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[[File:Doryphoros_MAN_Napoli_Inv6011A well-2preserved Roman period copy of the Doryphoros of Polykleitos cast circa 440 BC, from the time of Tiberius (14-37 AD), found in Pompeii, Moi, Auguste, Empereur de Rome exhibition, Grand Palais, Paris.jpg|thumb|446x446px|The ''[[Doryphoros]]'', by [[Polykleitos]], paradigm of the classical male canon. Copy in the [[National Archaeological Museum, Naples|National Archaeological Museum of Naples]]]]
The '''Greek Classicism sculpture''' has long been regarded as the highest point in the development of [[Sculpture|sculptural]] art in [[Ancient Greece]], becoming almost synonymous with "Greek sculpture" and eclipsing other styles that were cultivated there in its long history. The Canon, a treatise on the proportions of the [[human body]] written by [[Polykleitos]] around 450 B.C., is generally considered its initial mark, and its end is marked with the conquest of Greece by the [[Macedonians (ethnic group)|Macedonians]], in 338 B.C., when [[Ancient Greek art|Greek art]] begins a great diffusion to the East, from where it receives influences, changes its character, and becomes cosmopolitan, in the phase known as [[Hellenistic period|Hellenism]]. In this interval, the tradition of Greek [[Classicism]] is consolidated, with man as the new measure of the universe, and the reflection of this in sculpture is the absolute primacy of the representation of the naked human body. The sculpture of Classicism developed an aesthetic that combined idealistic values with a faithful representation of nature, while avoiding overly realistic characterization and the portrayal of emotional extremes, generally maintaining a formal atmosphere of balance and harmony. Even when the character is immersed in battle scenes, his expression seems hardly touched by the violence of the events.<ref name=":0">[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/530221/Western-sculpture/30347/The-Classical-period#ref=ref401159 "Western Sculpture: Ancient Greek - The Classical period - Early Classical (c. 500–450 bc)"]. ''Encyclopaedia Britannica On line''</ref><ref>BOARDMAN, John. [http://books.google.es/books?hl=pt-BR&lr=&id=7fY2eCEFkKgC&oi=fnd&pg=PA447&dq=terracotta+%22neo-attic%22&ots=1Uf8LvQJN2&sig=MHFULpJivZH7kbvBWxpGuhokqzE#PPA330,M1 "Greek Art and Architecture"]. In BOARDMAN, John; GRIFFIN, Jasper & MURRAY, Oswin. ''The Oxford History of Greece and the Hellenistic World''. Oxford University Press, 1991. pp. 330-331</ref>▼
 
'''Classical Greek sculpture''' has long been regarded as the highest point in the development of [[Ancient Greek sculpture]]. [[Classical Greece]] covers only a short period in the history of [[Ancient Greece]], but one of remarkable achievement in several fields. It corresponds to most of the 5th and 4th centuries BC; the most common dates are from the fall of the last [[Athenian tyranny|Athenian tyrant]] in 510 BC to the death of [[Alexander the Great]] in 323 BC. The Classical period in this sense follows the [[Greek Dark Ages]] and [[Archaic Greece|Archaic period]] and is in turn succeeded by the [[Hellenistic period]].<ref>WHITLEY, James. [https://books.google.com/books?id=njOKqvpRrh4C&dq=greece+%22classical+sculpture%22&pg=PA269 ''The Archaeology of Ancient Greece'']. Cambridge University Press, 2001. pp. 3–4</ref>
Classicism raised man to an unprecedented level of dignity, at the same time as it gave him the responsibility of creating his own destiny and offered a model of harmonious life, in a spirit of integral education for an exemplary [[citizenship]]. These values, together with their traditional association of [[Beauty]] with [[Virtue]], found in the sculpture of the Classical period, with its idealized portrait of the human being, a particularly apt vehicle for expression, and an efficient instrument of [[Civic engagement|civic]] and [[Ethics|ethical]] as well as [[Aesthetics|aesthetic]] education. With it, a form of representation of the human body was inaugurated that was one of the fulcrums for the birth of a new philosophical branch, Aesthetics, and was the stylistic foundation of later [[Christian revival|revivalist]] movements of enormous importance, such as the [[Renaissance]] and [[Neoclassicism]], and remains influential to this day. Thus, its impact on Western culture cannot be emphasized enough, and it is a central reference for the study of Western [[art history]]. But apart from its historical value, its intrinsic artistic quality has rarely been questioned, the vast majority of ancient and modern critics praise it vehemently, and the museums that preserve it are visited by millions of people every year. The sculpture of Greek Classicism, although sometimes the target of some criticism that relate its ideological bases to racial prejudices, aesthetic dogmatism, and other exclusivisms, may still have a positive and renovating role to play for contemporary art and society.<ref>HERSEY, George. [http://www.timeshighereducation.co.uk/story.asp?storyCode=93794&sectioncode=26 "Beauty is in the eye of a Greek chisel holder"]. ''The Offer'', 31/05/1996.</ref><ref>THOMAS, Carol G. [http://books.google.es/books?hl=pt-BR&lr=&id=JIdcStQg4g0C&oi=fnd&pg=PA1&dq=classical+greek+sculpture++%22legacy+%22&ots=161TFfY0ef&sig=PBwMaGn_cpydqsRz7X_JvMX9fa0#PPA6,M1 "Introduction"]. In THOMAS, Carol G. (ed). ''Paths from Ancient Greece''. BRILL, 1988. pp. 1-5</ref><ref>GARDNER, Percy. [http://books.google.es/books?hl=pt-BR&lr=&id=v6UMMXl29N4C&oi=fnd&pg=PR11&dq=classical+greek+sculpture++%22legacy+%22&ots=BwzVjYktyd&sig=J2a1DvfElIMozZ1w9MJdIiYBqGo#PPA353,M1 "The Lamps of Greek Art"]. In LIVINGSTONE, R. W. ''The Legacy of Greece''. Kessinger Publishing. pp. 353 </ref>▼
 
▲The '''Greek Classicism sculpture''' has long been regarded as the highest point in the development of [[Sculpture|sculptural]] art in [[AncientClassical Greece]], becoming almost synonymous with "Greek sculpture" and eclipsing other styles that were cultivated there in its long history. The Canon, a treatise on the proportions of the [[human body]] written by [[Polykleitos]] around 450 B.C., is generally considered its initial mark, and its end is marked with the conquest of Greece by the [[Macedonians (ethnic group)|Macedonians]], in 338 B.C., when [[Ancient Greek art|Greek art]] begins a great diffusion to the East, from where it receives influences, changes its character, and becomes cosmopolitan, in the phase known as [[Hellenistic period|Hellenism]]. In this interval, the tradition of Greek [[Classicism]] is consolidated, with man as the new measure of the universe, and the reflection of this in sculpture is the absolute primacy of the representation of the naked human body. The sculpture of Classicism developed an aesthetic that combined idealistic values with a faithful representation of nature, while avoiding overly realistic characterization and the portrayal of emotional extremes, generally maintaining a formal atmosphere of balance and harmony. Even when the character is immersed in battle scenes, histheir expression seemsshows to be hardly touchedaffected by the violence of the events.<ref name=":0">[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/530221/Western-sculpture/30347/The-Classical-period#ref=ref401159 "Western Sculpture: Ancient Greek -– The Classical period -– Early Classical (c. 500–450 bc)"]. ''Encyclopaedia Britannica On line''</ref><ref>BOARDMAN, John. [httphttps://books.google.escom/books?hl=pt-BR&lr=&id=7fY2eCEFkKgC&oi=fnd&pg=PA447&dq=terracotta+%22neo-attic%22&otspg=1Uf8LvQJN2&sig=MHFULpJivZH7kbvBWxpGuhokqzE#PPA330,M1PA330 "Greek Art and Architecture"]. In BOARDMAN, John; GRIFFIN, Jasper & MURRAY, Oswin. ''The Oxford History of Greece and the Hellenistic World''. Oxford University Press, 1991. pp. 330-331330–331</ref>
== Definition of "classic" ==
 
[[File:Akropolis_by_Leo_von_Klenze.jpg|thumb|230x230px|[[Leo von Klenze]]: Ideal Reconstruction of the Acropolis of Athens, 1846]]
▲Classicism raised manMan to an unprecedented level of dignity, at the same time as it gaveentrusted him with the responsibility of creating his own destiny, and offeredoffering a model of harmonious life, in a spirit of integralcomprehensive education for an exemplary [[citizenship]]. These values, together with their traditional association of [[Beauty]]beauty with [[Virtuevirtue]], found in the sculpture of the Classical period, with its idealized portrait of the human being, a particularly apt vehicle for expression, and an efficient instrument of [[Civic engagement|civic]] and, [[Ethics|ethical]] as well asand [[Aesthetics|aesthetic]] education. With it, a new form of representation of the human body was- inauguratedinfluential thatto wasthis day - began, being one of the fulcrumscores forof the birth of a new philosophical branch, Aesthetics, and was the stylistic foundation of later [[Christian revival|revivalist]] movements of enormous importance, such as the [[Renaissance]] and [[Neoclassicism]]. Thus, andClassicism remainshad influentialan to this day. Thus, itsenormous impact on Western culture cannot be emphasized enough, and it isbecame a central reference for the study of Western [[art history]]. But apartApart from its historical value, itsClassicism's intrinsic artistic quality has rarelyhad beengreat questionedimpact, the vast majority of ancient and modern critics praisepraising it vehemently, and the museums that preserve it arebeing visited by millions of people every year. The sculpture of Greek Classicism, although sometimes the target of some criticism that relaterelates its ideological basesbasis to racial prejudices, aesthetic dogmatism, and other exclusivismsparticularities, may still haveplays a positive and renovating role to play forin contemporary art and society.<ref>HERSEY, George. [http://www.timeshighereducation.co.uk/story.asp?storyCode=93794&sectioncode=26 "Beauty is in the eye of a Greek chisel holder"]. ''The Offer'', 31/05/ May 1996.</ref><ref>THOMAS, Carol G. [httphttps://books.google.escom/books?hl=pt-BR&lr=&id=JIdcStQg4g0C&oi=fnd&pg=PA1&dq=classical+greek+sculpture++%22legacy+%22&otspg=161TFfY0ef&sig=PBwMaGn_cpydqsRz7X_JvMX9fa0#PPA6,M1PA6 "Introduction"]. In THOMAS, Carol G. (ed). ''Paths from Ancient Greece''. BRILL, 1988. pp. 1-51–5</ref><ref>GARDNER, Percy. [httphttps://books.google.escom/books?hl=pt-BR&lr=&id=v6UMMXl29N4C&oi=fnd&pg=PR11&dq=classical+greek+sculpture++%22legacy+%22&otspg=BwzVjYktyd&sig=J2a1DvfElIMozZ1w9MJdIiYBqGo#PPA353,M1PA353 "The Lamps of Greek Art"]. In LIVINGSTONE, R. W. ''The Legacy of Greece''. Kessinger Publishing. pp. 353 </ref>
The word classical has a wide usage, and there is still no consensus in the specialized literature about its exact definition. The Greek and Roman civilizations have been called classical in their entirety, for having established cultural standards that have become canonical and are still valid today. In this sense, classical is everything that establishes a standard by which expressions belonging to the same category will be judged. The term is still used with a stricter meaning, to refer to a brief period within the long history of ancient Greek culture - from the mid 5th century to almost the end of the 4th century BC. - when a style was developed and a body of work created that for many centuries would be considered the highest achievement in the art of sculpture of all time, and therefore deserving of the designation classic. However, as happens in all processes of artistic evolution, any dates that are rigorously defined usually prove to be inaccurate and subject to dispute, there always being elements of transition before and after the period in question, making the borders always diffuse and difficult to characterize, making it necessary for practical purposes to adopt the delimitations established by tradition.<ref>WHITLEY, James. [http://books.google.es/books?hl=pt-BR&lr=&id=njOKqvpRrh4C&oi=fnd&pg=PR16&dq=greece+%22classical+sculpture%22&ots=OwSOFW_xQp&sig=wNRx-uohxPqkLCuSMSbojPDq-Xk#PPA269,M1 ''The Archaeology of Ancient Greece'']. Cambridge University Press, 2001. pp. 3-4</ref>
 
== Context and background ==
{{See also|Severe style|Classicism|Ancient Greece}}
[[File:Tetradrachm_Attica_449-404_BC_cropped.jpg|thumb|100x100px|Athenian Tetradrachma[[Tetradrachm]], classical period]]
[[File:Kouros_anavissos.jpg|thumb|249x249px|''[[Kroisos Kouros|''Kroisos Kouros]]'',]] original. [[National Archaeological Museum, Athens]]. Example of the Archaic style]]
Classicism in Greek sculpture derives mainly from the Athenian cultural evolution in the 5th century B.C. In [[Athens]], the main artistic figure was [[Phidias]], but Classicism owes an equally important aesthetic contribution to [[Polykleitos]], active in [[Argos, Peloponnese|Argos]]. However, in those times Athens was a much more influential city, hence its greater role as a diffuser of the new trend. Around the middle of the 5th century B.C., Greece was experiencing a moment of glory; after the victory against the [[Persians]], Athens had assumed the leadership of the Greek cities, heading the [[Delian League]] and being the custodian of its treasury.
===History===
 
Classicism in Greek sculpture derives mainly from the Athenian cultural evolution in the 5th century B.C. In [[Athens]], the main artistic figure was [[Phidias]], but [[Classicism]] owes an equally important aesthetic contribution to [[Polykleitos]], active in [[Argos, Peloponnese|Argos]]. However, in those times Athens was a much more influential city, hence its greater role as a diffuser of the new trend. Around the middle of the 5th century B.C. Greece was experiencing a moment of self-confidence. After the victory against the [[Persians]], Athens had assumed the leadership of the Greek cities, heading the [[Delian League]] and being the depository of its treasury. [[Pericles]] dominated local politics between 460 and 429 BCB.C., aiming to turn histhe city into a model for the entire Greek world. He encouraged [[imperialism]], reducing his former allies to the status of tributaries, but protected artists and philosophers, who gave shape and voice to his ideals. His role in the history of Greek sculpture stems from his decision to rebuild the city by breaking a vow made by the Athenians to leave in ruins the monuments that had been destroyed by the Persians, as a perennial reminder of barbarism. Using partly his own resources and partly the surpluses from the League's treasury, Pericles employed a multitude of laborers and craftsmen, which both energized the economy and left a monumental testimony to the city's new political and cultural status. The main legacy of the vast undertaking was the renovation of the [[Acropolis of Athens]], with Phidias as the artistic director of the works.<ref>POLLITT, Jerome. [httphttps://books.google.escom/books?hl=pt-BR&lr=&id=CadI9xzUaZwC&oi=fnd&pg=PR7&dq=greek+sculpture+classicism+OR+classical+%22sculpture%22&otspg=l3o-oOs5Uc&sig=wPynrKM5X5KnBe7Qmtx4tK4lSSI#PPA66,M1PA66 ''Art and experience in classical Greece'']. Cambridge University Press, 1972. pp. 64-6664–66</ref><ref name=":1">HEMINGWAY, Colette & HEMINGWAY, Seán. [http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/tacg/hd_tacg.htm "The Art of Classical Greece (ca. 480–323 B.C.)"]. In: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. ''Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History'', 2000.</ref> [[Plutarch]] later described the enthusiasm that boiled over:
[[File:Apollo_OlympiaApollo west pediment Olympia copy MFA Munich.jpg|thumb|143x143px|[[Olympia Master]]. Apollo[[Apollon of Olympia]], original. [[Archaeological Museum of Olympia]]. Example of the SeveroSevere style]]
<blockquote>As the works went on, resplendent in grandeur and possessing inimitable grace of form, and as the craftsmen strove to surpass each other in the beauty of their work, it was wonderful how quickly the new structures were executed...There was an aspect of novelty in each work, and they seemed timeless. It is as if a life in continual bloom and a spirit of eternal youth had been infused into their creation.<ref>POLLITT, p. 66</ref></blockquote>[[Philosophy]] shifted its focus from the natural world to human society, believing that manMan could be the author of his own [[destiny]]. More than that, manMan was now considered the center of Creation. [[Sophocles]] expresses this new thinking in [[Antigone]] (c. {{Circa|442 BC}}), saying:<blockquote>There are many wonders, but none so admirable as manMan.
 
Across the stormy sea in the winter storms
 
this creature makes histheir way
 
through the gigantic waves.
Line 34 ⟶ 35:
"With his inventions he subdues the fierce beasts of the mountains,
 
the wild horse he muzzles, and he puts a halter on it,
 
as he does with the indefatigable mountain bull.
Line 42 ⟶ 43:
and learned for himself how to live in society,
 
and how to escape from the impetus of the storms
 
and the piercing cold of the white days.
Line 50 ⟶ 51:
whatever the future brings. Only from death he doesn't know how to escape,
 
for even for the most serious illnesses, he has found a cure.<ref>POLLITT, p. 70</ref></blockquote>Thus, Classicism iswas born out of a sense of confidence in the abilities and achievements of a particular people, and a desire for glory and eternity for themselves,. and thisThis pride, ascan wellbe as a [[xenophobia]], are evidentseen in the political discourse and [[literature]] of the time, but theand poets and philosophers were already aware of the implications for all mankind of this new way of lookingseeing atthe thingsworld. Man became the new measure of the world, which was to be judged based on the basis of human experience. This is present, for example, in the mathematical irregularity of the [[Parthenon]]'s dimensions, which deviate from strict orthogonality to achieve effects of purely optical regularity,. andIt is also expressed in the rapid and growing naturalism of the sculptural representation of human forms.<ref>MORRIS, Sarah. ''Daidalos and the Origins of Greek Art''. Princeton University Press, 1992. pp. 363-364363–364</ref><ref>POLLITT, p. 74</ref>
 
As far asRegarding the elaboration of the typical classical form itself is concerned, its naturalism owes much to the achievements of sculptors of the period preceding the Classical. The previous fifty years had been a period of rapida andrapid radical social and aesthetic change, which determined the abandonment of the [[Archaic Greece|Archaic]] pattern for another which was called [[Severe style|Severe]]. The Archaic style made use of a number ofseveral conventions inherited from the [[Egyptians]], and its most important genre, the male nude, (the ''[[kouros]]'',) washad a fixed formula,: anAn image of stylized lines that retained from the real human body only the most basic features, that displayed an invariably smiling face and always the same bodily attitude. It was an essentially ritual, ceremonial, conventional and impersonal art, although it achieved results of an august appearance and undeniable power.

This model prevailed with little variation for more than two hundred years, but the artists of the Severe period introduced a new sense of naturalism to it, opening the way for the study of [[anatomy]] from the natural and for the expression of emotions in a more convincingrealistic and varied way. Around 455 BCB.C., [[Myron]], a sculptor of the transition, created his ''[[Discobolus]]'', a work that already shows a more advanced degree of naturalism, and soon after, around 450 BCB.C., PolychletusPolykleitos consolidated a new canon of proportions, a synthesis that convincingly expressed the beauty, harmony and vitality of the body and gave it an aspect of eternity and perennial youth. Almost at the same time, fromin 446 B.C. Phidias, leading the group of sculptors decorating the Acropolis, left in the reliefs and statuary of the Parthenon the first series of classicist works on a monumental scale, establishing thematic and narrative models that would endure for a long time. With them, the foundations were laid infor the sculpture of what wasis called High Classicism (c. 450-420 B.C.) were laid.<ref>The period has a different chronology depending on the author consulted. The Encyclopedia Britannica extends it to c. 400 BC.</ref><ref>POLLITT, pp. 80-8180–81</ref><ref name=":1" /><ref name=":0" />
 
== High Classicism ==
[[File:Artemis_Ariccia_MAN_Napoli_Inv6005.jpg|left|thumb|270x270px|Bust of [[Artemis]], with the typical classical figure of idealized features and impassive expression. Roman copy, [[National Archaeological Museum, Naples|National Archaeological Museum of Naples]]]]
Since the Severe period, the effort of artists was directed towards obtaining an increasing verisimilitude of sculptural forms in relation toconcerning the living model, but also seeking to transcend mere likeness in order to express their inner virtues. For the ancient Greeks, physical beauty was identified with moral perfection, in a concept known as ''[[Kalos kagathos|kalokagathia]]''. ForAccording themto this, the education and cultivation of the body were as important as the improvement of the character, both being essential for the formation of a happy personindividual and an integrated citizen useful to society. In this philosophical panorama, which found expression in a highly organized educational model known as ''[[Paideia|''paideia]]'']], art had a privileged space as a creator of [[Symbol|symbolssymbol]]s with educational potential, being understood as a public utility activity. AsSince manart had become the center of philosophical attentions, nothing could be more consequential than his appearing at every opportunity in the art of that period. Since art ideally hadfunction to educate rather than merelyonly please, the man it represented had to appearlook good, virtuous, and beautiful, so that such qualities, visibly enshrined in countless statues scattered everywhere, would permeate the collective consciousness and determine the adoption of a healthy, harmonious, and positive way of life, ultimately ensuring the happiness of all. The fusion of naturalism with idealism, typical of Classicism sculpture, a fusion so successful and influential that it came to be called "classical" (in the sense of being athe perfectultimate model), was, in short, a suitable channel for the plasticartistic manifestation of the dominant ideology.<ref name=":2">BOARDMAN, GRIFFIN & MURRAY. p. 332</ref><ref>LESSA, Fábio de Souza. [httphttps://books.google.escom/books?hl=pt-BR&lr=&id=3_eWPkejWxMC&oi=fnd&pg=PA116&dq=discobolos&otspg=CmRV0YukQU&sig=mc5s91_a7xUCjuYQ63w8q-hirOA#PPA49,M1PA49 "Corpo e Cidadania em Atenas Clássica"]. In THEML, Neyde; BUSTAMANTE, Regina Maria da Cunha & LESSA, Fábio de Souza (orgs). ''Olhares do corpo''. Mauad Editora Ltda, 2003. pp. 48-4948–49</ref><ref>STEINER, Deborah. [httphttps://books.google.escom/books?hl=pt-BR&lr=&id=Zah23ru6oCMC&oi=fnd&pg=PR7&dq=greek+sculpture+classicism+OR+classical+%22sculpture%22&otspg=KqpB2C9HGx&sig=948KbBUzYvlJG5AmkfWpArvFe7Q#PPA27,M1PA27 ''Images in mind: Statues in Archaic and Classical Greek Literature and Thought'']. Princeton University Press, 2001. pp. 26-3326–33; 35</ref>
 
An important contribution tothat crystallizecrystallized the association between art and ethics was given in the Archaic period by [[Pythagoras]], based on his research in the field of [[mathematics]] applied to [[music]] and [[psychology]]. Considering that the various musical modesgenres impressed the soul in different [[Gregorian mode|ways]] and were able to induce psychological states and defined behaviors, foraccording to him, if music did not imitate the mathematically expressed harmony of the [[cosmos]], it could cause disturbances in people's souls and thus in society as a whole. This association was soon expanded to the other arts, attributing to them similar powers of individual and, consequently, collective transformation. His thought would have a profound influence on [[Plato|Plato]]'s]], who would take the aesthetic discussion even further, thoroughly exploring its moral and social repercussions.<ref>BEARDSLEY, Monroe. [httphttps://books.google.escom/books?hl=pt-BR&lr=&id=OzVxPABb-cYC&oi=fnd&pg=PA13&dq=aesthetics+in+classical+grece&otspg=8wtqzGSJuw&sig=GqoT984q14ksC2xXlZSsVhhc6Xc#PPA27,M1PA27 ''Aesthetics from classical Greece to the present'']. University of Alabama Press, 1966. pp. 27-2827–28</ref>
 
=== PolicletoPolykleitos and Phidias ===
{{See also|Polykleitos|Phidias}}
[[File:Diadoumenos-Atenas-croppedDiadumenos in National Archaeological Museum in Athens 01.jpgJPG|left|thumb|311x311px|Polykleitos: [[Diadumenos]], Roman copy. National Archaeological Museum of Athens]]
PolikleitosPolykleitos was, as far as is known, the first to systematize these values and concepts applied to sculpture in a theoretical work, the ''[[Canon of Polykleitos|Canon]]''. In it, the author presentedshowed a model of representation that was at once ideally beautiful and "real,"; ideal becauseas it avoided individual characterization by synthesizing all men into one, and real because it was very similar to the true human form, allowing immediate, and personal identification by the audience. The work has been lost, but later commentaries on it givedemonstrate us a vaguethe idea of its content. [[Galen]] saidstated that according to the ''Canon,'' beauty...:<ref name=":3">STEINER, pp. 39-4039–40</ref><blockquote>It does not lie in the symmetry of the elements of the body, but in the properadequate proportion between the parts, as for instance, from one finger to another finger, from the fingers together to the hands and wrist, from these to the forearm, from thence to the arm, and from all to all, just as it is written in the ''Canon'' of PolykletusPolykleitos. Having taught us in this treatise all the symmetries of the body, PolykletoPolykleitos ratified the text with a work, having made a statue of a man according to the postulates of his treatise, and calling the statue, like the treatise, the ''Canon''. Since then, all philosophers and doctors accept that beauty lies in the properadequate proportion of the parts of the body.<ref name=":3" /></blockquote>
[[File:Parthenon-frieze-bb.jpg|left|thumb|180x180px|Phidia's Workshop: Fragment of the original north frieze of the Parthenon, now in the [[British Museum]]]]
 
The statue Galen speaks of is today identified as probablylikely being the ''[[Doryphoros]]'',<ref name=":2" /> and [[Arnold Hauser (art historian)|Arnold Hauser]] has suggested, almost without objection, that it represents [[Achilles]].<ref>STEWART, Andrew. [httphttps://books.google.escom/books?hl=pt-BR&lr=&id=gSS7zAfRQQkC&oi=fnd&pg=PP15&dq=Doryphoros&otspg=DMSA4VVlaK&sig=RLPZrKlyBZCIBkvssrXsUFiuY4k#PPA247,M1PA247 "Notes on the Reception of the Polykleitan Style: Diomedes to Alexander"]. In MOON, Warren G. (ed). ''Polykleitos, the Doryphoros, and Tradition''. University of Wisconsin Press, 1995. pp. 248-249248–249</ref> Andrew Stewart saysmentions that the author's intention with it was clearly to polemicize, criticizing the style of predecessors like [[Pythagoras]] -– not to be confused with the celebrated philosopher -– who were more concerned with [[symmetry]] and [[rhythm]]. His deliberately neutral and dispassionate expression, his balance between staticity and movement (the ''[[contrapposto]]''), his care in establishing a strict system of proportions that defined the whole composition of the body figure and the relations of the parts to each other, appeared as a great novelty in his time,. asIt represented a perfect visible illustration of ''[[sophrosyneSophrosyne]]'', self-control, and moderation, one of the basic virtues that made up ''[[arete]],'' and the [[Apollo|Apollonian]]nian doctrine of "nothing in excess", and thatwhich characterized the true hero. Although highly appreciated, Polykleitos' system, seemshowever, was not to have been approved for all cases. Its unsuitability for narrative and violent contexts such as battle scenes was criticized, and writers such as [[Quintilian]] later said that this system failed to express the authority of the gods, which may reflect an older current opinion. Even so, the success of the model is evidenced by the large number of times it was copied, and its profound influence on later generations. Modern writers have also found analogies between ''Doryphoros''<nowiki/>' balance, (based on a delicate balance of opposing forces,) withand [[Hippocrates]]' formulations of medicine, and therefore believe that the famous physician's thinking was deliberately assimilated by the sculptor.<ref>STEWART, pp. 247-253247–253</ref><ref>TANNER, Jeremy. [httphttps://books.google.escom/books?hl=pt-BR&lr=&id=VuWClgDvXB8C&oi=fnd&pg=PA99&dq=xenophon+memorabilia+sculpture&otspg=-cCCeNEQ3V&sig=0eMntMJ3QnAXEaCAwMzVtDnUBNk#PPA183,M1PA183 "Social Structure, Cultural Racionalisation and Aesthetic Judgement in Classical Greece"]. In RUTTER, N. Keith & SPARKES, Brian. ''Word and image in ancient Greece''. Edinburgh University Press, 2000. pp. 185-ss</ref><ref>HURWIT, Jeffrey. [httphttps://books.google.escom/books?hl=pt-BR&lr=&id=gSS7zAfRQQkC&oi=fnd&pg=PP15&dq=Doryphoros&otspg=DMSA4VVlaK&sig=RLPZrKlyBZCIBkvssrXsUFiuY4k#PPA3,M1PA3 "The Doryphoros: Looking Backward"]. In MOON, Warren G. (ed). ''Polykleitos, the Doryphoros, and Tradition''. University of Wisconsin Press, 1995, pp. 3-73–7</ref>
[[File:Hermes_Logios_Altemps_33.jpg|thumb|313x313px|Attributed to Phidias: Hermes Ludovisi, Roman copy. National Roman Museum]]▼
[[File:Wounded_amazonPalazzo Altemps,_Rome Rome (32806615515).jpg|thumb|375x375px313x313px|Attributed to Polykleitos or CrésilasPhidias: ''Hermes Wounded AmazonLudovisi'', Roman copy. signedNational by Sosicles. CapitolineRoman MuseumsMuseum]]
[[File:Wounded_amazon,_Rome.jpg|thumb|375x375px|Attributed to Polykleitos or Crésilas: ''Wounded Amazon'', Roman copy signed by Sosicles. [[Capitoline Museums]]]]
Polykleitos may have been inspired by the earlier research on proportions by the sculptor Pythagoras. Still, but in any case his ideas were part of his contemporaries' quest to discover the regular and harmonious structure, (the basic model,) underlying the infinite variations of the same kind of thing in the physical world, and to establish definite numerical relationships in order to replicate this regularity and harmony in art, continuing the philosopher Pythagoras' theory that the universe was structured by numbers. Two other compositions of his compositions are now also called "canonical",: theThe [[Discophoros]] and the [[Diadumenos]], becauseas they are variations of the basic model.<ref>STEINER, p. 40</ref>
 
As for Phidias, his work inherited the austerity of the Severe style by combining it with the achievements of Polykleitos, and was appreciated for the high idealism and ''[[ethos]]'' it expressed. As director of the decoration of the [[Parthenon]], he supervised a group of several masters with diverse preparation and tendencies, which made the overall result heterogeneous, showing both Severe and other more advanced, naturalistic traits, and technical quality not always considered the ideal one. This ensemble is the most ambitious sculptural achievement of High Classicism.
 
As for Phidias, his work inherited the austerity of the Severe style by combining it with the achievements of Polykleitos, and was appreciated for the high idealism and Phidia''ethos'' it expressed. As director of the decoration of the [[Parthenon]], he supervised a group of several masters with diverse preparation and tendencies, which made the overall result quite heterogeneous, showing both Severe and other more advanced, naturalistic traits, and a technical quality not always of the first order. Even so, this ensemble is the most ambitious sculptural achievement of High Classicism, but although the product of Phidias' direct supervision, it cannot be taken as a measure of his personal talent and style. Hiss success among his contemporaries and his enduring memory derive mainly from his colossal cult statues of [[Athena]] and [[Zeus]], which used to be installed respectively in the [[Parthenon]] in Athens and the temple of Zeus in [[Olympia, Greece|Olympia]]. Both were covered with gold and ivory, and madehad a huge impact inat theirthe time. Unfortunately both have been lost. Of the [[Statue of Zeus at Olympia]], considered one of the Seven Wonders of the ancient world, only literary descriptions and crude images engraved on coins of the time remain,. butBut of the [[Athena Parthenos]], dedicatedcreated in 438 B.C., several reduced copies of poorpoorer quality survive that can give at least an idea about the originalsurvived. Other works that have come down to uspersevered through copies and are attributed to him, without much assurance, are the [[Lemnian Athena]], the Apollo of Cassel, a wounded Amazon, and a [[Hermes Ludovisi]].<ref>HURWITT, Jeffrey. [httphttps://books.google.escom/books?id=sFEwwqkEbLEC&printsec=copyright&dqq=Pheidias&lr=&hl=pt-BR#PPA135,M1 "The Parthenon and the Temple of Zeus at Olympia"]. In BARRINGER, Judith & POLLITT, Jerome (eds). ''Periklean Athens and its Legacy''. University of Texas Press, 2005. pp. 135-142135–142</ref><ref>MURRAY, John. [httphttps://books.google.escom/books?hl=pt-BR&lr=&id=kqCW1kWQ8xwC&oidq=fndPheidias&pg=PA1&dq=Pheidias&ots=tbr_L32oTp&sig=cK27fn7kBc7GPFzcyDpSchg-gbA#PRA1-PA10,M1 ''A History of Greek Sculpture. Vol. II. Under Pheidias and his Successors'']. Adamant Media Corporation, 1883-20051883–2005. pp. 9-139–13; 17-2017–20</ref><ref>LAPATIN, Kenneth. [httphttps://books.google.escom/books?hl=pt-BR&lr=&id=5TADtR0uRhkC&oidq=fndPheidias&pg=PA261&dq=Pheidias&ots=SeXb-brgyz&sig=ygDIubxLO-5Mh3fgqMi4TqEEooU#PPA261,M1 "The Statue of Athena and other Treasures in the Parthenon"]. In NEILS, Jennifer. ''The Parthenon.'' Cambridge University Press, 2005. pp. 261-ss</ref>
 
Other sculptors toworking bearound rememberedPolykleitos' proposal in the period of High Classicism are [[Alcamenes]], [[Kresilas]], and [[Paeonius of Mende|Paeonius]], all working around Polykleitos' proposal. [[Callimachus]], a master greatly appreciated for the refinement of his works, is regarded as the inventor of the [[Corinthian order|Corinthian]] [[Capital (architecture)|capital]], and [[Calamis (5th century BC)|Calamis]], another greatrelevant name, was PhydiasPhidias' assistant, and is credited with the design of the Parthenon [[Metope|metopesmetope]],s. butHowever, his style still carried some influence from the Severe period, of which he was one of the greatest representatives.{{Obsolete source|date=October 2022}}
 
=== Aretê''Arete'' x pathos in artistic mimesis ===
{{See also|Mimesis|Aesthetics}}
The impersonal, balanced, and austere style of Polykleitos and PhydiasPhidias, which typifies High Classicism, did not last for long. In his ''Memorabilia'', [[Xenophon]] left more information about the state of art criticism in the transition to Late Classicism. In the text, which recalls [[Socrates]]' career, it transpiresis shown that at this time there was a debate about the capabilities and limits of [[mimesis]] (imitation). He argues with a certain Kleitos -– an unknown sculptor whowhom some consider to be Polykleitos -– saying that his statues of winning athletes should show not only an ideal of beauty, but also what was happening in the [[Psyche (psychology)|psyche]], the soul. The interpretation of this passage is controversial, but it raises a question about the relationship between appearances and truth, and seems to admitadmits the possibility of art expressing ''[[pathos]]'', individual emotion, and drama, in a direct opposition to the neutrality and restraint of Polykleitos. For an audience used to seeing in celebratory statues, not a tribute to the individual who served as a model, but a portrait of collective heroism, an example to be followed by all citizens and a service rendered to the whole society, this concept wascame quiteas disturbinga shock, weakening the absolute and invariable character of ''arete'', putting it under the sway of whims and momentary emotions, and degrading the hero to the level of fickle creatures like [[Centaur|centaurs]] and [[Satyr|satyrs]], where he risked no longer being considered a hero in any conceivable way.<ref>STEWART, p. 254</ref><ref>STEINER, pp. 34-3534–35; 42</ref> ButRegarding the discussion went further. Asking Kleiton how he managed to reproduce an appearance of life in his statues summed up the whole problem of the imitative representation of nature in art., Stephen Halliwell says:<blockquote>evenEven within the confines of the conversations reported by Xenophon in the ''Memorabilia'', we can discern a tension -– a tension that would become central to the entire legacy of mimesis -– between divergent views on representational art being, on the one hand, a fictional illusion, the product of a 'deceptive' artifact, and, on the other, a reflection of and an engagement with reality.<ref>HALLIWELL, Stephen. [httphttps://books.google.escom/books?hl=pt-BR&lr=&id=VuWClgDvXB8C&oi=fnd&pg=PA99&dq=xenophon+memorabilia+sculpture&otspg=-cCCeNEQ3V&sig=0eMntMJ3QnAXEaCAwMzVtDnUBNk#PPA102,M1PA102 "Plato and Painting"]. In RUTTER, N. Keith & SPARKES, Brian. ''Word and image in ancient Greece''. Edinburgh University Press, 2000. pp. 101-102101–102</ref></blockquote>This problematicparadox announced the end of the primacy of the ideal,. and theThe individual sphere of interest became increasingly important, which would be the keynoteessence of the art of the 4th century B.C., when [[Plato]] and [[Aristotle]] would extraordinarily deepen what Socrates had outlined, laying the foundations for the development of an entirely new philosophical branch: [[Aesthetics]].<ref>TANNER, p. 183</ref>
 
<gallery class="center">
File:SFECDiscobolus in BritMusNational Roman 021-2Museum Palazzo Massimo alle Terme.jpgJPG|[[Myron]]: ''[[Discobolus]]'', TownleyRoman copy, British[[National Roman Museum]]
File:Venus0 Vénus Génitrix -kallimah pushkinMa 525 - Louvre 2.jpgJPG|[[Callimachus]]: Venus, modernRoman copy., Pushkin Museum[[Louvre]].
File:Dionysos pediment Parthenon BM.jpg|Phidias Workshop: Dionysus, original. Formerly on the pediment of the Parthenon, now in the British Museum.
File:Athena Varvakeion - MANA - Fidias.jpg|[[Varvakeion Athena]], reduced copy of PhydiasPhidias' Athena Partheno, originally in the Parthenon. National Archaeological Museum of Athens.
</gallery>
<gallery class="center">
Line 88 ⟶ 94:
File:Diomedes Glyptothek Munich 304 n2.jpg|Attributed to [[Kresilas]]: ''[[Diomedes]]'', Roman copy. Munich Glyptotheque.
File:Reconstruction Nereid Monument BM.jpg|Monument to the [[Nereids]], original. British Museum.
File:Ares Argentina Montemartini.jpg|Attributed to [[Alcamenes]]: ''[[Ares Borghese|]]''Ares Borghese'']] type head, Roman copy. [[Capitoline Museums]]
</gallery>
 
== Low Classicism ==
[[File:Bronze statue of Artemis (2). 4th cent. B.C.jpg|thumb|[[Piraeus Artemis|Bronze statue of Artemis]], Greek original. [[Archaeological Museum of Piraeus]]]]
[[File:Anderson,_Domenico_(1854-1938)_-_n._23185_-_Socrate_(Collezione_Farnese)_-_Museo_Nazionale_di_Napoli.jpg|thumb|179x179px|Bust of [[Socrates]], Roman copy. [[National Archaeological Museum, Naples|National Archaeological Museum of Naples]]]]
[[File:Paris_villa_Adriana_Louvre_Ma4708.jpg|thumb|313x313px|Attributed to [[Euphranor]]: Paris, Roman copy. [[Louvre]] Museum]]
By the end of the 5th century BCB.C., Athens' hegemony was in decline, weakened by internal unrest and external wars, and soon [[Sparta]], [[Corinth]], and [[Thebes, Greece|Thebes]] were taking thebecame leadprominent. However, at the beginning of the 4th century BCB.C., Athens regained some of its power and prestige, restored its democracy and its wealth grew again. Even so, but politics became more and more complex, developinghaving developed what is called the "state apparatus," and the ''[[polis]]'' lost its communitarian character. At the same time, Greek colonies around the [[Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean]] multiplied, some achieving great development, with diversified and profitable economies that imitated the social model of the metropolitan ''polis''. The decentralization of culture throughout these regions and the rise of a wealthy merchant class, consumers of art but with its own values, opened the way for the appreciation of individual taste and the influence of foreign cultural elements, dissolving the rigidity and austerity of High Classicism.<ref name=":4">[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/530221/Western-sculpture/30347/The-Classical-period#ref=ref401159 "Western Sculpture: Ancient Greek: The Classical period: Late Classical period (c. 400–323 bc)"]. ''Encyclopaedia Britannica online''</ref><ref>MOSSÉ, Claude. [httphttps://books.google.escom/books?hl=pt-BR&lr=&id=Zbo9AAAAIAAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PP12&dq=Pheidias&otspg=HJmN-KoX5h&sig=4p-5Umnaf3WdevmugEayxPo3ZDw#PPA21,M1PA21 ''Athens in Decline, 404-86 B.C.''] Routledge, 1973. pp. 21-2221–22; 25</ref>
 
In sculpture, the concern with verisimilitude became even more pronounced. Innovations in the stone carving technique allowed greater control in the finishing of details, in the representation of robes and dresses, and in the polishing of surfaces in order to obtain subtle effects of light and shadow. The sculptors of the new generation introduced a general relaxation of the Polykleitos' canon, developing a new repertoire of more dynamic attitudes of the body and setting aside the mathematically established proportions to create images convincing to the senses, more similar to real world bodies, with their physical idiosyncrasies and personal affections,. Thus beginningbegan the period called Lower Classicism, or Late Classicism. The statues thus acquire an even more emphatic "presence", also by the new detailed and realistic treatment given to the face, hair and beard. The individualized [[Portrait painting|portrait]] was born, an innovation attributed to [[Lysistratus]], the first, according to [[Pliny the Elder]], to take molds of the model's face. The center of interest was transferred from beautification to likeness, inviting the spectator to meditate on the possible discrepancies between the moral value and the external appearance of people. The realistic portraits of Socrates from this period, whose ugliness was notorious but whose virtue was as well, exemplify the new dimension into which the art of corporal representation is penetrating.<ref>STEINER, pp. 57-58; 62-65</ref>
 
The statues acquire an even more emphatic "presence", also a result of new detailed and realistic treatment given to the face, hair and beard. The individualized [[Portrait painting|portrait]] was born, an innovation attributed to [[Lysistratus]], the first, according to [[Pliny the Elder]], to make molds of the model's face. The goal was transferred from beautification to likeness, inviting the spectator to meditate on the possible discrepancies between the moral value and the external appearance. The realistic portraits of Socrates from this period, whose appearance was notorious as well as his virtue, exemplify the new dimension into which the art of bodily representation began to permeate.<ref>STEINER, pp. 57–58; 62–65</ref>
While the preferences of the expanding market were increasingly opening up to individual taste, Plato's traditionalist and idealistic questionings of the role of mimesis in art, plus his condemnation of the tragic, raised problems for the validation of the artistic product that have not yet been fully resolved,<ref>HALLIWELL, Stephen. [http://books.google.es/books?hl=pt-BR&lr=&id=JkdhZg1qCssC&oi=fnd&pg=PR7&dq=classical+heritage+modern+life+greece+art&ots=2ndpGgSPH2&sig=ycHPOhAUYIPkkP20hrfRUcQWkBQ#PPA37,M1 ''The Aesthetics of Mimesis: Ancient Texts and Modern Problems'']. Princeton University Press, 2000. pp. 37-ss; 72-ss; 98-ss</ref><ref>HALLIWELL, pp. 107-108</ref><ref>TANNER, p. 197</ref> but the theoretical debate in the transition to Lower Classicism was advanced by Aristotle, whose theory of [[catharsis]] contributed to the formulation of a new concept of art liberally avoiding the condemnation of popular culture and its typical emotionalism. He also defended the representation of "nonbeautiful" objects based on the assumption that ugliness in art can indeed be a source of teaching and aesthetic pleasure and overcome the sorrow that its contemplation in real life causes us, but he did not stop advising young people to prefer works by artists he qualified as ethical, those whose creations best exemplified good human character, because their influence would be beneficial to the entire [[Polis|''polis'']]. Such ideas contributed to the fact that sculpture production continued to flourish, meeting new needs, but it should be noted that the closer approach to the natural did not mean a complete abandonment of the ideal. Realism as a dominant trend would only appear in Greek sculpture with its successor, the [[Hellenistic period|Hellenistic school]]. Lysippos still ridiculed sculptors who created works from the natural, and prided himself on modeling men as they "should" be.<ref>BOARDMAN, p. 331</ref><ref>SIFAKIS, Gregory Michael. [http://books.google.es/books?hl=pt-BR&lr=&id=9GfLAlkcFYgC&oi=fnd&pg=PA9&dq=aristotle+catharsis&ots=7PB1p8ZmtS&sig=sg6y2msxslJjtVIO5VTTIYS4PKo#PPA74,M1 ''Aristotle on the Function of Tragic Poetry'']. Crete University Press, 2001. pp. 40-42; 46-48</ref><ref>STEINER, p. 35</ref><ref>ENGGASS, Robert & BROWN, Jonathan. [http://books.google.es/books?hl=pt-BR&lr=&id=JBYnVv2lKY4C&oi=fnd&pg=PA3&dq=michelangelo+%22Lysippos%22&ots=NwlhoCbzOX&sig=lqFN_7j80xVtrFNkuCxfZfPtdCw#PPA10,M1 ''Italian and Spanish Art, 1600-1750: Sources and Documents'']. Northwestern University Press, 1992. p. 10</ref>▼
[[File:Aphrodite_Braschi_Glyptothek_Munich_258.jpg|left|thumb|427x427px|[[Praxiteles]]: Aphrodite ''Braschi'', version of the Aphrodite of Knidos, Roman copy. [[Glyptothek|Munich Glyptothek]]]]▼
In the field of sacred statuary there were new aspects. In the myths all mortals who saw gods in their glory died, became blind, insane, or suffered in other ways, and the culture of the time was able to accept partial and imperfect representations of the gods. Indeed, even shapeless stones, trees, and places could be recognized as receptacles for the divine, and even [[Anthropomorphism|anthropomorphic]] cult statues could remain hidden or semi-hidden by veils, robes, and various adornments, requiring of the devotee an exercise in spiritual contemplation that did not require likeness to take place, although it might be facilitated by an [[Idolatry|idol]] that looked beautiful or majestic, or that more directly evoked the attributes of the god. However, thinkers like Plato considered anthropomorphization of a deity to be unbecoming and misleading, as it not only misrepresented its object but also demeaned it in an attempt to bring it too much into the sphere of the human. To face these difficulties, later sculptors made use of some special resources in order to keep the distance between gods and men clear, rescuing archaic stylistic traits such as frontality, hieratic posture, impassive and supernatural features, which, in contrast to the increasingly naturalistic and expressive style of profane statuary, delimited well the spheres of the sacred and the mundane and forced the devotee to due respect before the idol, to the reminder that the divine remains forever essentially unknowable. It must also be said that when the representation of the deities was not directly linked to the cult, as in monuments and decorative architectural reliefs, there was greater formal freedom, although some of the same conventions were observed and an attempt was made to maintain traits that well identified the divine character of the character.<ref>SIFAKIS, pp. 73-ss</ref><ref>STEINER, pp. 85-93</ref><ref>SPIVEY, Nigel. [http://books.google.es/books?hl=pt-BR&lr=&id=vPoNAAAAQAAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PA442&dq=greek+sculpture+classicism+OR+classical+%22sculpture%22&ots=Ef5N_6MuIh&sig=Q3Jr6Y5AC1T7BvGj-Tp5LXkw0mk#PPA448,M1 "Bionic Statues"]. In POWELL, Anton (ed). ''The Greek World''. Routledge, 1995. pp. 448-450</ref>▼
 
▲While the preferences of the expanding market were increasingly opening up to individual taste, Plato's traditionalist and idealistic questionings of the role of mimesis in art, plus his condemnation of the tragic, raised problems for the validation of the artistic product that have not yet been fully resolved,.<ref>HALLIWELL, Stephen. [httphttps://books.google.escom/books?hl=pt-BR&lr=&id=JkdhZg1qCssC&oi=fnd&pg=PR7&dq=classical+heritage+modern+life+greece+art&otspg=2ndpGgSPH2&sig=ycHPOhAUYIPkkP20hrfRUcQWkBQ#PPA37,M1PA37 ''The Aesthetics of Mimesis: Ancient Texts and Modern Problems'']. Princeton University Press, 2000. pp. 37-ss; 72-ss; 98-ss</ref><ref>HALLIWELL, pp. 107-108107–108</ref><ref>TANNER, p. 197</ref> but theThe theoretical debate in the transition to Lower Classicism was advanced by Aristotle, whose theory of [[catharsis]] contributed to the formulation of a new concept of art liberally avoiding the condemnation of popular culture and its typical emotionalism. He also defended the representation of "nonbeautiful" objects based on the assumption that ugliness in art can indeedcould be a source of teaching and aesthetic pleasure, and overcomeovercoming the sorrow that its contemplation in real life causeswould uscause. Still, but heAristotle did not stop advising young peopleindividuals to prefer works by artists he qualified as ethical, those whose creations best exemplified good human character, because their influence would be beneficial to the entire [[Polis|''polis'']]. Such ideas contributed to the fact that sculpture production continued to flourish, meeting new needs, but it should be noted that the closer approach to the natural did not mean a complete abandonment of the ideal. Realism as a dominant trend would only appear in Greek sculpture with its successor, the [[Hellenistic period|Hellenistic schoolpolis]]. Lysippos still ridiculed sculptors who created works from the natural, and prided himself on modeling men as they "should" be.<ref>BOARDMAN, p. 331</ref><ref>SIFAKIS, Gregory Michael. [http://books.google.es/books?hl=pt-BR&lr=&id=9GfLAlkcFYgC&oi=fnd&pg=PA9&dq=aristotle+catharsis&ots=7PB1p8ZmtS&sig=sg6y2msxslJjtVIO5VTTIYS4PKo#PPA74,M1 ''Aristotle on the Function of Tragic Poetry'']. Crete University Press, 2001. pp. 40-42; 46-48</ref><ref>STEINER, p. 35</ref><ref>ENGGASS, Robert & BROWN, Jonathan. [http://books.google.es/books?hl=pt-BR&lr=&id=JBYnVv2lKY4C&oi=fnd&pg=PA3&dq=michelangelo+%22Lysippos%22&ots=NwlhoCbzOX&sig=lqFN_7j80xVtrFNkuCxfZfPtdCw#PPA10,M1 ''Italian and Spanish Art, 1600-1750: Sources and Documents'']. Northwestern University Press, 1992. p. 10</ref>
The emphasis on naturalism in statues also gave rise to interesting consequences in the affective realm. It was not unusual that in their function as stand-ins for a person or a god, statues were the object of intense love, which could lead to the desire to get emotional and/or sexual gratification from the statues. From [[Pandora]] to [[Pygmalion (mythology)|Pygmalion]], [[Myth|myths]] relate various sensual interactions of statues with humans, and historical records tell that ordinary mortals could also fall into the temptation to seek from the simulacra what they could not obtain from reality. Aristophanes warned against the risk of humans giving in to passions in front of statues or becoming too attached to them, and being condemned to live as the living dead nurturing an ever incomplete love, although he considered that from the inevitable frustration could be born the opportunity for the individual to discover himself.<ref>SPIVEY, pp. 454-445</ref><ref>SPIVEY, pp. 454-445</ref>▼
 
Such ideas contributed to the fact that sculpture production continued to flourish, meeting new needs, but the closer approach to the natural did not mean a complete abandonment of the ideal. Realism as a dominant trend would only appear in Greek sculpture with the succeeding [[Hellenistic period|Hellenistic school]]. Lysippos still criticized sculptors who created works from the natural and prided himself on modeling men as they "should" be.<ref>BOARDMAN, p. 331</ref><ref>SIFAKIS, Gregory Michael. [https://books.google.com/books?id=9GfLAlkcFYgC&dq=aristotle+catharsis&pg=PA74 ''Aristotle on the Function of Tragic Poetry'']. Crete University Press, 2001. pp. 40–42; 46–48</ref><ref>STEINER, p. 35</ref><ref>ENGGASS, Robert & BROWN, Jonathan. [https://books.google.com/books?id=JBYnVv2lKY4C&dq=michelangelo+%22Lysippos%22&pg=PA10 ''Italian and Spanish Art, 1600–1750: Sources and Documents'']. Northwestern University Press, 1992. p. 10</ref>
In the field of sacred statuary, there were also new aspects. In the myths, all mortals who saw gods in their glory died, became blind, insane, or suffered in other ways. The culture of the time was able to accept partial and imperfect representations of the gods. Even shapeless stones, trees, and places could be recognized as receptacles for the divine, and [[Anthropomorphism|anthropomorphic]] cult statues could remain hidden or semi-hidden by veils, robes, and various adornments, requiring the devotee to exercise spiritual contemplation that did not require likeness to take place, although it might be facilitated by an [[Idolatry|idol]] that looked beautiful or majestic, or that more directly evoked the attributes of the god.
 
▲In the field of sacred statuary there were new aspects. In the myths all mortals who saw gods in their glory died, became blind, insane, or suffered in other ways, and the culture of the time was able to accept partial and imperfect representations of the gods. Indeed, even shapeless stones, trees, and places could be recognized as receptacles for the divine, and even [[Anthropomorphism|anthropomorphic]] cult statues could remain hidden or semi-hidden by veils, robes, and various adornments, requiring of the devotee an exercise in spiritual contemplation that did not require likeness to take place, although it might be facilitated by an [[Idolatry|idol]] that looked beautiful or majestic, or that more directly evoked the attributes of the god. However, thinkers like Plato considered the anthropomorphization of a deity to be unbecoming and misleading, as it not only misrepresented its object but also demeaned it in an attempt to bring it too much into the sphere of the human. To face these difficulties, later sculptors made use of some special resources in order to keep the distance between gods and men clear, rescuing archaic stylistic traits such as frontality, hieratic posture, impassive and supernatural features, which, in contrast to the increasingly naturalistic and expressive style of profane statuary, delimited well the spheres of the sacred and the mundane and forced the devotee to due respect before the idol, toas thea reminder that the divine remains forever essentially unknowable. It must also be said that whenWhen the representation of the deities was not directly linked to the cult, as in monuments and decorative architectural reliefs, there was greater formal freedom, although some of the same conventions were observed and an attempt was made to maintain traits that well identified the divine characteraspect of the character.<ref>SIFAKIS, pp. 73-ss</ref><ref>STEINER, pp. 85-9385–93</ref><ref>SPIVEY, Nigel. [httphttps://books.google.escom/books?hl=pt-BR&lr=&id=vPoNAAAAQAAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PA442&dq=greek+sculpture+classicism+OR+classical+%22sculpture%22&otspg=Ef5N_6MuIh&sig=Q3Jr6Y5AC1T7BvGj-Tp5LXkw0mk#PPA448,M1PA448 "Bionic Statues"]. In POWELL, Anton (ed). ''The Greek World''. Routledge, 1995. pp. 448-450448–450</ref>
 
▲[[File:Aphrodite_Braschi_Glyptothek_Munich_258.jpg|left|thumb|427x427px|[[Praxiteles]]: Aphrodite ''Braschi'', version of the Aphrodite of Knidos, Roman copy. [[Glyptothek|Munich Glyptothek]]]]
▲The emphasis on naturalism in statues also gave rise to interesting consequences in the affective realm. It was not unusual that in their function as stand-ins for a person or a god, statues were the object of intense love, which could lead to the desire to get emotional and/or sexual gratification from the statues. From [[Pandora]] to [[Pygmalion (mythology)|Pygmalion]], [[Myth|mythsmyth]]s relate various sensualintimate interactions of statues with humans, and historical records tellshow that ordinary mortals could also fall into the temptation to seek from the ''[[Simulacrum|simulacra what they could not obtain from reality]].'' [[Aristophanes]] warned against the risk of humans giving in to passions in front of statues or becoming too attached to them, and being condemned to live as the living dead nurturing an ever -incomplete love, although he considered that from the inevitable frustration could be born the opportunity for the individual to discover himselfthemselves.<ref>SPIVEY, pp. 454-445</ref><ref>SPIVEY, pp. 454-445454–445</ref>
=== Praxiteles, Scopas and Lysippos ===
{{See also|Praxiteles|Scopas|Lysippos}}
Greek sculpture of the 4th century B.C. was dominated by three great figures: [[Praxiteles]], [[Scopas]] and [[Lysippos]]. Praxiteles is likely to have been the first to fully explore the sensual possibilities of marble. The erotic appeal of his [[Aphrodite of Knidos]] – the first completely nude female statue in Greek art – made her famous in her day and gave rise to the prolific typological family of the Venus Pudica. His [[Hermes and the Infant Dionysus]] illustrates his mastery in depicting the facial expression and grace of flexible, sinuous bodies.
[[File:Ares_Ludovisi_Altemps_b_Inv.jpg|thumb|233x233px|Attributed to [[Scopas]]'': [[Ludovisi Ares]]'', Roman copy. National Roman Museum]]
 
Greek sculpture of the 4th century B.C. was dominated by three great figures: [[Praxiteles]], [[Scopas]] and [[Lysippos]]. Praxiteles seems to have been the first to fully explore the sensual possibilities of marble. The erotic appeal of his [[Aphrodite of Knidos]] - the first completely nude female statue in Greek art - made her famous in her day and gave rise to the prolific typological family of the Venus Pudica, and his [[Hermes and the Infant Dionysus|Hermes and the infant Dionysus]] illustrates his mastery in depicting the facial expression and grace of flexible, sinuous bodies. Scopas became known for the sense of drama, violence, dynamism, and passion with which he imbued his works, especially those he left in the [[Mausoleum at Halicarnassus|Mausoleum of Halicarnassus]], the most important Greek architectural achievement in this period, although in others he showed his ability to portray tranquility and harmony. Lysippos reformulated the Polykleitos canon by reducing the dimensions of the head and making the figure more elongated, though more massive. He is also credited with the first statue whose finish was carried out equally in all directions, the Apoxiomenon, enabling the viewer to appreciate it not only from a single, privileged point of view, as was still the use of Polykleitos. These masters, along with other notable figures of their generation such as [[Leochares]], [[Bryaxis]], [[Cephisodotus the Elder]], [[Euphranor]], and [[Timotheus (sculptor)|Timotheus]], resolved all outstanding basic difficulties regarding form and technique that might still hinder the free expression of the idea in matter. Thus they contributed great achievements in the process of exploring human [[anatomy]], the representation of clothing, and solving problems of composition, and they are the link in the passage from the classical to the Hellenistic tradition, as well as bringing the technique of stone carving and bronze modeling to an unprecedented level of quality. The following generations would have little to add to the essence of classical art, but would deepen their research into the portrayal of the emotional and the prosaic, and would bring marble sculpture to a level of true technical virtuosity.<ref name=":4" /><ref>JANSON, Horst Woldemar. [http://books.google.es/books?hl=pt-BR&lr=&id=MMYHuvhWBH4C&oi=fnd&pg=PT13&dq=greek+sculpture+classicism+OR+classical+%22sculpture%22&ots=q7zTYakiYQ&sig=6NkeskrMFEPZ-Snu5kJ2AfijjDg#PPT133,M1 ''History of Art'']. Prentice Hall PTR, 2003. pp</ref><ref name=":5">[http://www.visual-arts-cork.com/antiquity/greek-sculpture-late-classical-period.htm "Late Classical Era Sculpture (c.400-323 BCE)"]. ''Encyclopedia of Irish and World Art''.</ref>▼
Scopas became known for the sense of drama, violence, dynamism, and passion with which he imbued his works, especially those he left in the [[Mausoleum at Halicarnassus|Mausoleum of Halicarnassus]], the most important Greek architectural achievement in this period, although in others he showed his ability to portray tranquility and harmony. Lysippos reformulated the Polykleitos canon by reducing the dimensions of the head and making the figure more elongated, though more massive. He is also credited with the first statue whose finish was carried out equally in all directions, the ''Apoxiomenon'', enabling the viewer to appreciate it not only from a single, privileged point of view, as was still the use of Polykleitos.
 
▲[[File:Hermes_Logios_Altemps_33Ares Ludovisi Altemps Inv8602 n2.jpg|thumb|313x313px233x233px|Attributed to Phidias[[Scopas]]'': Hermes [[Ludovisi Ares]]'', Roman copy. National Roman Museum]]
▲Greek sculpture of the 4th century B.C. was dominated by three great figures: [[Praxiteles]], [[Scopas]] and [[Lysippos]]. Praxiteles seems to have been the first to fully explore the sensual possibilities of marble. The erotic appeal of his [[Aphrodite of Knidos]] - the first completely nude female statue in Greek art - made her famous in her day and gave rise to the prolific typological family of the Venus Pudica, and his [[Hermes and the Infant Dionysus|Hermes and the infant Dionysus]] illustrates his mastery in depicting the facial expression and grace of flexible, sinuous bodies. Scopas became known for the sense of drama, violence, dynamism, and passion with which he imbued his works, especially those he left in the [[Mausoleum at Halicarnassus|Mausoleum of Halicarnassus]], the most important Greek architectural achievement in this period, although in others he showed his ability to portray tranquility and harmony. Lysippos reformulated the Polykleitos canon by reducing the dimensions of the head and making the figure more elongated, though more massive. He is also credited with the first statue whose finish was carried out equally in all directions, the Apoxiomenon, enabling the viewer to appreciate it not only from a single, privileged point of view, as was still the use of Polykleitos. These masters, along with other notable figures of their generation such as [[Leochares]], [[Bryaxis]], [[Cephisodotus the Elder]], [[Euphranor]], and [[Timotheus (sculptor)|Timotheus]], resolved all outstanding basic difficulties regarding form and technique that might still hinder the free expression of the idea in matter. Thus, they contributed with great achievements in the process of exploring human [[anatomy]], the representation of clothing, and solving problems of composition, and they arebeing the link in the passage from the classical to the Hellenistic tradition, as well as bringing the technique of stone carving and bronze modeling to an unprecedented level of quality. The following generations would have little to add to the essence of classical art, but would deepen their research into the portrayal of the emotional and the prosaic, and would bringbringing marble sculpture to a level of true technical virtuosity.<ref name=":4" /><ref>JANSON, Horst Woldemar. [httphttps://books.google.escom/books?hl=pt-BR&lr=&id=MMYHuvhWBH4C&oi=fnd&pg=PT13&dq=greek+sculpture+classicism+OR+classical+%22sculpture%22&otspg=q7zTYakiYQ&sig=6NkeskrMFEPZ-Snu5kJ2AfijjDg#PPT133,M1PT133 ''History of Art'']. Prentice Hall PTR, 2003. pp</ref><ref name=":5">[http://www.visual-arts-cork.com/antiquity/greek-sculpture-late-classical-period.htm "Late Classical Era Sculpture (c.400-323400–323 BCE)"]. ''Encyclopedia of Irish and World Art''.</ref>
 
The study of the functions and meanings of classical sculpture is still progressing. The reciprocal interactions and influences at various levels that categories, uses, and attributions mustmight have established are not fully known, and much remains to be elucidated about how representation influenced the construction of concepts and practices regarding [[gender]], [[Social status|status]], [[Social exclusion|social inclusion]], affect, [[Human sexuality|sexuality]], [[aesthetics]], [[ideology]], [[politics]], [[religion]], [[ethics]], and the historical evolution of Greek society. WhatPart hasof alreadysuch become evidentdifficulty is thedue complexity of this role, andto the need not to overgeneralize from isolated examples, rememberingfact that our knowledge of Greek sculpture is partial also because many works are only known through literary references or through, later copies, or are in an incomplete and damaged state, or because their dating and attribution of authorship are often uncertain and the biographies of their creators remain full ofhave importantmultiple gaps and inconsistencies.<ref>KAMPEN, Natalie Boymel. [httphttps://books.google.escom/books?hl=pt-BR&lr=&id=J_IvrsXEvPoC&oi=fnd&pg=PR7&dq=greek+sculpture+classicism+OR+classical+%22sculpture%22&otspg=TecBTK9YLV&sig=yVtF9YiDBVYFb76DZOYiQtkiHkI#PPA267,M1PA267 "Epilogue: Gender and Desire"]. In KOLOSKI-OSTROW, Ann Olga & LYONS, Claire L. (eds). ''Naked Truths''. Routledge, 1997. pp. 267-269267–269</ref><gallery class="center">
File:Eirene Ploutos Glyptothek Munich 219 n3.jpg|[[Cephisodotus the Elder]]: Eirene bearing Plutus, Roman copy. Munich's [[Glyptothek]].
File:Apoxyomenos01Apoxeomenos pushkin(Vatican bbMuseums) September 2015-1.jpg|[[Lysippos]]: Apoxiomenon, modernRoman copy. [[PushkinVatican MuseumMuseums]]
File:Amazonomachy Halicarnassus BM n3.jpg|Amazonomachy, frieze of the Mausoleum of [[Halicarnassus]], original
File:Dionisiob2.jpg|Unknown author: Dionysius Sardanapalo, Roman copy. National Roman Museum
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<gallery class="center">
File:0027MAN Paris or Perseus2.jpg|[[Antikythera Ephebe]], original. National Archaeological Museum of Athens
File:0003MAN-Afrodite.jpg|Attributed to [[Praxiteles]]: [[Aphrodite of the Syracuse]], Roman copy. [[National Archaeological Museum of Athens]]
File:Leda swan Musei Capitolini MC302.jpg|Timothy: Leda and the Swan, Roman copy. [[Capitoline Museums]]
File:Cupido4b.jpg|[[Lysippos]]: Eros stringing his bow, Roman copy. Capitoline Museums
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== Other uses and techniques ==
About large sculpture, architectural reliefs, and autonomous statuary, their characteristics and functions have already been sufficiently covered in the previous paragraphs. In the purely technical field, there were no radical advances in what the sculptors of the [[Archaic Greece|Archaic]] and [[Severe style|Severe]] period had already achieved. The Archaic marbles already showed a very high mastery of stone, visible especially in their architectural reliefs. In the case of bronzesbronze, the main innovation in their history for Greek sculpture was the development of the [[Lost-wax casting|lost wax]] technique, but its principles were already masterfully handled in the Severe period, with a diversified application. ThusTherefore, Classicism benefited from the fact that the main sculptural techniques had already been refined enough that the main interest shifted to the aspects of form and meaning, although certainlyalways in all techniques there werewith some advances in refinement.<ref name=":6">[http://www.visual-arts-cork.com/antiquity/greek-sculpture.htm "Ancient Greek Sculpture"]. ''Encyclopedia of Irish and World Art''.</ref> But a few additional words on specific topics will be helpful in forming a more complete idea of the various uses and characteristics of sculpture during Classicism.
 
=== EsculturaFuneral fúnebresculpture ===
[[File:Funerary_stele_of_Thraseas_and_Euandria_Antikensammlung_Berlin_01.jpg|thumb|212x212px|Unknown author: Funerary stele of Thrasea and Euandria, original. [[Pergamon Museum]] ]]
Among the uses of sculpture, was the composition of funeral monuments, where in general terms it shared the characteristics of decorative sculpture in temples and public buildings. The tradition of building monuments to the dead existed since the Archaic period, when the ''[[kouros]]'' fulfilled this function. With the advent of democracy in the early 5th century B.C., customs began to change and funerary ''[[Stele|stelae]]'' -– relief plaques with inscriptions -– appeared.

After an irregular evolutiondevelopment, where for still obscure reasonsas they disappeared in some intervalsperiods, in the Classic period they began to becomebecame a common practice in [[Attica]], while in other regions they would only become popular in Hellenism. One of the first important ''stelae'' of Classicism seems to beis the ''Stela of Eufero'', dated c. 430 BCEB.C., and its style showsshowing a connection with the decorative sculpture of the Parthenon that was being created at the same time. It has been a traditional thought that such monuments were the preserveendowment of the wealthy, but recent studies have indicated that their cost would have been much less than once thought, and thatwhich evenmeans the lower classes could commission somea votive plaque, although there arewere evidentlyclear differences in wealthluxury and sophistication between the burials of the common people and those of the great families. The museums of classical [[Archaeology|archeology]] exhibit a great number of specimens. Especially interestingHighlights are those of Late Classicism, which show portraits of the deceased together with family members in scenes sometimes of great sensitivity and poetry.<ref>OLIVER, Graham John. [httphttps://books.google.escom/books?hl=pt-BR&lr=&id=RYDDDvSsa58C&oi=fnd&pg=PA25&dq=greek+classical+%22funerary+reliefs%22&otspg=U9QyywP9NF&sig=cPg4WKY370UVxoHFBsl7okjdbB0#PPA59,M1PA59 "Athenian Funerary Monumentos: Style, Grandeur and Cost"]. In OLIVER, Graham John (ed). ''The Epigraphy of Death: Studies in the History and Society of Greece and Rome''. Liverpool University Press, 2000. pp. 59-7959–79</ref><ref>STEARS, Karen. [httphttps://books.google.escom/books?hl=pt-BR&lr=&id=RYDDDvSsa58C&oi=fnd&pg=PA25&dq=greek+classical+%22funerary+reliefs%22&otspg=U9QyywP9NF&sig=cPg4WKY370UVxoHFBsl7okjdbB0#PPA59,M1PA59 "The Times They Are A'Changing: Developments in Fifth-Century Funerary Sculpture"]. In OLIVER, Graham John (ed). ''The Epigraphy of Death: Studies in the History and Society of Greece and Rome''. Liverpool University Press, 2000. pp. 25-5825–58</ref>
 
=== Terracottas ===
{{Main|Greek terracotta figurines}}
[[Terracotta]] was a technique mastered since time immemorial, but its application was more in pots, with sculptural uses limited to decorative objects and small statuettes for popular consumption, figuring actors, animals and types of the people, very common but generally without great technical refinement and that repeated crudely the formal principles of large sculpture. Larger and more refined pieces were rare, and would have to wait for the flourishing Hellenistic schools from the late 4th century B.C. onward, but a very rich specimen in the [[Louvre|Louvre Museum]] today from Attica is worth mentioning, suggesting advanced practices in this field already during Classicism. Elements of terracotta in architectural decoration had great use in earlier and later periods, but in Classicism it was surprisingly rare. One genre that deserves a note here is that of terracotta statuettes with articulated limbs. This group seems to have performed specific functions. They have been found in many tombs, suggesting an association with [[Chthonic|Cthonic]] deities. It is also speculated that they served as statues for domestic worship, as offerings to the gods, and as magical protection against evil forces. Many of them have holes in the back of their heads, indicating that they could be worn suspended, which allowed free movement of their limbs. It has been thought that they were children's dolls, but their fragility, preventing repeated handling, does not seem to support this assumption. As for votive statues, a great interpenetration of styles is observed, especially in Late Classicism, when clearly archaic traits continue to appear in quantity, side by side with more progressive stylistic elements, following the conventions of monumental cult statuary.<ref>ROBERTSON, Donald Struan. [http://books.google.es/books?hl=pt-BR&lr=&id=l3Ln6KMGio0C&oi=fnd&pg=PR3&dq=greek+terracotta&ots=Ihsl8ow1c4&sig=kVd6ThWWrC4eqWucj68kcbA-pXU#PPA195,M1 ''Greek and Roman architecture'']. Cambridge University Press, 1969. p. 195</ref><ref>MURATOV, Maya B. [http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/gtal/hd_gtal.htm "Greek Terracotta Figurines with Articulated Limbs"]. In: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. ''Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History'', 2000.</ref><ref>MERKER, Gloria. [http://books.google.es/books?hl=pt-BR&lr=&id=3oHHC9mrkFMC&oi=fnd&pg=PA3&dq=greek+terracotta&ots=cGKuM5fJSH&sig=eL0-6LjRiW8aSfj7-V88o0yyOm4#PPA23,M1 ''Corinth: The Sanctuary of Demeter and Kore: Terracotta Figurines of the Classical, Hellenistic, and Roman Periods'']. The American School of Classical Studies at Athens, 2000. p. 23</ref><ref>BARTMAN, Elizabeth. [http://books.google.es/books?hl=pt-BR&lr=&id=wIkv01rT4cUC&oi=fnd&pg=PA1&dq=greek+classical+%22coroplastics%22&ots=uUeq9Gb6Ra&sig=gaX8M-0vIMEup3ltsQQxBS9FeRQ#PPA16,M1 ''Ancient Sculptural Copies in Miniature'']. BRILL, 1992. p. 20</ref>▼
Making [[terracotta]] objects is an ancient technique; however, its application has been more common in [[Pottery of ancient Greece|pottery]], with sculptural uses limited to decorative objects and small statuettes for popular usage, figuring actors, animals, and types of people. These had generally no great technical refinement and repeated crudely the formal principles of large sculpture. Larger and more refined pieces were rare, and would appear more often with the Hellenistic schools from the late 4th century B.C. onward. A rich artwork from Attica in the [[Louvre|Louvre Museum]] is worth mentioning, suggesting advanced practices in this field already during Classicism.
 
▲[[Terracotta]] was a technique mastered since time immemorial, but its application was more in pots, with sculptural uses limited to decorative objects and small statuettes for popular consumption, figuring actors, animals and types of the people, very common but generally without great technical refinement and that repeated crudely the formal principles of large sculpture. Larger and more refined pieces were rare, and would have to wait for the flourishing Hellenistic schools from the late 4th century B.C. onward, but a very rich specimen in the [[Louvre|Louvre Museum]] today from Attica is worth mentioning, suggesting advanced practices in this field already during Classicism. Elements of terracotta in architectural decoration had great use in earlier and later periods, but in Classicism itrarely was surprisingly rareoccurred. One genretype thatof deservesterracotta athat notestands hereout is that of terracottathe statuettes with articulated limbs. This group seemshas to havelikely performed specific functions. They have been found in many tombs, suggesting an association with [[Chthonic|Cthonic]] deities. It is also speculated that they served as statues for domestic worship, as offerings to the gods, and as magical protection against evil forces. Many of them have holes in the back of their heads, indicating that they could be worn suspended, which allowed free movement of their limbs. It has been thought that they were children's dolls, but their fragility, preventing repeated handling, does not seem to support this assumption. As for votive statues, a great interpenetrationsyncretism of styles is observed, especially in Late Classicism, when clearly archaic traits continue to appear in quantity, side by side with more progressive stylistic elements, following the conventions of monumental cult statuary.<ref>ROBERTSON, Donald Struan. [httphttps://books.google.escom/books?hl=pt-BR&lr=&id=l3Ln6KMGio0C&oi=fnd&pg=PR3&dq=greek+terracotta&otspg=Ihsl8ow1c4&sig=kVd6ThWWrC4eqWucj68kcbA-pXU#PPA195,M1PA195 ''Greek and Roman architecture'']. Cambridge University Press, 1969. p. 195</ref><ref>MURATOV, Maya B. [http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/gtal/hd_gtal.htm "Greek Terracotta Figurines with Articulated Limbs"]. In: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. ''Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History'', 2000.</ref><ref>MERKER, Gloria. [httphttps://books.google.escom/books?hl=pt-BR&lr=&id=3oHHC9mrkFMC&oi=fnd&pg=PA3&dq=greek+terracotta&otspg=cGKuM5fJSH&sig=eL0-6LjRiW8aSfj7-V88o0yyOm4#PPA23,M1PA23 ''Corinth: The Sanctuary of Demeter and Kore: Terracotta Figurines of the Classical, Hellenistic, and Roman Periods'']. The American School of Classical Studies at Athens, 2000. p. 23</ref><ref>BARTMAN, Elizabeth. [httphttps://books.google.escom/books?hl=pt-BR&lr=&id=wIkv01rT4cUC&oi=fnd&pg=PA1&dq=greek+classical+%22coroplastics%22&otspg=uUeq9Gb6Ra&sig=gaX8M-0vIMEup3ltsQQxBS9FeRQ#PPA16,M1PA16 ''Ancient Sculptural Copies in Miniature'']. BRILL, 1992. p. 20</ref>
<gallery class="center">
File:Terracotta goddess 4th century BC Staatliche Antikensammlungen 01.jpg|Terracotta statuette with articulated limbs, original''. [[Staatliche Antikensammlungen]]''
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</gallery>
 
=== GoldsmithingGoldsmithery ===
In addition, one can speak of [[Goldsmithgoldsmith|goldsmithingGoldsmithery]] was present as a technique of miniaturized sculpture, where there was significant production mainly in the colonies of [[Magna Graecia|Magna Grecia]], [[Cyprus]], and the southern [[Black Sea]], with finds in mainland Greece being rare. Most of the jewelry of this phase is related to religious contexts, decorating cult statues or, being votive offerings, or celebratory, as in the case of the gold crowns used in the [[apotheosis]] of politicians,. but theThe use of personal jewelry was not uncommon. Their quality, while high, is shown to be lower than the jewelry of the Archaic period. The motifs represented are in general abstract, animal, and vegetal, and the popularization of human forms happens at the end of the Classical period, along with the appearance of the first [[Cameo (carving)|cameos]].<ref>HIGGINS, Reynold Alleyne. [httphttps://books.google.escom/books?hl=pt-BR&lr=&id=-EMOAAAAQAAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PR11&dq=greek+terracotta&otspg=R6zCEjaQ_W&sig=tPHbQMuqiTYrOnW8lC2YGcm_Dpc#PPA121,M1PA121 ''Greek and Roman jewellery'']. Taylor & Francis, 1961. pp. 122-134122–134</ref>
 
=== Copies and Color ===
{{See also|Gods in Color}}
[[File:NAMABG_MA599_Cuirassed_torso_3.JPG|thumb|176x176px|Classic torso copy with attempted reconstitution of the original polychrome. ''[[Gods in Color|Bunte Götter]]'' Exhibition]]
In closing, whenever we talk about ancient Greek statuary it is necessary to alert the reader that what we see in museums today are disfigured relics. First, because much of the reference statuary, the monumental model works, are either reduced to pieces or are only known through Roman copies. In many of them the technical quality of the finish leaves something to be desired, and we do not know exactly how faithful they were to the form of their models, although we assume that in general terms we have reliable testimonies. But more important than this for its final effect and the reading of the work is its currently colorless surface. The common practice of the ancient Greeks was to cover their statues and architectural reliefs with paint, either partially or in its entirety, seeking an even more striking resemblance than their simple form and structure could achieve. For centuries, it was thought that their works appeared to them as they do to us todaynowadays, but thein truth is thatreality, they were richly colored, causing an effect that today, due to lack of custom and knowledge, we would judge strange, to say the least. However, studiesStudies suggest that in Classicism the use of color in sculpture was more discreet than in earlier periods. Recently researchers have tried to reconstruct the polychromy of statues in specially made copies, causing fascination and theirsurprise resultsas arethe fascinatingusage andof surprisingcolor differs from the one common today.<ref>Department of Greek and Roman Art. [http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/rogr/hd_rogr.htm "Roman Copies of Greek Statues"]. In: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. ''Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History'', 2000.</ref><ref>McQUAID, Cate. [http://www.boston.com/ae/theater_arts/articles/2008/01/06/sculpture_show_of_a_different_color/ "Sculpture show of a different color"]. ''The Boston Globe'', 06/01/6 January 2008.</ref><ref>BENSON, J. L. [http://scholarworks.umass.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1000&context=art_jbgc ''Greek Color Theory and the Four Elements'']. University of Massachusetts Amherst, 2000</ref><ref name=":6" />
[[File:Bronze_statuette_Diadoumenos_CdM_ParisDiadumenos Janzé Musée BnF Bronze927.jpg|thumb|257x257px|Reduced bronze copy of the DiadomenonDiadumenos by [[Polykleitos]]. LouvreBnF Museum]]
On the other hand, ofOf great value for reconstructing the landscape of Greek sculpture are the miniature copies, which were extremely popular and replicated in smaller pointscale virtually every formal model and every important work of monumental statuary, a practice that was not limited to the Classical period. InterestinglyStill, some very successful subjects that were copied several times in their original size are not found in miniatures, as is the case of PolikleitosPolykleitos' Doryphoros. PerhapsIt is likely that the absence of finds is simpledue coincidence,to butthe it may befact that works such as these were so loaded with meaningsuch strong significance, that their reduction would have seemed inappropriate.

The materials used for miniaturization were bronze, marble, ivory, and eventually other stones. Terracotta, despite its versatility, does not seem to have been considered a worthy material for the reproduction of celebrated works, at least not during Classicism.<ref>BARTMAN, pp. 16-ss</ref>
 
== Legacy and Perspectives ==
To say that classicalClassical art has exerted a vast influence throughout the history of the [[Western world|West]] is already commonplace, thisas knowledgeshown isby given generally in schools and is also athe consensus among specialists,. and theThe sculptural legacy of the classics continues to interest multitudes even today. Thus their importance is beyond doubt, and theirThe very name -– "classic" -– indicates the unparalleled prestige they have acquired, for in current parlance "classic" is that which establishes a measure by which other things of that kind are judged.<ref>WHITLEY, p. 269</ref>
 
Classical sculpture was in its origin one of the levers for the birth of Aesthetics as an autonomous branch of Philosophy. Throughout history, its formal models were used for the most varied purposes, some of high humanistic inspiration, but sometimes in opposition to that, celebrating totalitarian regimes and personalisms of various kinds, as it happened during [[Nazism]] and [[Fascism]].

In modern appreciation, the ideology underlying the sculpture of Greek Classicism does not remain free of criticism, claimingbeing said to glorify a way of life and a people to the detriment of the others, and the collective to the detriment of the individual, suppressing the questioning of the instituted order under an artificialthe cloakappearance of homogeneity and consensus. The execution of [[Socrates]], accused of impiety and corruption of youth, by the same society that cultivated Classicism, alertsshows us to thehow perversion and misinterpretation thatcan happen with the positive purposes of improvement and education of the collectivity for a fuller citizenship, a purer and more harmonious life, and a more advanced ethics, (principles that classical sculpture illustrated so well, and that even today are among the most basic objectives of any system of education that deserves respect). On the other hand, the criticism points to facets of a complex and contradictory social reality that were deliberately swept away from view in the art of that period.<ref>BOLGAR, R. R. [httphttps://books.google.escom/books?hl=pt-BR&lr=&id=5HtUx2D1VYgC&oi=fnd&pg=PR7&dq=classicism+beyond+athens&otspg=UmdwDpIdzI&sig=etpC58CS87T9gNbtsiV3s6HfcSE#PPA1,M1PA1 ''The classical heritage and its beneficiaries'']. Cambridge University Press, 1973. pp. 1-ss</ref><ref name=":7">HERSEY</ref><ref name=":8">[http://www.visual-arts-cork.com/antiquity/greek-sculpture.htm "Greek Sculpture"]. ''Encyclopedia of Irish and World Art''</ref><ref>TANNER, p. 10</ref><ref>OSBORNE, Robin. [httphttps://books.google.escom/books?id=Mg82t2heqZcC&printsec=frontcover&dqq=The+Oxford+History+of+Classical+Art&lr=&hl=pt-BR&source=gbs_summary_s&cad=0#PRA1-PA240,M1 ''Archaic and Classical Greek Art'']. Oxford University Press, p. 240</ref><ref>THOMAS, pp. 1-51–5; 187-ss</ref><ref>LIVINGSTONE, R. W. [httphttps://books.google.escom/books?hl=pt-BR&lr=&id=v6UMMXl29N4C&oi=fnd&pg=PR11&dq=classical+greek+sculpture++%22legacy+%22&otspg=BwzVjYktyd&sig=J2a1DvfElIMozZ1w9MJdIiYBqGo#PPA353,M1PA353 ''The Legacy of Greece'']. Kessinger Publishing, 2005.</ref><ref>GREEN, Peter. [httphttps://books.google.escom/books?hl=pt-BR&lr=&id=uXuUPPhxZIIC&oi=fnd&pg=PA7&dq=classical+heritage+modern+life+greece+art&otspg=mxSBGjZSVl&sig=DGS8FhJJY8Ki6HeZ9KnT_dsC5-4#PPA16,M1PA16 ''Classical Bearings: Interpreting Ancient History and Culture'']. University of California Press, 1998. pp. 17-1817–18</ref><ref name=":5" />
[[File:Ménade_relieve_romano_(Museo_del_Prado)_03.jpg|left|thumb|Chalimachus: Memade, Roman copy. [[Museo del Prado|Prado Museum]]]]
Classicism began its spread around the world through the Greek colonies scattered all around the [[Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean]] and the [[Black Sea]]. [[Alexander the Great]] took it further, reaching [[India]]. In these regions, the principles of Greek sculpture were presented to the local populations and, blending with their traditions, gave rise to stylistic interpretations that more or less successfully reproduced the metropolitan aesthetic. This eclectic and cosmopolitan synthesis was called [[Hellenistic period|Hellenism]].<ref>TSETSKHLADZE, Gocha R. [httphttps://books.google.escom/books?hl=pt-BR&lr=&id=ctsUcNshh68C&oi=fnd&pg=PA361&dq=Xanthos++%22Nereid+Monument+%22&otspg=fixzZnx9FO&sig=9Uv3T-9AR48ESeGn0d5Z-DkUe0s#PPR7,M1PR7 "Introduction"]. In TSETSKHLADZE, Gocha R. (ed). ''Ancient Greeks West and East''. BRILL, 1999. pp. vii-ss</ref> [[Ancient Rome]], in turn, was another avid recipient of classical Greek culture. Its sculptors took pride in working under Greek inspiration, and by multiplying copies of Greek originals that were later lost, they were the transmitters to posterity of a significant part of the culture they imitated.<ref>JENKYNS, Richard. [httphttps://books.google.escom/books?hl=pt-BR&lr=&id=Njtr3o9_v7MC&oi=fnd&pg=PA1&dq=%22roman+statuary%22&otspg=BlmO0xDcOb&sig=68k47f5nzKjTyHVpEvtfh0--KeQ#PPA295,M1PA295 "The Legacy of Rome"]. In JENKYNS, Richard (ed.). ''The Legacy of Rome''. Oxford University Press, 1992. pp. 1-51–5</ref>

From the legacy transmitted by the Romans, early [[Christianity]] drew the models for starting its own art, but after the sixth century its policy changed. Until this time, immense amounts of sculpture stillhad survived in temples and ancient monuments, but from then on, their ubiquitous nudity began to be feltseen as an offense to Christian morality, as well as being condemned as diabolical [[Cultcult image|cult images]]s and bad reminders of [[paganism]]. Losing their former value, ancient works began to be destroyed en masse. On the other hand, during the [[Renaissance]], classical culture fell back into the elites' favor and was the fulcrumcore of a recovery of the dignity of the body and of purely aesthetic pleasure. Christianity itself, after proscribing for centuries the pagan sculptural heritage, recovered it, transforming and adapting it to serve it and praise the heroes of the new order: the saints and martyrs of the faith. The Renaissance conception of art largely reproduces the idea formulated by the classical philosophers.<ref name=":8" /><ref name=":7" /> The prestige that classical statuary knew in this period reached the borders of passion, as can be seen in this excerpt by [[Giovanni Pietro Bellori]]:
[[File:Belvedere_Apollo_Pio-Clementino_Inv1015.jpg|left|thumb|[[Leochares]]: Apolo[[Apollo Belvedere]], Roman copy. [[Vatican Museums]]]]
<blockquote>Painters and sculptors, choosing from among the most elegant beauties of the natural world, perfect the Ideaidea, and their works surpass and stand above Nature -– which is the ultimate scope of these arts. [...] This is the origin of the veneration and awe we have for statues and paintings, and from this derives the reward and honor of Artists; this was the glory of Timantes, Apeles, PhydiasPhidias and Lysippus, and of so many others renowned for their fame, all who, rising above human forms, achieved with their Ideasideas and works an admirable perfection. This Idea may then be called the perfection of Nature, the miracle of art, the clairvoyance of the intellect, the example of the mind, the light of imagination, the rising sun, which from the east inspires the statue of Menon, and inflames the monument of Prometheus.<ref>ENGASS & BROWN, p. 15</ref></blockquote>For the [[Romanticism|Romantics]], especially in [[Germany]], Greece continued to be seen as a model of life and culture. Nietzsche exclaimed, "Oh, the Greeks! They knew how to live!". Other scholars, in the same veinlikewise, despising the Roman filter, began to cultivate the ideals of Greek Classicism to such an extent that a veritable Grecomania was created, influencing all humanities and artistic forms.<ref>BEHLER, Ernst. [httphttps://books.google.escom/books?id=JIdcStQg4g0C&printsec=copyright&dqq=classical+greek+sculpture++%22legacy+%22&lr=&hl=pt-BR#PPA118,M1 "The Force of Classical Greece in the Formation of Romantic Age in Germany"]. In THOMAS, Carol G. (ed). ''Paths from Ancient Greece''. Brill, 1988, p. 118- ss</ref><ref name=":9">Squire, Michael. "The Legacy of Greek Sculpture". In: Palagia, Olga (ed.). ''Handbook of Greek Sculpture''. Walter de Gruyter, 2019, pp. 657-689657–689</ref> In [[Neoclassicism]], classical [[humanism]] was a significant impulse for the consolidation of [[Democrat|democratic]] and [[Republicanism|republican]] concepts. InAccording the estimation ofto [[George Winckelmann|Winckelmann]], one of the mentors of the movement, it seemed that only the Greeks had managed to produce Beauty, and for him and his companionscolleagues, the ''[[Apollo Belvedere|]]''Apollo Belvedere'']] was the most perfect achievement of sculpture of all time. Winckelmann is also credited with the distinction between High and Low Classicism, labeling the former as "grand and austere," and the latter as "beautiful and flowing." Meanwhile, Classicism crossed the [[Atlantic Ocean|Atlantic]] and inspired the formation of the North American state and its school of sculpture.<ref>FEJFER, Jane. [httphttps://books.google.escom/books?hl=pt-BR&lr=&id=-up2dc9Q9jkC&oi=fnd&pg=PA37&dq=michelangelo+%22Lysippos%22&otspg=9vV2frH16I&sig=kab9Nh0geI_RWXaM1yR7WBswYdI#PPA229,M1PA229 "Wiedewelt, Winkelmann and Antiquity"]. In FEJFER, Jane; FISCHER-HANSEN, Tobias & RATHJE, Annette. ''The rediscovery of antiquity''. 10 Acta Hyperborea, 2003. University of Copenhagen; Museum Tusculanum Press. p. 230</ref><ref>GONTAR, Cybele. [http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/neoc_1/hd_neoc_1.htm "Neoclassicism"]. In: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. ''Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History'', 2000.</ref><ref>TOLLES, Thayer. [http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/ambl/hd_ambl.htm "American Neoclassical Sculptors Abroad"]. In: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. ''Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History'', 2000.</ref><ref>WHITLEY, p. 270</ref>
 
In the early twentieth century, academic studies multiplied and were refined to unprecedented levels with the development of new methods of archaeological research and the improvement of the theoretical and instrumental apparatus.<ref>WEISBERG, Ruth. [httphttps://books.google.escom/books?hl=pt-BR&lr=&id=mXPl4yUMlVkC&oi=fnd&pg=PR9&dq=sculpture+classical+heritage+OR+legacy+%22greek+art%22&otspg=iHlj1jOmSF&sig=yV7Giqz1aTXEb3ZxM5rt81lxNzo#PPA25,M1PA25 "Twentieth-Century Rhetoric: Enforcing Originality and Distancing the Past"]. In GAZDA, Elaine K. (ed). ''The ancient art of emulation''. University of Michigan Press, 2002. p. 26</ref> At the same time, in a way officializing the intense love for the classics that since the 18th century had been cultivated by German intellectuals, Classicism was co-opted by the [[Nazism|Nazis]], who saw in its formal models the glorified image of the [[Aryan race]]. and,They saw in its values the basis for the formation of a pure society, a healthy race and a strong state, establishing it as a reference standard for state-sponsored art and using it to justify the eradication of races and cultures deemed "degenerate", such as the Jews and [[Modern art|modernist art]].<ref>Sauquet, Mathilde. [https://digitalrepository.trincoll.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=https://www.google.com/&httpsredir=1&article=1050&context=fypapers "Propaganda Art in Nazi Germany: The Revival of Classicism"]. In: ''The First-Year Papers (2010 -– present)''. Trinity College Digital Repository, Hartford, 2014</ref><ref>Redner, ↵Harry. "Dialectics of Classicism: The birth of Nazism from the spirit of Classicism". In: ''Thesis Eleven'', 2019; 152 (1):19-3719–37</ref> [[Benito Mussolini|Mussolini]] tried to propose a similar model for [[Fascist Italy (1922–1943)|Fascist Italy,]], but it did not have much practical impact.<ref name=":9" />▼
 
The classical educational model began to lose vigor under the impact of the [[Modernism|Modernist]] revolution, and the ability of classical sculpture to inspire new artists rushed into a fulminant decline, although it never disappeared at all. This recovery was greatly encouraged by the [[Postmodernism|post-modernists]], for whom there was no point in destroying tradition, as Modernism had proposed, since this was tantamount to a loss of memory and past, tantamount to the creation of a useless void. Thus, it would be better to appropriate and update it through conscious criticism, appearing in the form of quotations, allegories, re-readings, and paraphrases, which offer a retrospective view and commentary on the old tradition.<ref name=":9" />▼
▲In the early twentieth century, academic studies multiplied and were refined to unprecedented levels with the development of new methods of archaeological research and the improvement of the theoretical and instrumental apparatus.<ref>WEISBERG, Ruth. [http://books.google.es/books?hl=pt-BR&lr=&id=mXPl4yUMlVkC&oi=fnd&pg=PR9&dq=sculpture+classical+heritage+OR+legacy+%22greek+art%22&ots=iHlj1jOmSF&sig=yV7Giqz1aTXEb3ZxM5rt81lxNzo#PPA25,M1 "Twentieth-Century Rhetoric: Enforcing Originality and Distancing the Past"]. In GAZDA, Elaine K. (ed). ''The ancient art of emulation''. University of Michigan Press, 2002. p. 26</ref> At the same time, in a way officializing the intense love for the classics that since the 18th century had been cultivated by German intellectuals, Classicism was co-opted by the [[Nazism|Nazis]], who saw in its formal models the glorified image of the [[Aryan race]] and, in its values the basis for the formation of a pure society, a healthy race and a strong state, establishing it as a reference standard for state-sponsored art and using it to justify the eradication of races and cultures deemed "degenerate", such as the Jews and [[Modern art|modernist art]].<ref>Sauquet, Mathilde. [https://digitalrepository.trincoll.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=https://www.google.com/&httpsredir=1&article=1050&context=fypapers "Propaganda Art in Nazi Germany: The Revival of Classicism"]. In: ''The First-Year Papers (2010 - present)''. Trinity College Digital Repository, Hartford, 2014</ref><ref>Redner, ↵Harry. "Dialectics of Classicism: The birth of Nazism from the spirit of Classicism". In: ''Thesis Eleven'', 2019; 152 (1):19-37</ref> [[Benito Mussolini|Mussolini]] tried to propose a similar model for [[Fascist Italy (1922–1943)|Fascist Italy,]] but it did not have much practical impact.<ref name=":9" />
[[File:Hermes_di_Prassitele,_at_Olimpia,_front_2.jpg|thumb|[[Praxiteles]]: [[Hermes and the Infant Dionysus|Hermes and the infant Dionysus]], possibly original. Archaeological Museum of Olympia]]▼
Today the formal patterns of classical Greek sculpture, its humanism and emphasis on the nude have found a new way to impress society, influencing the conception of beauty and practices regarding the body, resurrecting a cultivation of the physical that was born with the Greeks and influences various customs related to sexuality and the concept of body in [[media culture]].
 
At the same time, a tendency is beginning to strengthen among art critics in the direction of abating the practically unanimous prestige that [[Modernism]] achieved and maintained for almost a century, with its individualistic, hermetic, irrational, abstracting, anti-historical and informal values beginning to be questioned. In this sense, the classical model may have a new attraction for artists and society in a context of updating the ''[[paideia]]'', rescuing a line of work inspired by classical humanism, focused on the common good and the ethical and integral education of the public to which their works are directed, in a historical moment in which the emphasis on technology, along with [[consumerism]], the excessive specialization of trades, wild urban life, ecological problems, the superficiality of mass culture, and the loss of strong moral references, have become threatening aspects for the well-being and the very survival of the human race.
▲The classical educational model began to lose vigor under the impact of the [[Modernism|Modernist]] revolution, and the ability of classical sculpture to inspire new artists rushed into a fulminant decline, although it never disappeared at all. This recovery was greatly encouraged by the [[Postmodernism|post-modernists]], for whom there was no point in destroying tradition, as Modernism had proposed, since this was tantamount to a loss of memory and past, tantamount to the creation of a useless void. Thus, it would be better to appropriate and update it through conscious criticism, appearing in the form of quotations, allegories, re-readings, and paraphrases, which offer a retrospective view and commentary on the old tradition.<ref name=":9" />
▲[[File:Hermes_di_Prassitele,_at_Olimpia,_front_2.jpg|thumb|[[Praxiteles]]: [[Hermes and the Infant Dionysus|Hermes and the infant Dionysus]], possibly original. Archaeological Museum of Olympia]]
Today the formal patterns of classical Greek sculpture, its humanism and its emphasis on the nude have found a new way to impress society, influencing the conception of Beauty and practices regarding the body, resurrecting a cultivation of the physical that was born with the Greeks and influences various customs related to sexuality and the concept of body in [[media culture]]. Recent research shows that people whose bodies approximate the Polyklethus canon are currently preferred choices in the search for partners, even though only a small part of humanity in practice fits this standard. Although obviously the Greeks are not responsible for the evolution of the physical type of the [[Human|human race]], for a cultural and mental being such as man purely biological aspects are not absolute determinants, and it is possible that the classical heritage, ingrained either in the [[collective unconscious]] of Westerners or in their active consciousness, is modernly influencing a "natural" selection toward a body model established by classical sculptors, but the causes why this is happening now are not clear.<ref name=":7" /><ref>PORTER, James. [http://books.google.es/books?hl=pt-BR&lr=&id=qrlh4v1UP1kC&oi=fnd&pg=PA1&dq=classical+greek+sculpture&ots=TGsZL7_SGu&sig=4SSYdTeJ0_iBAwqZXxSNcayed1Q#PPA1,M1 "Introduction"]. In PORTER, James (ed). ''Constructions of the Classical Body''. University of Michigan Press, 1990. pp. 1-2</ref><ref>WYKE, Mary. [http://books.google.es/books?hl=pt-BR&lr=&id=qrlh4v1UP1kC&oi=fnd&pg=PA1&dq=classical+greek+sculpture&ots=TGsZL7_SGu&sig=4SSYdTeJ0_iBAwqZXxSNcayed1Q#PPA355,M1 "Herculean Muscle!: The Classicizing Rhetoric of Bodybuilding"]. In PORTER, James (ed). ''Constructions of the Classical Body''. University of Michigan Press, 1990. pp. 335-336</ref>
 
AtCultural the same time, a tendency is beginning to strengthen among art critics in the direction of abating the practically unanimous prestige that [[Modernism]] achieved and maintained for almost a century, and its individualistic, hermetic, irrational, abstracting, anti-historical and informal values are beginning to be questioned. In this sense, the classical model may have a new attraction for artists and society in a context of updating the [[Paideia|''paideia'']], rescuing a line of work inspired by classical humanism, focused on the common good and the ethical and integral education of the public to which their works are directed, in a historical moment in which the emphasis on [[technology]], along with [[consumerism]], the excessive specialization of trades, wild urban life, [[Ecology|ecological]] problems, the superficiality of mass culture, and the loss of strong moral references, have become threatening aspects for the well-being and the very survival of the human race. In this respect, it is puzzling that classical sculpture is more widely appreciated and studied today than in any other historical period, but is reflected so little in the art produced now. At the same time, cultural [[tourism]] to museums and [[Archaeologicalarchaeological site|archaeological sites]]s has been seen as a positive force for the dissemination of classical culture and art to the general public, although it may suffer from political manipulation and mercantilist degradation, andpossibly givegiving strength to simplistic, pasteurized, and uncritical views of the past.<ref>DUAYER, Juarez. [http://www.unicamp.br/cemarx/anais_v_coloquio_arquivos/arquivos/comunicacoes/gt6/sessao1/Juarez_Duayer.pdf ''Lukács e a atualidade da defesa do realismo na estética marxista'']. UNICAMP, sd.</ref><ref>PIZA, Daniel. [http://www.danielpiza.com.br/interna.asp?texto=2275 "Nós que éramos tão modernos"]. ''O Estado de S. Paulo'', 16/12/ December 2007.</ref><ref>CLAIBORNE, Lise. [httphttps://books.google.escom/books?hl=pt-BR&lr=&id=13cZqRS0ggwC&oi=fnd&pg=RA1-PA428&dq=+%22criticizing+modernism%22&otspg=0TpTRA1-C110L&sig=marQ5yUG68kN42qY0RfesBEPziw#PRA1-PA432,M1PA428 "Beyond Readiness: New Questions about Cultural Understanding and Developmental Appropriateness"]. In KINCHELOE, Joe. ''The Praeger Handbook of Education and Psychology''. Greenwood Publishing Group, 2007. P. 434</ref><ref>BOLGAR, pp. 380-393380–393</ref><ref>GREEN, p. 16</ref><ref>TYMIENIECZKA, Anna-Teresa. [httphttps://books.google.escom/books?hl=pt-BR&lr=&id=-01z4iNV6WkC&oi=fnd&pg=PT6&dq=paideia+and+modern+life&otspg=UdUPMcqWbj&sig=sss9K2wLZO3s9z9e1He14nu4nko#PPA2-IA1,M1PT6 "The Theme: Philosophy/Phenomenology of Life inspiring Education for Our Times"]. In TYMIENIECZKA, Anna-Teresa (ed). ''Paideia''. Springer, 2000. pp. 2-32–3</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Walsh |first=Kevin |url=https://books.google.escom/books?hl=pt-BR&lr=&id=QkjlQwxUXosC&oi=fnd&pg=PP8&dq=classical+heritage+modern+life&otspg=ysJNBucUyH&sig=Rg1S5kfchgKjs43T5rqzvttzp5APP8 |title=The Representation of the Past: Museums and Heritage in the Postmodern World |date=1992 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=9780415079440 |language=en}}</ref><ref>SHANKS, Michael. [httphttps://books.google.escom/books?hl=pt-BR&lr=&id=H6s0-FCIm5YC&oi=fnd&pg=PR9&dq=classical+heritage+modern+life+greece+art&otspg=pUb0I6f_5C&sig=wX2I1q5YQgv_NuSQBUrDXBCCtwg#PPA177,M1PA177 ''Classical Archaeology of Greece'']. Routledge, 1996. pp. 176-ss</ref><ref>LIVINGSTONE, Richard Winn. [httphttps://books.google.escom/books?hl=pt-BR&lr=&id=pfQjFy6K4HAC&oi=fnd&pg=PA1&dq=greek+art+modern+life&otspg=bguqZSA0Et&sig=k8L9Gx6ya3xpr-HXzd3cHTYDltcPA1 ''Greek ideals and modern life'']. Biblo & Tannen Publishers, 1969. p. 1</ref>
 
In any case, the presence of classical sculpture is still striking in Western culture, and with the wide Western penetration throughout the world, it has become known and appreciated globally. Even the objections against its alleged elitism and aesthetic and ideological dogmatism that it has received help to confirm that it is still an active force in the contemporary cultural scene. At least as far as the West is concerned, the appeal that the classical model has held throughout its history and still holds today attests to its persistent ability to stimulate the popular imagination and to be incorporated into a variety of cultural, ethical, social, and political ideologies.<ref name=":7" /><ref>AGARD, Walter Raymond. [httphttps://books.google.escom/books?hl=pt-BR&lr=&id=HdUbSggOeoQC&oi=fnd&pg=PA9&dq=+%22greek+reliefs%22&otspg=4Nvniyr3jn&sig=uurxtWvOyLUC8Ciz7Km0vtWX5aM#PPA8,M1PA8 ''The Greek Tradition in Sculpture'']. Ayer Publishing, 1950. p. 8</ref>
 
=== The classical heritage in the history of sculpture ===
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</gallery>
 
== ReferencesSee also ==
{{Reflist}}▼
 
== Further reading ==
 
* [[Ancient Greek sculpture]]▼
* [[Ancient Greece]]
* [[Classicism]]
* [[Hellenistic period]]
* [[Roman sculpture]]
* [[Renaissance]]
* [[Gods in Color]]
* [[Plato]]
* [[Aristotle]]
* [[Aesthetics]]
* [[Ancient philosophy]]
* [[Philosophy]]
* [[Beauty]]
* [[Virtue]]
* ''[[Kalos kagathos]]''
* ''[[Paideia]]''
 
* ''[[Arete]]''
== References ==
▲{{Reflist}}
 
== External links ==
* [http://www.visual-arts-cork.com/greek-art.htm <nowiki>''Greek Art''</nowiki>. Encyclopedia of Irish and World Art.]▼
* [http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/530221/Western-sculpture/30347/The-Classical-period#ref=ref401159 <nowiki>''</nowiki>Western Sculpture: Ancient Greek: The Classical period<nowiki>''</nowiki>. Encyclopaedia Britannica On line]▼
* [http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761561691/Greek_Art_and_Architecture.html <nowiki>''Greek Art and Architecture''</nowiki>. Encyclopedia Encarta]▼
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▲* [http://www.visual-arts-cork.com/greek-art.htm <nowiki>''Greek Art''</nowiki>. Encyclopedia of Irish and World Art.]
[[Category:Ancient Greek sculptures]]
▲* [http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/530221/Western-sculpture/30347/The-Classical-period#ref=ref401159 <nowiki>''</nowiki>Western Sculpture: Ancient Greek: The Classical period<nowiki>''</nowiki>. Encyclopaedia Britannica On line]
▲* [httphttps://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761561691/Greek_Art_and_Architecture.html <nowiki>''Greek Art and Architecture''</nowiki>. Encyclopedia Encarta] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091028013850/http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761561691/Greek_Art_and_Architecture.html |date=28 October 2009 }}
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[[Category:Classical Greece]]
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