Angkor Wat: Difference between revisions

'''Angkor Wat''' ({{IPAc-en|ˌ|æ|ŋ|k|ɔːr|_|ˈ|w|ɒ|t}}; {{lang-km|អង្គរវត្ត}}, "City/Capital of Temples") is a [[Buddhism and Hinduism|Hindu-Buddhist]] temple complex in [[Cambodia]]. Located on a site measuring {{convert|162.6|ha|m2 acre}} within the ancient [[Khmer Empire|Khmer]] capital city of [[Angkor]], it is considered as the [[List of largest Hindu temples|largest religious structure in the world]] by ''[[Guinness World Records]]''. Originally constructed as a [[Hindu temple]] dedicated to the goddeity [[Vishnu]], it was gradually transformed into a [[Buddhist temple]] towards the end of the century.

The temple complex fell into disuse before being restored in the 20th century with various international agencies involved in the project. The temple is admired for the grandeur and harmony of the architecture, its extensive [[Relief#Bas-relief or low relief|bas-reliefs]] and [[devata]]s adorning its walls. The Angkor area was designated as a [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Site]] in 1992. It is regarded as one of the best examples of Khmer architecture and a symbol of Cambodia, depicted as a part of the [[Flag of Cambodia|Cambodian national flag]]. The Angkor Wat is a major tourist attraction and attracts more than 2.5 million visitors every year.

The modern name ''Angkor Wat'', means "Temple City" or "City of Temples" in [[Khmer language]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Khmer dictionary|publisher=Buddhist institute of Cambodia|page=1424|year=2007}}</ref> ''Angkor'' ({{lang|km|អង្គរ}} {{transliteration|km|ângkôr}}), meaning "city" or "capital city", is a vernacular form of the word ''nokor'' ({{lang|km|នគរ}} {{transliteration|km|nôkôr}}), which comes from the [[Sanskrit]]/[[Pali]] word ''nagara'' ([[Devanāgarī]]: नगर).<ref>{{cite book|title=Khmer Dictionary|first=Chuon|last=Nath|year=1966|publisher=Buddhist Institute|location=[[Phnom Penh]]}}</ref> ''[[Wat]]'' ({{lang|km|វត្ត}} {{transliteration|km|vôtt}}) is the word for "temple grounds", also derived from Sanskrit/Pali ''vāṭa'' ([[Devanāgarī]]: वाट), meaning "enclosure".<ref>{{cite book|title=Cambodian-English Dictionary|author1=Robert K. Headley|author2=Kylin Chhor|author3=Lam Kheng Lim|author4=Lim Hak Kheang|author5=Chen Chun|year=1977|publisher=Catholic University Press}}</ref> The original name of the temple was ''Vrah Viṣṇuloka'' or ''Parama Viṣṇuloka'' meaning "the sacred dwelling of Vishnu".<ref name="Falser">{{cite book|last=Falser|first=Michael|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wjrEDwAAQBAJ&q=Vrah+Visnuloka+Parama+Visnuloka&pg=PA12|title=Angkor Wat – A Transcultural History of Heritage: Volume 1: Angkor in France. From Plaster Casts to Exhibition Pavilions. Volume 2: Angkor in Cambodia. From Jungle Find to Global Icon|date=16 December 2019|publisher=Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG|isbn=978-3-11033-584-2|page=12|access-date=8 November 2020|archive-date=31 October 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231031080402/https://books.google.com/books?id=wjrEDwAAQBAJ&q=Vrah+Visnuloka+Parama+Visnuloka&pg=PA12#v=onepage&q=Vrah%20Visnuloka%20Parama%20Visnuloka&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Apsara">{{cite web|title=Angkor Wat|url=https://apsaraauthority.gov.kh/2021/06/14/angkor-wat/|access-date=7 February 2024|work=Apsara, [[Government of Cambodia]]|date=13 June 2021 }}</ref> The term might also mean "The king who has gone to the supreme world of Vishnu", referring to Suryavarman II posthumously and intended to venerate his glory and memory.<ref name="Falser"/>

Angkor Wat was commissioned by the [[Khmer Empire|Khmer]] king [[Suryavarman II]] (ruled 1113–{{circa|1150}}) in the early 12th century in [[Yaśodharapura]] (present-day Angkor), the capital of the Khmer Empire. The construction of the temple commenced in 1122 CE and was completed in 1150 CE.<ref name="Ancient Southeast Asia">{{cite book |last1=Miksic |first1=John |last2=Yian |first2=Goh |title=Ancient Southeast Asia |date=14 October 2016 |publisher=Routledge |page=378 |isbn=978-1-31727-904-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zjklDwAAQBAJ&dq=suryavarman+chola+mother&pg=PA376 |access-date=4 July 2022 |archive-date=11 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230411141146/https://books.google.com/books?id=zjklDwAAQBAJ&dq=suryavarman+chola+mother&pg=PA376 |url-status=live }}</ref> The temple complex was constructed on the suggestion of Divākarapaṇḍita (1040–{{circa|1120}}).<ref>{{cite webencyclopedia|title=Divākarapaṇḍita|workencyclopedia=Encyclopedia Britannica|access-date=19 March 2022|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Divakarapandita}}</ref> The temple was dedicated to [[Hindu]] god [[Vishnu]] and the original religious motifs were derived from [[Hinduism]].<ref name="Brit">{{cite webencyclopedia|title=Angkor Wat {{!}} Description, Location, History, Restoration, & Facts|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Angkor-Wat|access-date=7 February 2021|workencyclopedia=Encyclopedia Britannica|archive-date=10 August 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230810081546/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Angkor-Wat|url-status=live}}</ref> It was built as the king's state temple in the capital city. While there are no foundation [[Stele|stela]] or any contemporary inscriptions referring to the temple's name that have been found, its original name is unknown and it may have been known as ''Vrah Viṣṇuloka'' after the presiding deity.<ref name="Falser"/> The work on the temple ceased after the king's death, leaving some of the [[Relief#Bas-relief or low relief|bas-relief]] decoration unfinished.<ref name="Ohio">{{cite web |url=http://huntingtonarchive.osu.edu/seasia/angkor.html |title=Angkor Wat, 1113–1150 |access-date=27 April 2008 |publisher=College of the Arts, The Ohio State University |work=The Huntington Archive of Buddhist and Related Art |archive-date=6 January 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060106041557/http://huntingtonarchive.osu.edu/seasia/angkor.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

After the transformation from a Hindu centre of worship to Buddhism towards the end of the 12th century, Angkor Wat continues to be a Buddhist center till the present day.<ref name="cyark"/> Historical records show that Chinese envoy [[Zhou Daguan]] and traveller [[Zheng He]] visited the Angkor Wat in the 13-14th centuries. Zheng He studied the temple architecture which was later incorporated in the Dabaoen Temple and Galazed Pagoda.<ref>{{cite report|url=https://www.iseas.edu.sg/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/ISEAS_Perspective_2017_48.pdf|title=Cambodia Embraces China’sChina's Belt and Road Initiative|author=Vannarith Chheang|year=2018}}</ref> Angkor Wat is unusual among the Angkor temples in that although it was largely neglected after the 16th century, it was never completely abandoned.{{sfn|Glaize|1944|p=59}} Fourteen inscriptions dated from the 17th century, discovered in the Angkor area, state that [[Japanese people|Japanese]] Buddhist pilgrims had established small settlements alongside Khmer locals.<ref>{{cite web |title=Japanese Diaspora – Cambodia |author1=Masako Fukawa |author2=Stan Fukawa |date=6 November 2014 |work=Discover Nikkei |url=http://www.discovernikkei.org/en/journal/2014/11/6/japanese-diaspora-cambodia/ |access-date=18 October 2015 |archive-date=15 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200515040929/http://www.discovernikkei.org/en/journal/2014/11/6/japanese-diaspora-cambodia/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The inscription also tells of [[Ukondayu Kazufusa]], who celebrated the [[Khmer New Year]] at Angkor Wat in 1632.<ref>{{cite web |title=History of Cambodia, Post-Angkor Era (1431 – present day) |work=Cambodia Travel |url=http://www.cambodia-travel.com/khmer/post-angkor.htm |access-date=18 October 2015 |archive-date=11 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190911082903/http://www.cambodia-travel.com/khmer/post-angkor.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref>

The first Western visitor to the temple was [[António da Madalena]], a [[Portugal|Portuguese]] friar who visited in 1586 and said that it "is of such extraordinary construction that it is not possible to describe it with a pen, particularly since it is like no other building in the world. It has towers and decoration and all the refinements which the human genius can conceive of."<ref>{{cite report |last=Sotheavin |first=Nhim |title=Considerations regarding the fall of Longvek |url=https://www.academia.edu/50811820/CONSIDERATIONS_REGARDING_THE_FALL_OF_LONGVEK}}</ref>{{sfn|Higham|2001|pp=1–2}} In 1860, the temple was effectively rediscovered by French naturalist and explorer [[Henri Mouhot]] with the help of French missionary Father Charles-Émile Bouillevaux. Mouhot popularised the site in the West through the publication of travel notes, in which he wrote:{{cquote|One of these temples, a rival to [[Solomon's Temple|that of Solomon]], and erected by some ancient [[Michelangelo]], might take an honorable place beside our most beautiful buildings. It is grander than anything left to us by [[Ancient Greece|Greece]] or [[Ancient Rome|Rome]], and presents a sad contrast to the state of barbarism in which the nation is now plunged.<ref>{{cite report|url=http://www.cambodianview.com/documents/articles/Brief_Presentation.pdf|title=Brief Presentation by Venerable Vodano Sophan Seng|author=Sophan Seng|access-date=23 August 2006}}</ref>}}

France adopted Cambodia as a [[protectorate]] on 11 August 1863 partly due to the artistic legacy of Angkor Wat and other Khmer monuments in the Angkor region and invaded [[Rattanakosin Kingdom (1782–1932)|Siam]]. This quickly led to Cambodia reclaiming lands in the northwestern corner of the country including [[Siem Reap]], [[Battambang]], and [[Sisophon]] which were under Siamese rule from 1795 to 1907.<ref>{{cite book|author=Penny Edwards|year=2007|title=Cambodge: The Cultivation of a Nation, 1860–1945|publisher=University of Hawaii Press |isbn=978-0-8248-2923-0}}</ref><ref>{{cite webnews|author=Karnjanatawe, K.|date=26 November 2015|title=Sights of Sa Kaeo|work=Bangkok Post|access-date=5 April 2022|url=https://www.bangkokpost.com/travel/777225/see-the-sights-of-sa-kaeo}}</ref> Following excavations at the site, there were no ordinary dwellings or houses or other signs of settlement such as cooking utensils, weapons, or items of clothing usually found at ancient sites.<ref name="Southeast Asia">{{cite book|title=Time Life Lost Civilizations series: Southeast Asia: A Past Regained|year=1995|publisher=Time Life|isbn=978-0-80949-112-4|pagepages=67–99}}</ref>

The temple complex is surrounded by an outer wall, {{cvt|1024|m|ft}} by {{cvt|802|m|ft}} and {{cvt|4.5|m|ft|0}} high. It is encircled by a {{cvt|30|m|ft}} apron of open ground and a moat {{cvt|190|m|ft}} wide and over {{cvt|5|km}} in perimeter.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Jarus |first1=Owen |title=Angkor Wat: History of Ancient Temple |url=https://www.livescience.com/23841-angkor-wat.html |access-date=28 July 2018 |work=Live Science |publisher=Purch |date=5 April 2018 |archive-date=10 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230610114716/https://www.livescience.com/23841-angkor-wat.html |url-status=live }}</ref> The moat extends {{cvt|1.5|km}} from east to west and {{cvt|1.3|km}} from north to south.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Fletcher |firstfirst1=Roland |first2=Damian |last2=Evans |first3=Christophe |last3=Pottier |first4=Chhay |last4=Rachna |title=Angkor Wat: An introduction |journal=Antiquity |date=December 2015 |volume=89 |issue=348 |page=1395 |doi=10.15184/aqy.2015.178 |s2cid=162553313 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/286412358 |access-date=27 March 2020 |via=ResearchGate}}</ref> Access to the temple is by an earth bank to the east and a sandstone causeway to the west; the latter, the main entrance, is a later addition, possibly replacing a wooden bridge.{{sfn|Freeman|Jacques|1999|p=49}} There are [[Architecture of Cambodia#Gopura|gopuras]] at each of the [[cardinal point]]s with the western one being the largest and consists of three partially ruined towers. Glaize notes that this gopura both hides and echoes the form of the temple proper.{{sfn|Glaize|1944|p= 61}}

Integrated with the architecture of the building, one of the causes for its fame is Angkor Wat's extensive decoration, which predominantly takes the form of [[bas-relief]] friezes. The inner walls of the outer gallery bear a series of large-scale scenes mainly depicting episodes from the [[Hindu]] epics the [[Ramayana]] and the [[Mahabharata]]. Higham has called these "the greatest known linear arrangement of stone carving".{{sfn|Higham|2003|p=318}} From the north-west corner anti-clockwise, the western gallery shows the Battle of Lanka (from the Ramayana, in which [[Rama]] defeats [[Ravana]]) and the [[Kurukshetra War|Battle of Kurukshetra]] (from the Mahabharata, showingdepicting the mutual annihilation of the [[Kaurava]] and [[Pandava]] clans)armies. On the southern gallery follow, the only historical scene, a procession of [[Suryavarman II]], thenis depicted along with the 32 [[hell]]s and 37 [[heaven]]s of Hinduism.{{sfn|Glaize|1944|p=68}}

On the eastern gallery is one of the most celebrated scenes, the [[Kurma|Churning of the Sea of Milk]], showing 92 [[asura]]s and 88 [[deva (Hinduism)|devas]] using the serpent [[Vasuki (snake)|Vasuki]] to churn the [[Kshira Sagara|sea of milk]] under Vishnu's direction. (Mannikka counts only 91 asuras and explains the asymmetrical numbers as representing the number of days from the [[winter solstice]] to the [[spring equinox (Northern Hemisphere)|spring equinox]], and from the equinox to the summer [[solstice]]).<ref>{{cite book|last=Buckley|first=Michael|title=Vietnam, Cambodia and Laos Handbook|year=1998|publisher=Avalon Travel Publications|url=http://www.veloasia.com/library/buckley/churning_milk.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210619170121/https://www.veloasia.com/library/buckley/churning_milk.html |archive-date=19 June 2021|url-status=live }}</ref> It is followed by reliefs showing Vishnu defeating [[asura]]s, which was (a 16th-century addition). The northern gallery shows Krishna's victory over [[Banasura|Bana]].{{sfn|Glaize|1944|p=69}}

Angkor Wat is decorated with depictions of [[apsaras]] and [[devata]];s there arewith more than 1,796 documented depictions of devatadevatas in the present research inventory.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.devata.org/2010/02/angkor-wat-devata-inventory/|title=Angkor Wat devata inventory |access-date=1 February 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100423123631/http://www.devata.org/2010/02/angkor-wat-devata-inventory/ |archive-date=23 April 2010| url-status=live }}</ref> AngkorThe Watarchitects architectsalso employedused small apsara images ({{cvt|30-40|cm|in|0|disp=or}}) as decorative motifs on pillars and walls. They incorporated larger devata images (all full-body portraits measuring approximately {{cvt|95-110|cm|in|0|disp=or}}) more prominently at every level of the temple from the entry pavilion to the tops of the high towers. In 1927, Sappho Marchal published a study cataloging the remarkable diversity of their hair, headdresses, garments, stance, jewellery, and decorative flowers depicted in the reliefs, which Marchal concluded were based on actual practices of the Angkor period.<ref>{{cite book|author=Sappho Marchal|title=Khmer Costumes and Ornaments of the Devatas of Angkor Wat|year=1927}}</ref>

Most of the surfaces, columns, lintels and roofs are carved with reliefs illustrating scenes from [[Indian literature]] including unicorns, griffins, winged dragons pulling chariots, as well as warriors following an elephant-mounted leader, and celestial dancing girls with elaborate hairstyles. The gallery wall is decorated with almost {{cvt|1,000|sqm}} of bas reliefs. Holes on some of the Angkor walls indicate that they may have been decorated with bronze sheets which were highly prized in ancient times and were prime targets for robbers. Based on experiments, the labour force to quarry, transport, carve and install so much sandstone probably ran into the thousands including many highly skilled artisans.<ref>{{cite book|author=Lehner, Mark|year=1997|title=The Complete Pyramids|publisher=Thames and Hudson|pagepages=202–225|isbn=0-500-05084-8}}</ref> The skills required to carve these sculptures were developed hundreds of years earlier, as demonstrated by some artefacts that have been dated to the seventh century, before the Khmer came to power.<ref name="Southeast Asia"/><ref name="Scarre"/>

According to the 13th-century Chinese traveller Zhou Daguan, some believed that the temple was constructed in a single night by a divine architect.<ref>{{cite book|title= A Record of Cambodia: The Land and Its People|author=Daguan Zhou|others=Translated by Peter Harris|publisher=Silkworm Books|date=2007}}</ref> In 1622, ''[[The Poem of Angkor Wat]]'' composed in Khmer language describes the beauty of Angkor Wat and propagates a legend around the construction of the complex, supposedly a divine castle built for legendary Khmer king Preah Ket Mealea by Hindu god Preah Pisnukar (or Braḥ Bisṇukār, [[Vishvakarma]]n).<ref>{{cite book |last=Kim |first=Jinah |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=badNAQAAMAAJ&q=Ketumala+angkor |title=Reading Angkor Wat: A History of Oscillating Identity |date=2001 |publisher=University of California, Berkeley |pages=31 |access-date=13 April 2022 |archive-date=31 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231031080403/https://books.google.com/books?id=badNAQAAMAAJ&q=Ketumala+angkor |url-status=live }}</ref> In the 17th century, the Japanese believed that the temple was the location of the famed [[Jetavana]] garden of the [[Buddha]], which was originally located in the kingdom of [[Magadha]], India.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Au-dela du plan Japonais du XVII siècle d'Angkor Vat, (A XVII century Japanese map of Angkor Wat) |author=Abdoul-Carime Nasir |url=http://aefek.free.fr/iso_album/carteangkor_jetavana.pdf |language=fr |access-date=18 October 2015 |journal=Bulletin de l'AEFEK |archive-date=23 December 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151223055631/http://aefek.free.fr/iso_album/carteangkor_jetavana.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> According to another myth, the construction of Angkor Wat was ordered by [[Indra]] to serve as a palace for his son Precha Ket Mealea.<ref>{{cite book|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=HAZrFhvqnTkC|title= Asiatic Mythology:A Detailed Description and Explanation of the Mythologies of All the Great Nations of Asia|author1= J. Hackin|author2= Clayment Huart|author3= Raymonde Linossier|author4= H. de Wilman Grabowska|author5= Charles-Henri Marchal|author6= Henri Maspero|author7= Serge Eliseev|date= 1932|page= 194|publisher= Asian Educational Services|isbn= 978-81-206-0920-4|access-date= 21 September 2020|archive-date= 31 October 2023|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20231031080408/https://books.google.com/books?id=HAZrFhvqnTkC|url-status= live}}</ref>

[[File:Angkor Wat with its reflection (cropped).jpg|thumb|left|Angkor Wat with its reflection in the outer pool]]

* {{cite book|lastlast1=Forbes|firstfirst1=Andrew |last2=Henley|first2=David|year=2011|title=Angkor, Eighth Wonder of the World|publisher=Cognoscenti Books|asin=B0085RYW0O}}