 |doi=10.1038/nature01750 |pmid=12815425 |issn=0028-0836|arxiv=astro-ph/0306347 |bibcode=2003Natur.423..847H }}</ref> Long GRB afterglow observations, at high redshift, are also consistent with the GRB having originated in star-forming regions.<ref name="Pontzen">[[#Pontzen|Pontzen et al. 2010]]</ref>
 
In December 2022, astronomers reported the observation of GRB 211211A, the first evidence of a long GRB produced by a [[neutron star merger]] with 51s.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Rastinejad |first1=Jillian C. |last2=Gompertz |first2=Benjamin P. |last3=Levan |first3=Andrew J. |last4=Fong |first4=Wen-fai |last5=Nicholl |first5=Matt |last6=Lamb |first6=Gavin P. |last7=Malesani |first7=Daniele B. |last8=Nugent |first8=Anya E. |last9=Oates |first9=Samantha R. |last10=Tanvir |first10=Nial R. |last11=de Ugarte Postigo |first11=Antonio |last12=Kilpatrick |first12=Charles D. |last13=Moore |first13=Christopher J. |last14=Metzger |first14=Brian D. |last15=Ravasio |first15=Maria Edvige |date=2022-12-08 |title=A kilonova following a long-duration gamma-ray burst at 350 Mpc |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-022-05390-w |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=612 |issue=7939 |pages=223–227 |doi=10.1038/s41586-022-05390-w |pmid=36477128 |issn=0028-0836|arxiv=2204.10864 |bibcode=2022Natur.612..223R }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Troja |first1=E. |last2=Fryer |first2=C. L. |last3=O’Connor |first3=B. |last4=Ryan |first4=G. |last5=Dichiara |first5=S. |last6=Kumar |first6=A. |last7=Ito |first7=N. |last8=Gupta |first8=R. |last9=Wollaeger |first9=R. T. |last10=Norris |first10=J. P. |last11=Kawai |first11=N. |last12=Butler |first12=N. R. |last13=Aryan |first13=A. |last14=Misra |first14=K. |last15=Hosokawa |first15=R. |date=2022-12-08 |title=A nearby long gamma-ray burst from a merger of compact objects |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=612 |issue=7939 |pages=228–231 |doi=10.1038/s41586-022-05327-3 |issn=0028-0836 |pmc=9729102 |pmid=36477127|arxiv=2209.03363 |bibcode=2022Natur.612..228T }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-12-07 |title=Kilonova Discovery Challenges our Understanding of Gamma-Ray Bursts |url=https://www.gemini.edu/pr/kilonova-discovery-challenges-our-understanding-gamma-ray-bursts |access-date=2022-12-11 |website=Gemini Observatory |language=en}}</ref> GRB 191019A (2019)<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Levan |first1=Andrew J. |last2=Malesani |first2=Daniele B. |last3=Gompertz |first3=Benjamin P. |last4=Nugent |first4=Anya E. |last5=Nicholl |first5=Matt |last6=Oates |first6=Samantha R. |last7=Perley |first7=Daniel A. |last8=Rastinejad |first8=Jillian |last9=Metzger |first9=Brian D. |last10=Schulze |first10=Steve |last11=Stanway |first11=Elizabeth R. |last12=Inkenhaag |first12=Anne |last13=Zafar |first13=Tayyaba |last14=Agüí Fernández |first14=J. Feliciano |last15=Chrimes |first15=Ashley A. |date=2023-06-22 |title=A long-duration gamma-ray burst of dynamical origin from the nucleus of an ancient galaxy |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41550-023-01998-8 |journal=Nature Astronomy |language=en |volume=7 |issue=8 |pages=976–985 |doi=10.1038/s41550-023-01998-8 |issn=2397-3366|arxiv=2303.12912 |bibcode=2023NatAs...7..976L }}</ref> and [[GRB 230307A]] (2023).<ref>{{cite web |title=GCN - Circulars - 33410: Solar Orbiter STIX observation of GRB 230307A |url=https://gcn.nasa.gov/circulars/33410}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=GCN - Circulars - 33412: GRB 230307A: AGILE/MCAL detection |url=https://gcn.nasa.gov/circulars/33412}}</ref> with around 64s and 35s respectively have been also argued to belong to this class of long GBRsGRBs from neutron star mergers.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Wodd |first=Charlie |date=11 December 2023 |title=Extra-Long Blasts Challenge Our Theories of Cosmic Cataclysms |url=https://www.quantamagazine.org/extra-long-blasts-challenge-our-theories-of-cosmic-cataclysms-20231211/ |website=[[Quanta magazine]]}}</ref>
 
=== Ultra-long gamma-ray bursts ===
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[[File:Wolf rayet2.jpg|thumb|Hubble Space Telescope image of [[Wolf–Rayet star]] [[WR 124]] and its surrounding nebula. Wolf–Rayet stars are candidates for being progenitors of long-duration GRBs.]]
Because of the immense distances of most gamma-ray burst sources from Earth, identification of the progenitors, the systems that produce these explosions, is challenging. The association of some long GRBs with supernovae and the fact that their host galaxies are rapidly star-forming offer very strong evidence that long gamma-ray bursts are associated with massive stars. The most widely accepted mechanism for the origin of long-duration GRBs is the [[Hypernova|collapsar]] model,<ref>[[#Mac99|MacFadyen 1999]]</ref> in which the core of an extremely massive, low-[[metallicity]], rapidly rotating star collapses into a [[black hole]] in the final stages of its [[stellar evolution|evolution]]. Matter near the star's core rains down towards the center and swirls into a high-density [[accretion disk]]. The infall of this material into a black hole drives a pair of [[relativistic jet]]s out along the rotational axis, which pummel through the stellar envelope and eventually break through the stellar surface and radiate as gamma rays. Some alternative models replace the black hole with a newly formed [[magnetar]],<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Zhang |first1=Bing |last2=Mészáros |first2=Peter |s2cid=18660804 |date=2001-05-01 |title=Gamma-Ray Burst Afterglow with Continuous Energy Injection: Signature of a Highly Magnetized Millisecond Pulsar |bibcode=2001ApJ...552L..35Z |journal=The Astrophysical Journal Letters |volume=552 |issue=1 |pages=L35–L38 |doi=10.1086/320255 |arxiv = astro-ph/0011133 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Troja |first1=E. |last2=Cusumano |first2=G. |last3=O'Brien |first3=P. T. |last4=Zhang |first4=B. |last5=Sbarufatti |first5=B. |last6=Mangano |first6=V. |last7=Willingale |first7=R. |last8=Chincarini |first8=G. |last9=Osborne |first9=J. P. |s2cid=14317593 |date=2007-08-01 |title=Swift Observations of GRB 070110: An Extraordinary X-Ray Afterglow Powered by the Central Engine |bibcode=2007ApJ...665..599T |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |volume=665 |issue=1 |pages=599–607 |doi=10.1086/519450 |arxiv = astro-ph/0702220 }}</ref> although most other aspects of the model (the collapse of the core of a massive star and the formation of relativistic jets) are the same.
 
However, a new model which has gained support and was developed by the Italian astrophysicist [[Remo Ruffini]] and other scientists at [[ICRANet]] is that of the binary-driven hypernova (BdHN) model.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ruffini |first1=R. |last2=Muccino |first2=M. |last3=Bianco |first3=C. L. |last4=Enderli |first4=M. |last5=Izzo |first5=L. |last6=Kovacevic |first6=M. |last7=Penacchioni |first7=A. V. |last8=Pisani |first8=G. B. |last9=Rueda |first9=J. A. |last10=Wang |first10=Y. |date=2014-05-01 |title=On binary-driven hypernovae and their nested late X-ray emission |url=https://www.aanda.org/articles/aa/abs/2014/05/aa23812-14/aa23812-14.html |journal=Astronomy & Astrophysics |language=en |volume=565 |pages=L10 |doi=10.1051/0004-6361/201423812 |arxiv=1404.3946 |bibcode=2014A&A...565L..10R |issn=0004-6361}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Fryer |first1=Chris L. |last2=Rueda |first2=Jorge A. |last3=Ruffini |first3=Remo |date=2014-09-16 |title=Hypercritical Accretion, Induced Gravitational Collapse, and Binary-Driven Hypernovae |url=https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/2041-8205/793/2/L36 |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |volume=793 |issue=2 |pages=L36 |doi=10.1088/2041-8205/793/2/l36 |arxiv=1409.1473 |bibcode=2014ApJ...793L..36F |issn=2041-8213}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-05-19 |title=Binary-driven hypernova model gains observational support |url=https://phys.org/news/2020-05-binary-driven-hypernova-gains.html |access-date=2024-05-22 |website=phys.org |language=en}}</ref> The model succeeds and improves upon both the fireshell model and the induced gravitational collapse (IGC) paradigm suggested before, and explains all aspects of gamma-ray bursts.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Rueda |first1=Jorge A. |last2=Ruffini |first2=Remo |last3=Moradi |first3=Rahim |last4=Wang |first4=Yu |date=2021 |title=A brief review of binary-driven hypernova |url=https://www.worldscientific.com/doi/abs/10.1142/S021827182130007X |journal=International Journal of Modern Physics D |language=en |volume=30 |issue=15 |doi=10.1142/S021827182130007X |arxiv=2201.03500 |bibcode=2021IJMPD..3030007R |issn=0218-2718}}</ref> The model posits long gamma-ray bursts as occurring in binary systems with a carbon–oxygen core and a companion neutron star or a black hole.<ref name=":2" /> Furthermore, the energy of GRBs in the model is isotropic instead of collimated.<ref name=":2" /> The creators of the model have noted the numerous drawbacks of the standard "fireball" model as motivation for developing the model, such as the markedly different energetics for supernova and gamma-ray bursts, and the fact that the existence of extremely narrow beaming angles have never been observationally corroborated.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Rueda |first1=J. A. |last2=Ruffini |first2=R. |last3=Wang |first3=Y. |date=2019-05-09 |title=Induced Gravitational Collapse, Binary-Driven Hypernovae, Long Gramma-ray Bursts and Their Connection with Short Gamma-ray Bursts |journal=Universe |language=en |volume=5 |issue=5 |pages=110 |doi=10.3390/universe5050110 |doi-access=free |arxiv=1905.06050 |bibcode=2019Univ....5..110R |issn=2218-1997}}</ref>
 
The closest analogs within the Milky Way galaxy of the stars producing long gamma-ray bursts are likely the [[Wolf–Rayet star]]s, extremely hot and massive stars, which have shed most or all of their hydrogen envelope. [[Eta Carinae]], [[Apep (star system)|Apep]], and [[WR 104]] have been cited as possible future gamma-ray burst progenitors.<ref>[[#Plait|Plait 2008]]</ref> It is unclear if any star in the Milky Way has the appropriate characteristics to produce a gamma-ray burst.<ref name="Stanek">[[#Stanek|Stanek 2006]]</ref>
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| journal = [[The Astrophysical Journal]]
| url = ftp://web.haystack.mit.edu/dist/Haystack.info/revgrbs.ps
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