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| range_coordinates= {{Coord|32|S|70|W|type:mountain|display=inline,title}}
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| map_image=
| map_caption= Map of South America showing the Andes running along the entire western part (roughly parallel to the Pacific coast) of the continent
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Tectonic forces above the [[subduction zone]] along the entire west coast of South America where the [[Nazca Plate]] and a part of the [[Antarctic Plate]] are sliding beneath the [[South American Plate]] continue to produce an ongoing [[Orogeny|orogenic event]] resulting in minor to major [[earthquake]]s and [[volcanic eruption]]s to this day. Many high-magnitude earthquakes have been recorded in the region, such as the [[2010 Chile earthquake|2010 Maule earthquake]] (M8.8), the [[2015 Illapel earthquake]] (M8.2), and the [[1960 Valdivia earthquake]] (M9.5), which as of 2024 was the strongest ever recorded on seismometers.
The amount, magnitude, and type of seismic activity varies greatly along the subduction zone. These differences are due to a wide range of factors, including friction between the plates, angle of subduction, buoyancy of the subducting plate, rate of subduction, and hydration value of the mantle material. The highest rate of seismic activity is observed in the central portion of the boundary, between 33°S and 35°S. In this area, the angle of subduction is very low, meaning the subducting plate is nearly horizontal. Studies of mantle hydration across the subduction zone have shown a correlation between increased material hydration and lower-magnitude, more-frequent seismic activity. Zones exhibiting dehydration instead are thought to have a higher potential for larger, high-magnitude earthquakes in the future. <ref>{{Cite journal |
The mountain range is also a source of shallow intraplate earthquakes within the South American Plate. The largest such earthquake (as of 2024) [[1947 Satipo earthquake|struck Peru in 1947]] and measured {{M|s}} 7.5. In the Peruvian Andes, these earthquakes display normal ([[1946 Ancash earthquake|1946]]), strike-slip (1976), and reverse ([[1969 Huaytapallana earthquake|1969]], 1983) mechanisms. The Amazonian Craton is actively underthrusted beneath the sub-Andes region of Peru, producing thrust faults.<ref name="Dorbath91">{{cite journal |last1=Dorbath |first1=L. |last2=Dorbath |first2=C. |last3=Jimenez |first3=E. |last4=Rivera |first4=L. |title=Seismicity and tectonic deformation in the Eastern Cordillera and the sub-Andean zone of central Peru |journal=Journal of South American Earth Sciences |date=1991 |volume=4 |issue=
In the extreme south, a major [[transform fault]] separates [[Tierra del Fuego]] from the small [[Scotia Plate]].
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==Flora==
[[File:20100116 Sonso 002.JPG|thumb|[[Laguna de Sonso Nature Reserve|Laguna de Sonso]] tropical dry forest in Northern Andes]]
The Andean region cuts across several [[natural region|natural]] and floristic regions, due to its extension, from [[Caribbean]] Venezuela to cold, windy, and wet [[Cape Horn]] passing through the hyperarid [[Atacama Desert]]. [[Rainforest]]s and [[Tropical and subtropical dry broadleaf forests|tropical dry forests]]<ref>{{Cite web|title = Tropical and Subtropical Dry Broadleaf Forest Ecoregions|url = http://wwf.panda.org/about_our_earth/ecoregions/about/habitat_types/selecting_terrestrial_ecoregions/habitat02.cfm|website = wwf.panda.org|access-date = 27 December 2015|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120425205410/http://wwf.panda.org/about_our_earth/ecoregions/about/habitat_types/selecting_terrestrial_ecoregions/habitat02.cfm|archive-date = 25 April 2012|url-status = dead}}</ref> used to{{When|date=June 2024}} encircle much of the northern Andes but are now greatly [[Deforestation|diminished]], especially in the [[El Chocó|Chocó]] and inter-Andean valleys of Colombia. Opposite
About 30,000 species of [[vascular plants]] live in the Andes, with roughly half being [[endemism|endemic]] to the region, surpassing the diversity of any other [[Biodiversity hotspot|hotspot]].<ref name = "biodiv"/> The small tree ''[[Cinchona pubescens]]'', a source of [[quinine]] which is used to treat [[malaria]], is found widely in the Andes as far south as Bolivia. Other important crops that originated from the Andes are [[tobacco]] and [[potato]]es. The high-altitude ''[[Polylepis]]'' forests and woodlands are found in the Andean areas of [[Colombia]], [[Ecuador]], [[Peru]], [[Bolivia]], and [[Chile]]. These trees, by locals referred to as Queñua, Yagual, and other names, can be found at altitudes of {{convert|4500|m|ft|-1|abbr=on}} above sea level. It remains unclear if the patchy distribution of these forests and woodlands is natural, or the result of clearing which began during the [[Inca]]n period. Regardless, in [[modern history|modern times]], the clearance has accelerated, and the trees are now considered
|title=Pants of the Andies
|url=http://www.blueplanetbiomes.org/andes_plant_page.htm
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[[File:Ausangate-hillside-MT.jpg|thumb|Herds of [[alpaca]]s near [[Ausangate]] mountain]]
{{Main|Fauna of the Andes}}
The Andes are rich in fauna: With almost 1,000 species, of which roughly 2/3 are [[endemism|endemic]] to the region, the Andes are the most important region in the world for [[amphibian]]s.<ref name="biodiv">[http://www.biodiversityhotspots.org/xp/hotspots/andes/Pages/biodiversity.aspx Tropical Andes] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100821222457/http://www.biodiversityhotspots.org/xp/hotspots/andes/Pages/biodiversity.aspx |date=21 August 2010 }} – biodiversityhotspots.org</ref> The diversity of animals in the Andes is high, with almost 600 species of [[mammal]]s (13% endemic), more than 1,700 species of birds (about 1/3 endemic), more than 600 species of [[reptile|reptiles]] (about 45% endemic), and almost 400 species of fish (about 1/3 endemic).<ref name="biodiv"/>
The [[vicuña]] and [[guanaco]] can be found living in the [[Altiplano]], while the closely related [[Domestication|domesticated]] [[llama]] and [[alpaca]] are widely kept by locals as [[pack animal]]s and for their [[meat]] and [[wool]]. The crepuscular (active during dawn and dusk) [[chinchilla]]s, two threatened members of the [[rodent]] order, inhabit the Andes' alpine regions.<ref name=NeoMammals3>Eisenberg, J.F.; & Redford, K.H. (2000). ''Mammals of the Neotropics, Volume 3: The Central Neotropics: Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Brazil.'' {{ISBN|978-0-226-19542-1}}</ref><ref name=NeoMammals2>Eisenberg, J.F.; & Redford, K.H. (1992). ''Mammals of the Neotropics, Volume 2: The Southern Cone: Chile, Argentina, Uruguay, Paraguay.'' {{ISBN|978-0-226-70682-5}}</ref> The [[Andean condor]], the largest bird of its kind in the [[Western Hemisphere]], occurs throughout much of the Andes but generally in very low densities.<ref name=HAndesBirds>Fjeldsaa, J.; & Krabbe, N. (1990). ''Birds of the High Andes: A Manual to the Birds of the Temperate Zone of the Andes and Patagonia, South America.'' {{ISBN|978-87-88757-16-3}}</ref> Other animals found in the relatively open habitats of the high Andes include the [[Huemul (zoology)|huemul]], [[cougar]], foxes in the genus ''[[Pseudalopex]]'',<ref name=NeoMammals3/><ref name=NeoMammals2/> and, for birds, certain species of [[tinamou]]s (notably members of the genus ''[[Nothoprocta]]''), [[Andean goose]], [[giant coot]], [[flamingo]]s (mainly associated with [[hypersaline]] lakes), [[lesser rhea]], [[Andean flicker]], [[diademed sandpiper-plover]], [[Geositta|miners]], [[Phrygilus|sierra-finches]] and [[Diuca|diuca-finches]].<ref name=HAndesBirds/>
[[Lake Titicaca]] hosts several endemics, among them the highly endangered [[Titicaca flightless grebe]]<ref name=HAndesBirds/> and [[Titicaca water frog]].<ref name=ThreatenedAmph>Stuart, Hoffmann, Chanson, Cox, Berridge, Ramani and Young, editors (2008). ''Threatened Amphibians of the World.'' {{ISBN|978-84-96553-41-5}}</ref> A few species of [[hummingbirds]], notably some [[Oreotrochilus|hillstars]], can be seen at altitudes above {{convert|4000|m|ft|-2|abbr=on}}, but far higher [[Species richness|diversities]] can be found at lower altitudes, especially in the humid Andean forests ("[[cloud forest]]s") growing on slopes in Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, and far northwestern Argentina.<ref name=HAndesBirds/> These forest-types, which includes the [[Yungas]] and parts of the Chocó, are very rich in flora and fauna, although few large mammals exist, exceptions being the threatened [[mountain tapir]], [[spectacled bear]], and [[yellow-tailed woolly monkey]].<ref name=NeoMammals3/>
Birds of humid Andean forests include [[mountain-toucan|mountain toucan]]s, [[quetzal]]s, and the [[Andean cock-of-the-rock]], while [[mixed species flock|mixed-species flock]]s dominated by [[tanagers]] and [[furnariids]]
A number of species such as the [[royal cinclodes]] and [[white-browed tit-spinetail]] are associated with ''Polylepis'', and consequently also [[threatened]].<ref name=HAndesBirds/>
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{{more citations needed section|date=January 2011}}
The Andes Mountains form a north–south axis of cultural influences. A long series of cultural development culminated in the expansion of the [[Inca civilization]] and [[Inca Empire]] in the central Andes during the
[[File:Church_Heart_of_the_Andes.jpg|thumb|[[Frederic Edwin Church]], ''Heart of the Andes,'' 1859.]]
Devastated by European diseases and by [[Inca Civil War|civil war]], the Incas were defeated in 1532 by an alliance composed of tens of thousands of allies from nations they had subjugated (e.g. [[Huanca people|Huancas]], [[Chachapoyas culture|Chachapoyas]], [[Cañari]]s) and a small army of 180 Spaniards led by [[Francisco Pizarro]]. One of the few Inca sites the Spanish never found in their conquest was [[Machu Picchu]], which lay hidden on a peak on the eastern edge of the Andes where they descend to the Amazon. The main surviving languages of the Andean peoples are those of the [[Quechua languages|Quechua]] and [[Aymara language]] families. [[Woodbine Parish]] and [[Joseph Barclay Pentland]] surveyed a large part of the Bolivian Andes from 1826 to 1827.
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[[La Paz]], [[Bolivia]]'s seat of government, is the highest capital city in the world, at an elevation of approximately {{convert|3650|m|0|abbr=on}}. Parts of the La Paz conurbation, including the city of [[El Alto]], extend up to {{convert|4200|m|0|abbr=on}}.
Other cities in or near the Andes include [[Bariloche]], [[San Fernando del Valle de Catamarca|Catamarca]], [[San Salvador de Jujuy|Jujuy]], [[Mendoza, Argentina|Mendoza]], [[Salta, Argentina|Salta]], [[San Juan, Argentina|San Juan]], [[San Miguel de Tucumán|Tucumán]], and [[Ushuaia]] in Argentina; [[Calama, Chile|Calama]] and [[Rancagua]] in Chile; [[Cochabamba]], [[Oruro, Bolivia|Oruro]], [[Potosí]], [[Sucre]], [[Tarija]], and [[Yacuiba]] in Bolivia; [[Arequipa]], [[Cajamarca]], [[Cusco]], [[Huancayo]], [[Huánuco]], [[Huaraz]], [[Juliaca]], and [[Puno]] in Peru; [[Ambato, Ecuador|Ambato]], [[Cuenca, Ecuador|Cuenca]], [[Ibarra, Ecuador|Ibarra]], [[Latacunga]], [[Loja, Ecuador|Loja]], [[Riobamba]], and [[Tulcán]] in Ecuador; [[Armenia, Colombia|Armenia]], [[Cúcuta]], [[Bucaramanga]], [[Duitama]], [[Ibagué]], [[Ipiales]], [[Manizales]], [[Palmira, Valle del Cauca|Palmira]], [[Pasto, Colombia|Pasto]], [[Pereira, Colombia|Pereira]], [[Popayán]], [[Sogamoso]], [[Tunja]], and [[Villavicencio]] in Colombia; and [[Barquisimeto]], [[La Grita]], [[Mérida, Mérida|Mérida]], [[San Cristóbal, Táchira|San Cristóbal]], Tovar, [[Trujillo, Trujillo|Trujillo]], and [[Valera]] in Venezuela. The cities of [[Caracas]], [[Valencia, Carabobo|Valencia]], and [[Maracay]] are in the [[Venezuelan Coastal Range]], which is a debatable extension of the Andes at the northern extremity of South America.
{{Gallery
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Cities and large towns are connected with [[Asphalt concrete|asphalt]]-paved roads, while smaller towns are often connected by dirt roads, which may require a [[four-wheel-drive]] vehicle.<ref name="andesmap">{{Cite web |url=http://andes.zoom-maps.com/ |title=Andes travel map |access-date=20 June 2010 |archive-date=24 September 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100924154519/http://andes.zoom-maps.com/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>
The rough terrain has historically put the costs of building [[highway]]s and [[railroad]]s that cross the Andes out of reach of most neighboring countries, even with modern [[civil engineering]] practices. For example, the main crossover of the Andes between Argentina and Chile is still accomplished through the [[Paso Internacional Los Libertadores]]. Only recently{{When|date=June 2024}} have the ends of some highways that came rather close to one another from the east and the west
However, there is one railroad that connects Chile with Peru via the Andes, and there are others that make the same connection via southern Bolivia
There are multiple highways in Bolivia that cross the Andes. Some of these were built during a [[Chaco War|period of war]] between Bolivia and [[Paraguay]], in order to transport Bolivian troops and their supplies to the war front in the lowlands of southeastern Bolivia and western Paraguay.
For decades, Chile claimed ownership of land on the eastern side of the Andes. However, these claims were given up in about 1870 during the [[War of the Pacific]] between Chile and the allied Bolivia and Peru, in a diplomatic deal to keep Peru out of the war. The [[Chilean Army]] and [[Chilean Navy]] defeated the combined forces of Bolivia and Peru, and Chile took over Bolivia's only province on the Pacific Coast, some land from Peru that was returned to Peru decades later. Bolivia has been
Because of the tortuous terrain in places, villages and towns in the mountains—to which travel via [[motorized vehicle]]s is of little use—are still located in the high Andes of Chile, Bolivia, Peru, and [[Ecuador]]. Locally, the relatives of the [[camel]], the [[llama]], and the [[alpaca]] continue to carry out important uses as pack animals, but this use has generally diminished in modern times. [[Donkey]]s, [[mule]]s, and horses are also useful.
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{{See also|Andean agriculture|Incan agriculture|Vertical archipelago}}
The ancient peoples of the Andes such as the Incas have practiced [[irrigation]] techniques for over 6,000 years. Because of the mountain slopes, [[Andén|terracing]] has been a common practice. Terracing, however, was only extensively employed after Incan imperial expansions to fuel their expanding realm. The [[potato]] holds a very important role as an internally
===Irrigation===
[[File:Women irrigators in the Andes.jpg|thumb|Irrigating land in the Peruvian Andes]]
In unirrigated land, [[pasture]] is the most common type of land use. In the rainy season (summer), part of the rangeland is used for cropping (mainly potatoes, barley, broad beans, and wheat).
Irrigation is helpful in advancing the sowing data of the summer crops, which guarantees an early yield in
===Mining===
[[File:Huasos Maulinos - Rugendas.jpg|thumb|left|Chilean [[huaso]]s,
The Andes rose to fame for their mineral wealth during the [[Spanish colonization of the Americas|Spanish conquest of South America]]. Although Andean Amerindian peoples crafted ceremonial jewelry of gold and other metals, the [[Mineralization (geology)|mineralizations]] of the Andes were first mined on a large scale after the Spanish arrival. [[Potosí]] in present-day [[Bolivia]] and [[Cerro de Pasco]] in Peru were among the principal mines of the Spanish Empire in the New World. [[Río de la Plata]] and [[Argentina]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.argentine-embassy-uk.org/docs_eng/links/links_information_argentina.shtml|title=Information on Argentina|website=Argentine Embassy London}}</ref> derive their names from the silver of Potosí.
Currently, mining in the Andes of [[Chile]] and [[Peru]] places these countries as the first and second major producers of [[copper]] in the world. [[Peru]] also contains the
There is a long history of mining in the Andes, from the Spanish [[silver]] [[Mining|mines]] in [[Potosí]] in the
=== Accion
{{Tone|date=June 2024|section}}
Depending on the country, this species goes by different names. In Peru, it
Despite its limited recognition and only 5% of its native population remaining, the queñual, with its twisted trunks, has become the protagonist of an inspiring story to protect water in the region.<ref name=":0" />
In 2000, inspired by ancestral customs in communities of his native Cusco, in the Peruvian Andes, biologist Constantino Aucca founded Ecoan, an NGO promoting conservation of threatened species and endangered Andean ecosystems. Since then, the organization has reforested 4.5 million plants across 16 protected areas, involving 37 Andean communities in the process.<ref name=":0" />
Aucca's tireless efforts caught the attention of Florent Kaiser, a Franco-German forest engineer with experience in large-scale conservation projects worldwide.<ref name=":0" />
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Their collaboration birthed Global Forest Generation (GFG), a US-based NGO created by Kaiser in 2018 to fund Aucca's reforestation ambitions. Together, they co-founded a new organization: Acción Andina.<ref name=":0" />
Currently{{When|date=June 2024}} operating in Peru, Argentina, Ecuador, Bolivia, and Chile, Acción Andina has planted nearly 10 million trees since 2018, restoring over 4,000 hectares of Andean forests and protecting more than 11,000 hectares of native forests.<ref name=":0" />
==Peaks==
{{Main|List of mountains in the Andes}}
This list contains some of the major peaks in the Andes mountain range. The highest peak is Aconcagua of Argentina
===Argentina===
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