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m The circular economy is essential to sustainability. However, in itself, it is recycling. Circular systems should be combined with systems redesign that create net positive impacts. The page mentions redesign as a 'principle' but the rest of the page almost ignores design.
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{{Original research|date=July 2021}}
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[[File:The Circular Economy concept.png|thumb|upright=1.35|An illustration of the circular economy concept<ref name=":14">{{Cite journal|last=Geissdoerfer, M., Pieroni, M.P., Pigosso, D.C. and Soufani, K.|title=Circular business models: A review|url=https://orbit.dtu.dk/files/222423121/1_s2.0_S0959652620337860_main.pdf|journal=Journal of Cleaner Production|year=2020|volume=277|pages=123741|doi=10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.123741|bibcode=2020JCPro.27723741G |s2cid=225282542}}</ref>]]
[[File:Linia kontraŭ Cirkulero.svg|thumb|upright=1.35|An illustration showing the difference between the take, make waste linear economy approach, and the circular economy approach]]</noinclude>
A '''circular economy''' (also referred to as '''circularity''' or '''CE''')<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ellenmacarthurfoundation.org/resources/apply/circularity-indicators|title=Circularity Indicators|website=www.ellenmacarthurfoundation.org|access-date=2019-03-14|archive-date=2019-07-31|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190731195422/https://www.ellenmacarthurfoundation.org/resources/apply/circularity-indicators|url-status=dead}}</ref> is a model of resource [[Production (economics)|production]] and [[Resource consumption|consumption]] in any economy that involves [[sharing]], leasing, [[Reuse|reusing]], repairing, refurbishing, and [[recycling]] existing materials and products for as long as possible.<ref>{{cite web |title=Circular Economy Ireland |url=https://www.mhc.ie/hubs/esg/circular-economy |website=mhc.ie |publisher=Mason Hayes & Curran |access-date=28 November 2023}}</ref><ref name="europarl.europa.eu">{{Cite web|date=2015-02-12|title=Circular economy: definition, importance and benefits {{!}} News {{!}} European Parliament|url=https://www.europarl.europa.eu/news/en/headlines/economy/20151201STO05603/circular-economy-definition-importance-and-benefits|access-date=2021-10-07|website=www.europarl.europa.eu|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Iacovidou |first1=Eleni |last2=Hahladakis |first2=John N. |last3=Purnell |first3=Phil |title=A systems thinking approach to understanding the challenges of achieving the circular economy |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |date=2021 |volume=28 |issue=19 |pages=24785–24806 |doi=10.1007/s11356-020-11725-9 |pmid=33289042 |pmc=8144154 |doi-access=free|bibcode=2021ESPR...2824785I }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kirchherr |first1=Julian |last2=Reike |first2=Denise |last3=Hekkert |first3=Marko |title=Conceptualizing the circular economy: An analysis of 114 definitions |journal=Resources, Conservation and Recycling |date=2017 |volume=127 |pages=221–232 |doi=10.1016/j.resconrec.2017.09.005 |doi-access=free|bibcode=2017RCR...127..221K }}</ref> The concept aims to tackle global challenges such as [[climate change]], [[biodiversity loss]], [[waste]], and [[pollution]] by emphasizing the design-based implementation of the three base principles of the model. The main three principles required for the transformation to a circular economy are: designing out waste and pollution;, keeping products and materials in use, and regenerating natural systems.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ellenmacarthurfoundation.org/circular-economy/concept|title=Circular Economy Concept|website=www.ellenmacarthurfoundation.org|access-date=2023-04-23}}</ref> CE is defined in contradistinction to the traditional linear economy.<ref name="New to circular economy overview">{{Cite web|title=New to circular economy overview|url=https://ellenmacarthurfoundation.org/topics/circular-economy-introduction/overview|access-date=2021-12-06|website=ellenmacarthurfoundation.org}}</ref><ref name="Reuter"/> The idea and concepts of a circular economy have been studied extensively in academia, business, and government over the past ten years. It has been gaining popularity because it can help to minimize [[Greenhouse gas emissions|carbon emissions]] and the consumption of raw materials, open up new market prospects, and, principally, increase the [[sustainable consumption|sustainability of consumption]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Tunn |first1=V. S. C. |last2=Bocken |first2=N. M. P. |last3=van den Hende |first3=E. A. |last4=Schoormans |first4=J. P. L. |date=2019-03-01 |title=Business models for sustainable consumption in the circular economy: An expert study |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S095965261833693X |journal=Journal of Cleaner Production |language=en |volume=212 |pages=324–333 |doi=10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.11.290 |bibcode=2019JCPro.212..324T |s2cid=158627557 |issn=0959-6526}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Shpak |first1=Nestor |last2=Kuzmin |first2=Oleh |last3=Melnyk |first3=Olga |last4=Ruda |first4=Mariana |last5=Sroka |first5=Włodzimierz |title=Implementation of a Circular Economy in Ukraine: The Context of European Integration |journal=Resources |date=August 2020 |volume=9 |issue=8 |pages=96 |doi=10.3390/resources9080096 |language=en |issn=2079-9276|doi-access=free }}</ref>
 
At a government level, a circular economy is viewed as a method of combating [[:simple:Global warming|global warming]], as well as a facilitator of long-term growth.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Calisto Friant |first1=Martin |last2=Vermeulen |first2=Walter J. V. |last3=Salomone |first3=Roberta |date=2020-10-01 |title=A typology of circular economy discourses: Navigating the diverse visions of a contested paradigm |journal=Resources, Conservation and Recycling |language=en |volume=161 |pages=104917 |doi=10.1016/j.resconrec.2020.104917 |s2cid=222121823 |issn=0921-3449|doi-access=free |bibcode=2020RCR...16104917C }}</ref> CE may geographically connect actors and resources to stop material loops at the regional level.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Castro |first1=Camila Gonçalves |last2=Trevisan |first2=Adriana Hofmann |last3=Pigosso |first3=Daniela C. A. |last4=Mascarenhas |first4=Janaina |date=2022-04-15 |title=The rebound effect of circular economy: Definitions, mechanisms and a research agenda |journal=Journal of Cleaner Production |language=en |volume=345 |pages=131136 |doi=10.1016/j.jclepro.2022.131136 |s2cid=247150037 |issn=0959-6526|doi-access=free |bibcode=2022JCPro.34531136C }}</ref> In its core principle, the [[European Parliament]] defines CE as "a model of production and consumption that involves sharing, leasing, reusing, repairing, refurbishing, and recycling existing materials and products as long as possible. In this way, the life cycle of products is extended."<ref name="europarl.europa.eu" /> ByGlobal theimplementation yearof 2050,circular 9.3economy billioncan metricreduce tonsglobal ofemissions {{CO2}}by equivalent22.8 (equalbillion totons, all39% currentof global emissions fromin transportation),the canyear be2019.<ref reducedname=Circle/> byBy implementing circular economy strategies in five sectors alone: [[cement]], [[Aluminium|aluminum]], [[steel]], [[plastic]]s, and [[food]] 9.3 billion metric tons of {{CO2}} equivalent (equal to all current emissions from transportation), can be reduced.<ref name="ellenmacarthurfoundation.org">{{Cite web |title=Completing the picture: How the circular economy tackles climate change |url=https://ellenmacarthurfoundation.org/completing-the-picture |access-date=2023-06-19 |website=ellenmacarthurfoundation.org}}</ref><ref name=":1522"/><ref>{{Cite web |title=COMPLETING THE PICTURE: HOW THE CIRCULAR ECONOMY TACKLES CLIMATE CHANGE |url=https://circulareconomy.europa.eu/platform/sites/default/files/emf_completing_the_picture.pdf |website=circulareconomy.europa.eu/}}</ref> Cement production accounts for 2.4% of worldwide CO2 emissions from industrial and energy sources.<ref name=":2015">{{Cite web |last=Anyiego |first=Beldine |date=2022-08-15 |title=AFRICA: The Clean Oceans initiative will fund twice as many projects as expected? |url=https://www.copip.eu/news/africa-the-clean-oceans-initiative-will-fund-twice-as-many-projects-as-expected/ |access-date=2023-02-23 |website=COPIP}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Cement |url=https://www.iea.org/energy-system/industry/cement |access-date=2024-04-30 |website=IEA |language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Andrew |first=Robbie M. |date=2019-11-20 |title=Global CO2 emissions from cement production, 1928–2018 |url=https://essd.copernicus.org/articles/11/1675/2019/ |journal=Earth System Science Data |language=English |volume=11 |issue=4 |pages=1675–1710 |doi=10.5194/essd-11-1675-2019 |doi-access=free |issn=1866-3508}}</ref>
 
In a circular economy, business models play a crucial role in enabling the shift from linear to circular processes. Various business models have been identified that support circularity, including product-as-a-service, sharing platforms, and product life extension models, among others.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Urbinati|first1=Andrea|last2=Chiaroni|first2=Davide|last3=Chiesa|first3=Vittorio|date=2017-01-01|title=Towards a new taxonomy of circular economy business models|journal=Journal of Cleaner Production|language=en|volume=168|pages=487–498|doi=10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.09.047|s2cid=157679243|issn=0959-6526|doi-access=free|bibcode=2017JCPro.168..487U |hdl=11311/1087435|hdl-access=free}}</ref> These models aim to optimize resource utilization, reduce waste, and create value for businesses and customers alike, while contributing to the overall goals of the circular economy.
 
Businesses can also make the transition to the circular economy, where holistic adaptations in firms' business models are needed.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Bocken |first1=Nancy M. P. |last2=de Pauw |first2=Ingrid |last3=Bakker |first3=Conny |last4=van der Grinten |first4=Bram |date=2016-07-03 |title=Product design and business model strategies for a circular economy |url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/21681015.2016.1172124 |journal=Journal of Industrial and Production Engineering |language=en |volume=33 |issue=5 |pages=308–320 |doi=10.1080/21681015.2016.1172124 |issn=2168-1015}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Manninen |first1=Kaisa |last2=Koskela |first2=Sirkka |last3=Antikainen |first3=Riina |last4=Bocken |first4=Nancy |last5=Dahlbo |first5=Helena |last6=Aminoff |first6=Anna |date=January 2018 |title=Do circular economy business models capture intended environmental value propositions? |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0959652617322965 |journal=Journal of Cleaner Production |language=en |volume=171 |pages=413–422 |doi=10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.10.003|bibcode=2018JCPro.171..413M }}</ref> The implementation of circular economy principles often requires new visions and strategies and a fundamental redesign of product concepts, service offerings, and channels towards long-life solutions, resulting in the so-called 'circular business models'.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Lewandowski |first=Mateusz |date=2016-01-18 |title=Designing the Business Models for Circular Economy—Towards the Conceptual Framework |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=8 |issue=1 |pages=43 |doi=10.3390/su8010043 |doi-access=free |issn=2071-1050}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ferasso |first1=Marcos |last2=Beliaeva |first2=Tatiana |last3=Kraus |first3=Sascha |last4=Clauss |first4=Thomas |last5=Ribeiro-Soriano |first5=Domingo |date=December 2020 |title=Circular economy business models: The state of research and avenues ahead |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/bse.2554 |journal=Business Strategy and the Environment |language=en |volume=29 |issue=8 |pages=3006–3024 |doi=10.1002/bse.2554 |issn=0964-4733}}</ref>
In a '''linear economy''', [[natural resource]]s are turned into products that are ultimately destined to become waste because of the way they have been designed and manufactured. This process is often summarized as "take, make, waste."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Brydges|first=Taylor|date=2021-04-15|title=Closing the loop on take, make, waste: Investigating circular economy practices in the Swedish fashion industry|journal=Journal of Cleaner Production|language=en|volume=293|pages=126245|doi=10.1016/j.jclepro.2021.126245|s2cid=233577453|issn=0959-6526|doi-access=free}}</ref> By contrast, a circular economy aims to transition from a 'take-make-waste' approach to a more restorative and regenerative system. It employs [[reuse]], [[Sharing economy|sharing]], repair, refurbishment, [[remanufacturing]] and [[recycling]] to create a closed-loop system, reducing the use of [[Resource depletion|resource inputs]] and the creation of [[Waste minimisation|waste]], pollution, and carbon emissions.<ref name="Geissdoerfer 757–768">{{Cite journal|last1=Geissdoerfer|first1=Martin|last2=Savaget|first2=Paulo|last3=Bocken|first3=Nancy M. P.|last4=Hultink|first4=Erik Jan|date=2017-02-01|title=The Circular Economy – A new sustainability paradigm? |journal=Journal of Cleaner Production|volume=143|pages=757–768|doi=10.1016/j.jclepro.2016.12.048|s2cid=157449142|url=https://www.repository.cam.ac.uk/handle/1810/261957}}</ref> The circular economy aims to keep products, materials, equipment, and infrastructure<ref name="Invernizzi2020">{{cite journal |last1=Invernizzi |first1=Diletta Colette |last2=Locatelli |first2=Giorgio |last3=Velenturf |first3=Anne |last4=Love |first4=Peter ED. |last5=Purnell |first5=Phil |last6=Brookes |first6=Naomi J. |title=Developing policies for the end-of-life of energy infrastructure: Coming to terms with the challenges of decommissioning |journal=Energy Policy |date=September 2020 |volume=144 |pages=111677 |doi=10.1016/j.enpol.2020.111677 |s2cid=225307513 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2020EnPol.14411677I |hdl=11311/1204791 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> in use for longer, thus improving the productivity of these resources. Waste materials and energy should become input for other processes through [[waste valorization]]: either as a component for another industrial process or as regenerative resources for nature (e.g., compost). The Ellen MacArthur Foundation (EMF) defines the circular economy as an industrial economy that is restorative or regenerative by value and design.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Morseletto|first=Piero|date=2020|title=Restorative and regenerative: Exploring the concepts in the circular economy|journal=Journal of Industrial Ecology|language=en|volume=24|issue=4|pages=763–773|doi=10.1111/jiec.12987|s2cid=203500060|issn=1530-9290|doi-access=free|bibcode=2020JInEc..24..763M }}</ref><ref name=":3" />▼
 
Circular economy strategies can be applied at various scales, from individual products and services to entire industries and cities. For example, industrial symbiosis is a strategy where waste from one industry becomes an input for another, creating a network of resource exchange and reducing waste, pollution, and resource consumption.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Chertow|first=Marian R.|date=2000-12-01|title=Industrial symbiosis: Literature and taxonomy|journal=Annual Review of Energy and the Environment|language=en|volume=25|issue=1|pages=313–337|doi=10.1146/annurev.energy.25.1.313|issn=1056-3466|doi-access=free}}</ref> Similarly, circular cities aim to integrate circular principles into urban planning and development, foster local resource loops, and promote sustainable lifestyles among their citizens.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Prendeville|first1=Sharon|last2=Cherim|first2=Emma|last3=Bocken|first3=Nancy|date=2018-11-01|title=Circular cities: Mapping six cities in transition|journal=Environmental Innovation and Societal Transitions|language=en|volume=26|pages=171–194|doi=10.1016/j.eist.2017.03.002|s2cid=157408918|issn=2210-4224|doi-access=free|bibcode=2018EIST...26..171P }}</ref> Less than 10% of economic activity worldwide in 2022 and 2023 is circular.<ref name=":1522">{{Cite web |title=Circular economy Overview 2023 |date=26 May 2023 |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/20230157-circular-economy-overview-2023 |last1=Bank |first1=European Investment }}</ref><ref name=":2012">{{Cite web |last=Anyiego |first=Beldine |date=2022-08-15 |title=AFRICA: The Clean Oceans initiative will fund twice as many projects as expected? |url=https://www.copip.eu/news/africa-the-clean-oceans-initiative-will-fund-twice-as-many-projects-as-expected/ |access-date=2023-02-23 |website=COPIP}}</ref> Every year, the global population uses approximately 100 billion tonnes of materials, with more than 90% of them being wasted. The circular economy seeks to address this by eliminating waste entirely.<ref name=":2013">{{Cite web |last=Anyiego |first=Beldine |date=2022-08-15 |title=AFRICA: The Clean Oceans initiative will fund twice as many projects as expected? |url=https://www.copip.eu/news/africa-the-clean-oceans-initiative-will-fund-twice-as-many-projects-as-expected/ |access-date=2023-02-23 |website=COPIP}}</ref>▼
 
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== Definition ==
There are many definitions of the circular economy.<ref name="Kirchherr 221–232">{{Cite journal|last1=Kirchherr|first1=Julian|last2=Reike|first2=Denise|last3=Hekkert|first3=Marko|date=2017-12-01|title=Conceptualizing the circular economy: An analysis of 114 definitions|journal=Resources, Conservation and Recycling|language=en|volume=127|pages=221–232|doi=10.1016/j.resconrec.2017.09.005|issn=0921-3449|doi-access=free|bibcode=2017RCR...127..221K }}</ref> InFor example, in [[China's circular economy|China]], CE is promoted as a top-down national political objective, whilemeanwhile in other areas, such as the European Union, Japan, and the USA, it is a tool to design bottom-up environmental and waste management policies. The ultimate goal of promoting CE is the decoupling of environmental pressure from economic growth.<ref name="Ghisellini 11–32">{{Cite journal|last1=Ghisellini|first1=Patrizia|last2=Cialani|first2=Catia|last3=Ulgiati|first3=Sergio|date=2016-02-15|title=A review on circular economy: the expected transition to a balanced interplay of environmental and economic systems|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0959652615012287|journal=Journal of Cleaner Production|series=Towards Post Fossil Carbon Societies: Regenerative and Preventative Eco-Industrial Development|language=en|volume=114|pages=11–32|doi=10.1016/j.jclepro.2015.09.007|bibcode=2016JCPro.114...11G |issn=0959-6526}}</ref> A comprehensive definition could be: "Circular economy is an economic system that targets zero waste and pollution throughout materials lifecycles, from environment extraction to industrial transformation, and final consumers, applying to all involved ecosystems. Upon its lifetime end, materials return to either an industrial process or, in the case of a treated organic residual, safely back to the environment as in a natural regenerating cycle. It operates by creating value at the macro, meso, and micro levels and exploiting to the fullest the [[sustainability]] nested concept. Used energy sources are clean and renewable. Resource use and consumption are efficient. Government agencies and responsible consumers play an active role in ensuring the correct system long-term operation."<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Nobre|first1=Gustavo Cattelan|last2=Tavares|first2=Elaine|date=2021-09-10|title=The quest for a circular economy final definition: A scientific perspective|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0959652621021910|journal=Journal of Cleaner Production|language=en|volume=314|pages=127973|doi=10.1016/j.jclepro.2021.127973|bibcode=2021JCPro.31427973N |issn=0959-6526}}</ref>
 
More generally, circular development is a model of economic, social, and environmental production and consumption that aims to build an autonomous and sustainable society in tune with the issue of environmental resources.<ref name="africa.iclei.org">Local Government for Sustainability Africa. (s. d.). Circular development | ICLEI Africa. Circular Development Pathway. Consulté le 15 mars 2021, à l'adresse https://africa.iclei.org/pathways_cat/circular-development-pathway/</ref> The circular economy aims to transform our economy into one that is regenerative. An economy that innovates to reduce waste and the ecological and environmental impact of industries prior to happening, rather than waiting to address the consequences of these issues.<ref>Économie circulaire - Ellen Macarthur Foundation. (s. d.). Ellen Macarthur Foundation. Consulté le 9 mars 2021, à l'adresse https://www.ellenmacarthurfoundation.org/fr/economie-circulaire/concept</ref> This is done by designing new processes and solutions for the optimization of resources, decoupling reliance on finite resources.<ref name="africa.iclei.org" />
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Other definitions and precise thresholds that separate linear from circular activity have also been developed in the economic literature.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=García-Barragán |first1=Juan F. |last2=Eyckmans |first2=Johan |last3=Rousseau |first3=Sandra |title=Defining and Measuring the Circular Economy: A Mathematical Approach |journal=Ecological Economics |date=March 2019 |volume=157 |pages=369–372 |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2018.12.003 |bibcode=2019EcoEc.157..369G |s2cid=158885640 |url=https://lirias.kuleuven.be/handle/123456789/632927 }}</ref><ref name="Kirchherr 221–232"/><ref name="Ghisellini 11–32"/>
 
▲In a '''linear economy''', [[natural resource]]s are turned into products that are ultimately destined to become waste because of the way they have been designed and manufactured. This process is often summarized as "take, make, waste."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Brydges|first=Taylor|date=2021-04-15|title=Closing the loop on take, make, waste: Investigating circular economy practices in the Swedish fashion industry|journal=Journal of Cleaner Production|language=en|volume=293|pages=126245|doi=10.1016/j.jclepro.2021.126245|s2cid=233577453|issn=0959-6526|doi-access=free|bibcode=2021JCPro.29326245B }}</ref> By contrast, a circular economy aims to transition from a 'take-make-waste' approach to a more restorative and regenerative system. It employs [[reuse]], [[Sharing economy|sharing]], repair, refurbishment, [[remanufacturing]] and [[recycling]] to create a closed-loop system, reducing the use of [[Resource depletion|resource inputs]] and the creation of [[Waste minimisation|waste]], pollution, and carbon emissions.<ref name="Geissdoerfer 757–768">{{Cite journal|last1=Geissdoerfer|first1=Martin|last2=Savaget|first2=Paulo|last3=Bocken|first3=Nancy M. P.|last4=Hultink|first4=Erik Jan|date=2017-02-01|title=The Circular Economy – A new sustainability paradigm? |journal=Journal of Cleaner Production|volume=143|pages=757–768|doi=10.1016/j.jclepro.2016.12.048|bibcode=2017JCPro.143..757G |s2cid=157449142|url=https://www.repository.cam.ac.uk/handle/1810/261957}}</ref> The circular economy aims to keep products, materials, equipment, and infrastructure<ref name="Invernizzi2020">{{cite journal |last1=Invernizzi |first1=Diletta Colette |last2=Locatelli |first2=Giorgio |last3=Velenturf |first3=Anne |last4=Love |first4=Peter ED. |last5=Purnell |first5=Phil |last6=Brookes |first6=Naomi J. |title=Developing policies for the end-of-life of energy infrastructure: Coming to terms with the challenges of decommissioning |journal=Energy Policy |date=September 2020 |volume=144 |pages=111677 |doi=10.1016/j.enpol.2020.111677 |s2cid=225307513 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2020EnPol.14411677I |hdl=11311/1204791 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> in use for longer, thus improving the productivity of these resources. Waste materials and energy should become input for other processes through [[waste valorization]]: either as a component for another industrial process or as regenerative resources for nature (e.g., compost). The Ellen MacArthur Foundation (EMF) defines the circular economy as an industrial economy that is restorative or regenerative by value and design.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Morseletto|first=Piero|date=2020|title=Restorative and regenerative: Exploring the concepts in the circular economy|journal=Journal of Industrial Ecology|language=en|volume=24|issue=4|pages=763–773|doi=10.1111/jiec.12987|s2cid=203500060|issn=1530-9290|doi-access=free|bibcode=2020JInEc..24..763M }}</ref><ref name=":3" />
 
▲Circular economy strategies can be applied at various scales, from individual products and services to entire industries and cities. For example, industrial symbiosis is a strategy where waste from one industry becomes an input for another, creating a network of resource exchange and reducing waste, pollution, and resource consumption.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Chertow|first=Marian R.|date=2000-12-01|title=Industrial symbiosis: Literature and taxonomy|journal=Annual Review of Energy and the Environment|language=en|volume=25|issue=1|pages=313–337|doi=10.1146/annurev.energy.25.1.313|issn=1056-3466|doi-access=free}}</ref> Similarly, circular cities aim to integrate circular principles into urban planning and development, foster local resource loops, and promote sustainable lifestyles among their citizens.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Prendeville|first1=Sharon|last2=Cherim|first2=Emma|last3=Bocken|first3=Nancy|date=2018-11-01|title=Circular cities: Mapping six cities in transition|journal=Environmental Innovation and Societal Transitions|language=en|volume=26|pages=171–194|doi=10.1016/j.eist.2017.03.002|s2cid=157408918|issn=2210-4224|doi-access=free|bibcode=2018EIST...26..171P }}</ref> Less than 10% of economic activity worldwide in 2022 and 2023 is circular.<ref name=":1522">{{Cite web |title=Circular economy Overview 2023 |date=26 May 2023 |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/20230157-circular-economy-overview-2023 |last1=Bank |first1=European Investment }}</ref><ref name=":2012">{{Cite web |last=Anyiego |first=Beldine |date=2022-08-15 |title=AFRICA: The Clean Oceans initiative will fund twice as many projects as expected? |url=https://www.copip.eu/news/africa-the-clean-oceans-initiative-will-fund-twice-as-many-projects-as-expected/ |access-date=2023-02-23 |website=COPIP}}</ref> Every year, the global population uses approximately 100 billion tonnes of materials, with more than 90% of them being wasted. The circular economy seeks to address this by eliminating waste entirely.<ref name=":2013">{{Cite web |last=Anyiego |first=Beldine |date=2022-08-15 |title=AFRICA: The Clean Oceans initiative will fund twice as many projects as expected? |url=https://www.copip.eu/news/africa-the-clean-oceans-initiative-will-fund-twice-as-many-projects-as-expected/ |access-date=2023-02-23 |website=COPIP}}</ref>
 
== History and aims ==
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===Scope===
The circular economy can have a broad scope. Researchers have focused on different areas such as industrial applications with both product-oriented and natural resources and services,<ref name=":22">{{cite journal |last1=Ranta |first1=Valtteri |last2=Aarikka-Stenroos |first2=Leena |last3=Ritala |first3=Paavo |last4=Mäkinen |first4=Saku J. |title=Exploring institutional drivers and barriers of the circular economy: A cross-regional comparison of China, the US, and Europe |journal=Resources, Conservation and Recycling |date=August 2018 |volume=135 |pages=70–82 |doi=10.1016/j.resconrec.2017.08.017 |bibcode=2018RCR...135...70R |hdl=10024/158840 |s2cid=11329865 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> practices and policies<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Murray|first1=Alan|last2=Skene|first2=Keith|last3=Haynes|first3=Kathryn|date=2015-05-22|title=The Circular Economy: An Interdisciplinary Exploration of the Concept and Application in a Global Context|journal=Journal of Business Ethics|volume=140|issue=3|pages=369–380|doi=10.1007/s10551-015-2693-2|s2cid=41486703 |url=https://eprint.ncl.ac.uk/fulltext.aspx?url=208884/EB16068A-8D6E-4D8F-9FA3-83DF5775D4FE.pdf&pub_id=208884}}</ref> to better understand the limitations that the CE currently faces, strategic management for details of the circular economy and different outcomes such as potential re-use applications<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Kaur|first1=Guneet|last2=Uisan|first2=Kristiadi|last3=Lun Ong|first3=Khai|last4=Sze Ki Lin|first4=Carol|date=2017|title=Recent trend in Green sustainable Chemistry & waste valorisation: Rethinking plastics in a circular economy|journal=Current Opinion in Green and Sustainable Chemistry|volume=9|pages=30–39|doi=10.1016/j.cogsc.2017.11.003}}</ref> and waste management.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Casarejos|first1=Fabricio|last2=Bastos|first2=Claudio R.|last3=Rufin|first3=Carlos|last4=Frota|first4=Mauricio N.|date=November 2018|title=Rethinking packaging production and consumption vis-à-vis circular economy: A case study of compostable cassava starch-based material|journal=Journal of Cleaner Production|volume=201|pages=1019–1028|doi=10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.08.114 |bibcode=2018JCPro.201.1019C |s2cid=158684066}}</ref>
 
The circular economy includes products, infrastructure, equipment, and services<ref name="nordicwaves.org">{{Cite web |title=Circular Economy Pioneer {{!}} Nordic Waves Group |url=https://www.nordicwaves.org/ |access-date=2022-06-03 |website=Nordic Waves ENG |language=en}}</ref> and buildings <ref>{{cite book |last1=Vaughan |first1=Josephine |last2=Illankoon |first2=I. M. Chethana S. |last3=Beard |first3=Cameron |last4=Sher |first4=Willy |last5=MacKee |first5=Jamie |title=Sustainability and Toxicity of Building Materials |date=2024 |publisher=Woodhead Publishing |isbn=978-0-323-98336-5 |pages=573–599 |url=https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-98336-5.00026-1 |chapter=26 - Hazardous building materials threaten circular economy and sustainable outcomes|doi=10.1016/B978-0-323-98336-5.00026-1 }}</ref>and applies to every industry sector. It includes 'technical' resources (metals, minerals, fossil resources) and 'biological' resources (food, fibres, timber, etc.).<ref name=":3" /> Most schools of thought advocate a shift from [[fossil fuels]] to the use of [[renewable energy]], and emphasize the role of diversity as a characteristic of resilient and sustainable systems. The circular economy includes a discussion of the role of money and finance as part of the wider debate, and some of its pioneers have called for a revamp of economic performance measurement tools.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|last=NEWS.in|first=My Digital|date=2021-08-06|title=Scope of Circular Economy|url=https://mydigitalnews.in/scope-of-circular-economy|access-date=2021-08-06|website=My Digital NEWS.in|language=en}}</ref> One study points out how modularization could become a cornerstone to enabling a circular economy and enhancing the sustainability of energy infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Mignacca|first1=Benito|last2=Locatelli|first2=Giorgio|last3=Velenturf|first3=Anne|date=26 Feb 2020|title=Modularisation as enabler of circular economy in energy infrastructure|journal=Energy Policy|volume=139|page=111371|doi=10.1016/j.enpol.2020.111371|doi-access=free|bibcode=2020EnPol.13911371M |hdl=11311/1204921|hdl-access=free}}</ref> One example of a circular economy model is the implementation of renting models in traditional ownership areas (e.g., electronics, clothes, furniture, transportation). By renting the same product to several clients, manufacturers can increase revenues per unit, thus decreasing the need to produce more to increase revenues. Recycling initiatives are often described as circular economy and are likely to be the most widespread models.<ref name=":1" />
 
According to a report of the organization "Circle economy" global implementation of circular economy can reduce global emissions by 22.8 billion tons, 39% of global emissions in the year 2019.<ref name=Circle>{{cite web |title=Circular economy strategies can cut global emissions by 39% |url=https://www.circle-economy.com/news/circular-economy-strategies-can-cut-global-emissions-by-39 |website=Circle economy |access-date=6 May 2024}}</ref> By 2050, 9.3 billion metric tons of{{CO2}} equivalent, or almost half of the global greenhouse gas emissions from the production of goods, might be reduced by implementing circular economy strategies in only five significant industries: cement, aluminum, steel, plastics, and food. That would equal to eliminating all current emissions caused by transportation.<ref name="ellenmacarthurfoundation.org"/><ref name=":1522"/><ref>{{Cite web |title=COMPLETING THE PICTURE: HOW THE CIRCULAR ECONOMY TACKLES CLIMATE CHANGE |url=https://circulareconomy.europa.eu/platform/sites/default/files/emf_completing_the_picture.pdf |website=circulareconomy.europa.eu/}}</ref>
 
===Background===
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==Towards the circular economy==
In 2013, a report was released entitled ''Towards the Circular Economy: Economic and Business Rationale for an Accelerated Transition''. The report, commissioned by the [[Ellen MacArthur Foundation]] and developed by [[McKinsey & Company]], was the first volume of its kind<ref>{{Cite web|title=Towards the Circular Economy Vol. 3: Accelerating the scale-up across global supply chains {{!}} Shared by Business|url=https://emf.thirdlight.com/link/t4gb0fs4knot-n8nz6f/@/preview/1?o|access-date=2021-12-06|website=emf.thirdlight.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Towards the Circular Economy|url=https://www.ellenmacarthurfoundation.org/assets/downloads/publications/Ellen-MacArthur-Foundation-Towards-the-Circular-Economy-vol.1.pdf|url-status=live|access-date=18 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151123022159/http://www.ellenmacarthurfoundation.org:80/assets/downloads/publications/Ellen-MacArthur-Foundation-Towards-the-Circular-Economy-vol.1.pdf |archive-date=2015-11-23 }}</ref> to consider the economic and business opportunity for the transition to a restorative, circular model. Using product case studies and economy-wide analysis, the report details the potential for significant benefits across the EU. It argues that a subset of the EU manufacturing sector could realize net materials cost savings worth up to $630 billion annually towards 2025—stimulating economic activity in the areas of product development, remanufacturing and refurbishment. ''Towards the Circular Economy'' also identified the key building blocks in making the transition to a circular economy, namely in skills in circular design and production, new business models, skills in building cascades and reverse cycles, and cross-cycle/cross-sector collaboration.<ref>{{cite report |title=Towards the Circular Economy: Economic and Business Rationale for an Accelerated Transition |url=https://www.ellenmacarthurfoundation.org/assets/downloads/publications/Ellen-MacArthur-Foundation-Towards-the-Circular-Economy-vol.1.pdf |publisher=Ellen MacArthur Foundation |date=2013 |access-date=2020-05-15}} And: {{cite book|url=http://www.thecirculareconomy.org|title=Towards the Circular Economy: an economic and business rationale for an accelerated transition|publisher=Ellen MacArthur Foundation|year=2012|page=60|access-date=2012-01-30|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130110100128/http://www.thecirculareconomy.org/|archive-date=2013-01-10|url-status=dead}}</ref> This is supported by a case study from the automotive industry,<ref name=":11">{{Cite journal|last1=Schmitt|first1=Thomas|last2=Wolf|first2=Christopher|last3=Lennerfors|first3=Thomas Taro|last4=Okwir|first4=Simon|date=2021-10-10|title=Beyond "Leanear" production: A multi-level approach for achieving circularity in a lean manufacturing context|journal=Journal of Cleaner Production|language=en|volume=318|pages=128531|doi=10.1016/j.jclepro.2021.128531|issn=0959-6526|doi-access=free|bibcode=2021JCPro.31828531S }}</ref> highlighting the importance of integrating a circular model holistically within the entire value chain of a company, taking into account the interdependencies between the product, process, and system level.{{citation needed|date=September 2022}}
 
Another report by WRAP and the Green Alliance (called "Employment and the circular economy: job creation in a more resource efficient Britain"), done in 2015 has examined different public policy scenarios to 2030. It estimates that, with no policy change, 200,000 new jobs will be created, reducing unemployment by 54,000. A more aggressive policy scenario could create 500,000 new jobs and permanently reduce unemployment by 102,000.<ref>[https://www.iisd.org/library/estimating-employment-effects-circular-economy Estimating Employment Effects of the Circular Economy]</ref> The International Labour Organization predicts that implementing a circular economy by 2030 might result in an additional 7-8 million jobs being created globally.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-05-09 |title=Global South circular economy could generate millions of job opportunities |url=http://www.ilo.org/sector/news/WCMS_881334/lang--en/index.htm |access-date=2023-06-19 |website=www.ilo.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":1522"/> However, other research has also found that the adoption of circular economy principles may lead to job losses in emerging economies.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Repp |first1=Lars |last2=Hekkert |first2=Marko |last3=Kirchherr |first3=Julian |date=2021-08-01 |title=Circular economy-induced global employment shifts in apparel value chains: Job reduction in apparel production activities, job growth in reuse and recycling activities |journal=Resources, Conservation and Recycling |language=en |volume=171 |pages=105621 |doi=10.1016/j.resconrec.2021.105621 |s2cid=236242336 |issn=0921-3449|doi-access=free |bibcode=2021RCR...17105621R }}</ref>
 
On the other hand, implementing a circular economy in the United States has been presented by Ranta et al.<ref name=":22"/> who analyzed the institutional drivers and barriers for the circular economy in different regions worldwide, by following the framework developed by Scott R.<ref name=":32">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7Y-0bDCw_aEC&pg=PA50 |title=Institutions and Organization: Ideas and Interest|last1=Scott|first1=W. Richard|date=2008|publisher=Sage Publications|isbn=978-1-4129-5090-9|edition=Third |location=Stanford University|pages=50–51}}</ref> In the article, different worldwide environment-friendly institutions were selected, and two types of manufacturing processes were chosen for the analysis (1) a product-oriented, and (2) a waste management.<ref name=":22"/><ref name=":32" /> Specifically, in the U.S., the product-oriented company case in the study was [[Dell]], a US manufacturing company for computer technology, which was the first company to offer free recycling to customers and to launch to the market a computer made from recycling materials from a verified third-party source.<ref name=":22"/> Moreover, the waste management case that includes many stages such as collection, disposal, recycling<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.annualreports.com/HostedData/AnnualReports/PDF/NYSE_RSG_2017.pdf |title=Republic Services Annual Report 2017 |last1=Republic Services |website=annualreports.com |access-date=30 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181216210930/https://www.annualreports.com/HostedData/AnnualReports/PDF/NYSE_RSG_2017.pdf |archive-date=16 December 2018 |url-status=dead }}</ref> in the study was [[Republic Services]], the second-largest waste management company in the US. The approach to defining the drivers and barriers was to first identify indicators for their cases in study and then to categorize these indicators into drivers when the indicator was in favor of the circular economy model or a barrier when it was not.<ref name=":22"/>
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===Circular product design and standards===
{{See also|Sustainable design}}
Product designs that optimize durability, ease of maintenance and repair, upgradability, re-manufacturability, separability, disassembly, and reassembly are considered key elements for the transition toward circularity of products.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Tecchio |first1=Paolo |last2=McAlister |first2=Catriona |last3=Mathieux |first3=Fabrice |last4=Ardente |first4=Fulvio |title=In search of standards to support circularity in product policies: A systematic approach |journal=Journal of Cleaner Production |date=1 December 2017 |volume=168 |pages=1533–1546 |doi=10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.05.198 |pmid=29200663 |pmc=5656090 |bibcode=2017JCPro.168.1533T |language=en |issn=0959-6526}}</ref> [[Standardization#Environmental protection|Standardization]] can facilitate related "innovative, sustainable and competitive advantages for European businesses and consumers".<ref>{{cite web |title=Standardization in a Circular Economy – Closing the Loop |url=https://www.bkv-gmbh.de/files/bkv-neu/brochures-pdf-en/CEN-CENELEC_Standardization_in_a_Circular_Economy_Brochure_Oct19.pdf |access-date=29 May 2022}}</ref> Design for standardization and compatibility would make "product parts and interfaces suitable for other products and aims at multi-functionality and modularity".<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Medkova |first1=Katerina |last2=Fifield |first2=Brett |title=Circular Design - Design for Circular Economy |journal=Lahti Cleantech Annual Review 2016|url=https://www.theseus.fi/bitstream/handle/10024/121322/LAMK_2016_24.pdf?sequence=2#page=32 |access-date=29 May 2022}}</ref> A "Product Family Approach" has been proposed to establish "commonality, compatibility, standardization, or modularization among different products or product lines".<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Parajuly |first1=Keshav |last2=Wenzel |first2=Henrik |title=Product Family Approach in E-Waste Management: A Conceptual Framework for Circular Economy |journal=Sustainability |date=May 2017 |volume=9 |issue=5 |pages=768 |doi=10.3390/su9050768 |language=en |issn=2071-1050|doi-access=free }}</ref>
 
It has been argued that emerging technologies should be designed with circular economy principles from the start, [[Solar cell#Recycling|including solar panels]].<ref>{{cite news |last1=Davies |first1=Matthew |title=Solar panels: we need to recycle parts of them to use again and avoid a mountain of waste |url=https://techxplore.com/news/2021-11-solar-panels-recycle-mountain.html |access-date=29 May 2022 |work=techxplore.com |language=en}}</ref>
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===Circular business models===
{{Further|Sustainable business}}
[[File:Circular business model.png|thumb|Circular business models<ref name="Geissdoerfer2018">{{cite journal |last1=Geissdoerfer |first1=Martin |last2=Morioka |first2=Sandra Naomi |last3=de Carvalho |first3=Marly Monteiro |last4=Evans |first4=Steve |title=Business models and supply chains for the circular economy |journal=Journal of Cleaner Production |date=July 2018 |volume=190 |pages=712–721 |doi=10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.04.159 |bibcode=2018JCPro.190..712G |s2cid=158887458 |url=https://www.repository.cam.ac.uk/handle/1810/280260 }}</ref>]]
While the initial focus of the academic, industry, and policy activities was mainly focused on the development of re-X (recycling, remanufacturing, reuse, etc.) technology, it soon became clear that the technological capabilities increasingly exceed their implementation. To leverage this technology for the transition toward a circular economy, various stakeholders have to work together. This shifted attention towards business-model innovation as a key leverage for 'circular' technology adaption.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rashid |first1=Amir |last2=Asif |first2=Farazee M.A. |last3=Krajnik |first3=Peter |last4=Nicolescu |first4=Cornel Mihai |title=Resource Conservative Manufacturing: an essential change in business and technology paradigm for sustainable manufacturing |journal=Journal of Cleaner Production |date=October 2013 |volume=57 |pages=166–177 |doi=10.1016/j.jclepro.2013.06.012 |bibcode=2013JCPro..57..166R }}</ref> [[Rheaply]], a platform that aims to scale reuse within and between organizations, is an example of a technology that focuses on asset management & disposition to support organizations transitioning to circular business models.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Solutions|url=https://solve.mit.edu/challenges/circular-economy/solutions/10158|access-date=2020-05-07|website=solve.mit.edu|language=en}}</ref>
 
Circular business models can be defined as business models that are closing, narrowing, slowing, intensifying, and dematerializing loops, to minimize the resource inputs into and the waste and emission leakage out of the organizational system. This comprises recycling measures (closing), efficiency improvements (narrowing), use phase extensions (slowing), a more intense use phase (intensifying), and the substitution of products by service and software solutions (dematerializing).<ref name="Geissdoerfer2018" /> These strategies can be achieved through the purposeful design of material recovery processes and related circular supply chains.<ref name="Batista">{{cite journal|last1=Batista|first1=Luciano|last2=Gong|first2=Yu|last3=Pereira|first3=Susana|last4=Jia|first4=Fu|last5=Bittar|first5=Alexandre|date=December 2019|title=Circular supply chains in emerging economies – a comparative study of packaging recovery ecosystems in China and Brazil|url=https://publications.aston.ac.uk/id/eprint/37859/1/IJPR_TP_Ch_Br_paper_Final.pdf|journal=International Journal of Production Research|volume=57|issue=23|pages=7248–7268|doi=10.1080/00207543.2018.1558295|s2cid=116320263}}</ref> As illustrated in the Figure, these five approaches to resource loops can also be seen as generic strategies or archetypes of circular business model innovation. The development of circular products, circular business models, and, more generally, the circular economy is conditioned upon the affordances of the materials involved, that is the enablement and constraints afforded by these materials to someone engaging with them for circular purposes.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Babri|first1=Maira|last2=Corvellec|first2=Hervé|last3=Stål|first3=Herman I.|date=2021-10-11|title=Material affordances in circular products and business model development: for a relational understanding of human and material agency|journal=Culture and Organization|volume=28|issue=1|pages=79–96|doi=10.1080/14759551.2021.1986506|s2cid=240732205|issn=1475-9551|doi-access=free}}</ref>
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===Circular economy standard BS 8001:2017===
 
To provide authoritative guidance to organizations implementing circular economy (CE) strategies, in 2017, the British Standards Institution (BSI) developed and launched the first circular economy standard "BS 8001:2017 Framework for implementing the principles of the circular economy in organizations".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bsigroup.com/en-GB/standards/benefits-of-using-standards/becoming-more-sustainable-with-standards/Circular-Economy/|title=Developing BS 8001 - a world first|publisher=The British Standards Institution|access-date=29 December 2017}}</ref> The circular economy standard BS 8001:2017 tries to align the far-reaching ambitions of the CE with established business routines at the organizational level. It contains a comprehensive list of CE terms and definitions, describes the core CE principles, and presents a flexible management framework for implementing CE strategies in organizations. Little concrete guidance on circular economy monitoring and assessment is given, however, as there is no consensus yet on a set of central circular economy performance indicators applicable to organizations and individual products.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Pauliuk |first1=Stefan |title=Critical appraisal of the circular economy standard BS 8001:2017 and a dashboard of quantitative system indicators for its implementation in organizations |journal=Resources, Conservation and Recycling |date=February 2018 |volume=129 |pages=81–92 |doi=10.1016/j.resconrec.2017.10.019 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2018RCR...129...81P }}</ref>
 
=== Development of ISO/TC 323 circular economy standard ===
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The CE does not aim at changing the [[profit maximization]] paradigm of businesses. Rather, it suggests an alternative way of thinking how to attain a sustained [[competitive advantage]] (SCA), while concurrently addressing the environmental and socio-economic concerns of the 21st century. Indeed, stepping away from linear forms of production most often leads to the development of new core competencies along the value chain and ultimately superior performance that cuts costs, improves efficiency, promote brand names, mitigate risks, develop new products,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Dezi |first1=Luca |last2=Hysa |first2=Xhimi |last3=Calabrese |first3=Mario |last4=Mercuri |first4=Francesco |date=2022-03-19 |title=Open Total Quality Management in the Circular Economy age: a social enterprise perspective through the case of Patagonia |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14783363.2022.2051698 |journal=Total Quality Management & Business Excellence |language=en |pages=1–15 |doi=10.1080/14783363.2022.2051698 |s2cid=247575847 |issn=1478-3363}}</ref> and meets advanced government regulations and the expectations of green consumers. But despite the multiple examples of companies successfully embracing circular solutions across industries, and notwithstanding the wealth of opportunities that exist when a firm has clarity over what circular actions fit its unique profile and goals, CE decision-making remains a highly complex exercise with no one-size-fits-all solution. The intricacy and fuzziness of the topic is still felt by most companies (especially SMEs), which perceive circular strategies as something not applicable to them or too costly and risky to implement.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Cristoni |first1=Nicolò |last2=Tonelli |first2=Marcello |date=October 2018 |title=Perceptions of Firms Participating in a Circular Economy |journal=European Journal of Sustainable Development |volume=7 |issue=4 |doi=10.14207/ejsd.2018.v7n4p105 |doi-access=free}}</ref> This concern is today confirmed by the results of ongoing monitoring studies like the Circular Readiness Assessment.<ref>"Circular Readiness Assessment website" http://www.worldynamics.com/circular_economy/web/assessment/main Retrieved on 26 July 2018</ref>
 
[[Strategic management]] is the field of [[management]] that comes to the rescue allowing companies to carefully evaluate CE-inspired ideas, but also to take a firm apart and investigate if/how/where seeds of circularity can be found or implanted. Prior research has identified strategic development for circularity to be a challenging process for companies, demanding multiple iterative strategic cycles.<ref name="sciencedirect.com"/> The book ''Strategic Management and the Circular Economy'' defined for the first time a CE strategic decision-making process,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Petrović |first1=Nataša |date=2020 |title=Book review of:Strategic Management and the Circular Economy by Marcello Tonelli and Nicoló Cristoni. |url=http://management.fon.bg.ac.rs/index.php/mng/article/view/324 |journal=Management: Journal of Sustainable Business and Management Solutions in Emerging Economies |volume=25 |issue=1 |pages=76–78 |doi=10.7595/management.fon.2020.0005 |doi-broken-date=2024-06-28 |access-date=5 November 2021 |s2cid=225885231|doi-access=free }}</ref> covering the phases of analysis, formulation, and planning. Each phase is supported by frameworks and concepts popular in management consulting—like [[Concept map|idea tree]], [[value chain]], [[VRIO|VRIE]], [[Porter's five forces analysis|Porter's five forces]], [[PEST analysis|PEST]], [[SWOT analysis|SWOT]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Pesce |first1=Marco |last2=Tamai |first2=Ilaria |last3=Guo |first3=Deyan |last4=Critto |first4=Andrea |last5=Brombal |first5=Daniele |last6=Wang |first6=Hongguang |last7=Cheng |first7=Antonio |last8=Marcomini |first8=Antonio |date=2020 |title=Circular economy in China: Translating principles into practice |journal=Sustainability |volume=12 |issue=3 |page=832 |doi=10.3390/su12030832 |doi-access=free|hdl=10278/3722091 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> strategic clock, or the [[internationalization]] matrix—all adapted through a CE lens, hence revealing new sets of questions and considerations. Although yet to be verified, it is argued that all standard tools for strategic management can and should be calibrated and applied to a CE. A specific argument has already been made for the strategy direction matrix of product vs market and the [[GE multifactorial analysis|3 × 3 GE-McKinsey matrix]] to assess business strength vs industry attractiveness, the [[Growth–share matrix|BCG matrix]] of market share vs industry growth rate, and Kraljic's portfolio matrix.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Tonelli |first1=Marcello |title=Strategic Management and the Circular Economy |last2=Cristoni |first2=Nicolò |date=2018 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-351-59269-7 |page=222}}</ref>
 
== Engineering the Circular Life cycle ==
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Circular initiatives, such as clothing rental start-ups, are also getting more and more highlight in the EU and in the US as well. Operating with circular business model, rental services offer everyday fashion, baby wear, maternity wear for rent. The companies either offer flexible pricing in a 'pay as you rent' model like Palanta does,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://palanta.co/how-it-works|title=how PALANTA works|website=palanta.co|access-date=12 December 2020}}</ref> or offer fixed monthly subscriptions such as [[Rent the Runway|Rent The Runway]] or [[Le Tote]].{{citation needed|date=September 2022}}
 
Another circular initiative is offering a take-back program. A company located in Colorado [[Circular Threads]] repurposes post-consumer waste materials such as old denim jeans, retired climbing rope, and discarded sails into new products, rather than letting them go to a landfill. Their take back program allows the consumer to return any product at any time so that it can be recycled again.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://circularthreads.com/pages/about-us|title=About Us}}</ref>
 
Both China and Europe have taken the lead in pushing a circular economy. McDowall et al. 2017 stated that the "Chinese perspective on the circular economy is broad, incorporating pollution and other issues alongside waste and resource concerns, [while] Europe's conception of the circular economy has a narrower environmental scope, focusing on waste and resources and opportunities for business".<ref name="McDowall et al 2017">{{cite journal |last1=McDowall |first1=Will |last2=Geng |first2=Yong |last3=Huang |first3=Beijia |last4=Barteková |first4=Eva |last5=Bleischwitz |first5=Raimund |last6=Türkeli |first6=Serdar |last7=Kemp |first7=René |last8=Doménech |first8=Teresa |title=Circular Economy Policies in China and Europe |journal=Journal of Industrial Ecology |date=June 2017 |volume=21 |issue=3 |pages=651–661 |doi=10.1111/jiec.12597 |bibcode=2017JInEc..21..651M |s2cid=157819895 |url=https://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/id/eprint/1543099/3/McDowall_Circular%2520economy%2520policies%2520in%2520China%2520and%2520Europe%2520SECOND%2520REVISION_CLEAN.pdf }}</ref>
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{{See also|Concrete recycling}}
{{See also|Modular construction systems}}
The [[Construction#Industry scale and characteristics|construction]] sector is one of the world's largest waste generators. The circular economy appears as a helpful solution to diminish the environmental impact of the industry. Recycling or closing loops are an essential component of a sustainable construction industry. However, they cannot increase the positive social and ecological impacts of the built environment, which is necessary to even begin to offset the cumulative impacts of growth. To be sustainable in the context of overshoot, urban development would need to be completely retrofitted on [[Positive Development]] principles. The circular approach could lock in existing unsustainable design and construction models and interfere with systems redesign.<ref>{{Cite web |title=http://netpositivedesign.org |url=http://netpositivedesign.org |access-date=2024-05-05 |website=netpositivedesign.org |language=en-AU}}</ref>
[[File:Construction supply chain.jpg|alt=Circular economy in construction industry|thumb|Circular economy in the construction supply chain<ref name=":15" />|369x369px]]
 
Construction is very important to the economy of the European Union and its state members. It provides 18 million direct jobs and contributes to about 9% of the EU's GDP.<ref>{{cite web |title= Construction {{!}} Growth |url=https://ec.europa.eu/growth/sectors/construction_en |publisher=European Commission |access-date= 6 December 2018|date=2016-07-05 }}</ref> The main causes of the construction's environmental impact are found in the consumption of non-renewable resources and the generation of contaminant residues, both of which are increasing at an accelerating pace.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Nuñez-Cacho |first1=Pedro |last2=Górecki |first2=Jarosław |last3=Molina-Moreno |first3=Valentin |last4=Corpas-Iglesias |first4=Francisco Antonio |title= New Measures of Circular Economy Thinking in Construction Companies |journal=Journal of EU Research in Business |date=2018 |volume=2018 |pages=1–16 |doi= 10.5171/2018.909360 |doi-access=free }}</ref> In the European Union alone, people and companies generate more than 2 billion tonnes of garbage year, or 4.8 tonnes per person, mostly from the building, mining, and manufacturing sectors.<ref name=":1522"/><ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-06-04 |title=EU waste management: infographic with facts and figures {{!}} News {{!}} European Parliament |url=https://www.europarl.europa.eu/news/en/headlines/society/20180328STO00751/eu-waste-management-infographic-with-facts-and-figures |access-date=2023-06-19 |website=www.europarl.europa.eu |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Brunn |first=Michael |date=2022-11-07 |title=EU: 4.8 tonnes of waste generated per inhabitant |url=https://www.recycling-magazine.com/2022/11/07/eu-4-8-tonnes-of-waste-generated-per-inhabitant/ |access-date=2023-06-19 |website=RECYCLING magazine |language=en-US}}</ref> Each individual in Europe generates half a tonne of municipal garbage annually, less than half of which gets recycled.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Municipal waste management across European countries — European Environment Agency |url=https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/municipal-waste-management-across-european-countries |access-date=2023-06-19 |website=www.eea.europa.eu |language=en}}</ref>
 
Cement production accounts for 2.4% of worldwide CO2 emissions from industrial and energy sources.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Cement |url=https://www.iea.org/energy-system/industry/cement |access-date=2024-04-30 |website=IEA |language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Andrew |first=Robbie M. |date=2019-11-20 |title=Global CO2 emissions from cement production, 1928–2018 |url=https://essd.copernicus.org/articles/11/1675/2019/ |journal=Earth System Science Data |language=English |volume=11 |issue=4 |pages=1675–1710 |doi=10.5194/essd-11-1675-2019 |doi-access=free |issn=1866-3508}}</ref>
 
Decision making about the circular economy can be performed on the operational (connected with particular parts of the production process), tactical (connected with whole processes) and strategic (connected with the whole organization) levels. It may concern both construction companies as well as construction projects (where a construction company is one of the [[Project stakeholder|stakeholders]]).{{citation needed|date=September 2022}}
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{{See also|Energy transition}}
 
Oil and gas energy resources are incompatible with the idea of a circular economy, since they are defined as "development that meets the needs of the present while compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs".<ref>{{Cite web|title=Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development: Our Common Future - A/42/427 Annex - UN Documents: Gathering a body of global agreements|url=http://www.un-documents.net/wced-ocf.htm|access-date=2021-10-21|website=www.un-documents.net}}</ref> A sustainable circular economy can only be powered by renewable energies, such as wind, solar, [[hydropower]], and geothermal.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Desing|first1=Harald|last2=Widmer|first2=Rolf|last3=Beloin-Saint-Pierre|first3=Didier|last4=Hischier|first4=Roland|last5=Wäger|first5=Patrick|date=2019-12-11|title=Powering a Sustainable and Circular Economy—An Engineering Approach to Estimating Renewable Energy Potentials within Earth System Boundaries|journal=Energies|language=en|volume=12|issue=24|pages=4723|doi=10.3390/en12244723|issn=1996-1073|doi-access=free}}</ref>
 
What gives entities the ability to achieve 'net zero' carbon-emissions, is that they can offset their fossil fuel consumption by removing carbon from the atmosphere. While this is a necessary first step, global smart grid technologist, Steve Hoy, believes that in order to create a circular economy we should adapt the concept of 'True Zero' as opposed to 'net zero', which is eliminating fossil fuel consumption entirely so that all energy is produced from renewable sources.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Net zero no more: We are entering the era of honest electricity|url=https://www.canarymedia.com/articles/clean-energy/net-zero-no-more-we-are-about-to-enter-the-era-of-honest-electricity|access-date=2021-10-21|website=Canary Media|date=26 May 2021 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2021-10-13|title=Enosi raises $1.5 million for clean energy tech, as demand for renewables ramps up|url=https://www.smartcompany.com.au/startupsmart/news/enosi-powertracer-1-5-million-clean-energy-renewables/|access-date=2021-10-21|website=SmartCompany|language=en-US}}</ref>
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One study suggests that by 2050, up to 40 to 75% of the EU's clean energy metal needs could come from local recycling.<ref>{{cite news |title=Study quantifies metal supplies needed to reach EU's climate neutrality goal |url=https://techxplore.com/news/2022-04-quantifies-metal-eu-climate-neutrality.html |access-date=29 May 2022 |work=K. U. Leuven |language=en}}</ref>
 
A study estimates losses of 61 metals, showing that use spans of, often scarce, [[Technology-critical element|tech-critical metals]] are short.<ref>{{cite news |title=New life cycle assessment study shows useful life of tech-critical metals to be short |url=https://techxplore.com/news/2022-05-life-tech-critical-metals-short.html |access-date=23 June 2022 |work=University of Bayreuth |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Charpentier Poncelet |first1=Alexandre |last2=Helbig |first2=Christoph |last3=Loubet |first3=Philippe |last4=Beylot |first4=Antoine |last5=Muller |first5=Stéphanie |last6=Villeneuve |first6=Jacques |last7=Laratte |first7=Bertrand |last8=Thorenz |first8=Andrea |last9=Tuma |first9=Axel |last10=Sonnemann |first10=Guido |title=Losses and lifetimes of metals in the economy |journal=Nature Sustainability |date=19 May 2022 |volume=5 |issue=8 |pages=717–726 |doi=10.1038/s41893-022-00895-8 |bibcode=2022NatSu...5..717C |s2cid=248894322 |language=en |issn=2398-9629|url=https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-03702553/file/I2M-NS-Charpentier-2022.pdf }}</ref> A study using [[Project Drawdown]]'s modeling framework indicates that, even without considering costs or bottlenecks of expansion of renewable energy generation, metal recycling can lead to significant [[climate change mitigation]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gorman |first1=Miranda R. |last2=Dzombak |first2=David A. |last3=Frischmann |first3=Chad |title=Potential global GHG emissions reduction from increased adoption of metals recycling |journal=Resources, Conservation and Recycling |date=1 September 2022 |volume=184 |pages=106424 |doi=10.1016/j.resconrec.2022.106424 |s2cid=249321004 |language=en |issn=0921-3449|doi-access=free |bibcode=2022RCR...18406424G }}</ref>
 
===Chemistry===
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In July 2014, a zero-waste program for Europe has been put in place aiming at the circular economy.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Leipold |first1=Sina |title=Transforming ecological modernization 'from within' or perpetuating it? The circular economy as EU environmental policy narrative |journal=Environmental Politics |date=2021-01-11 |volume=30 |issue=6 |pages=1045–1067 |doi=10.1080/09644016.2020.1868863 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2021EnvPo..30.1045L }}</ref> Since then, several documents on this subject have been published. The following table summarizes the various European reports and legislation on the circular economy that have been developed between 2014 and 2018.<ref name=":7">{{cite journal |last1=Völker |first1=Thomas |last2=Kovacic |first2=Zora |last3=Strand |first3=Roger |title=Indicator development as a site of collective imagination? The case of European Commission policies on the circular economy |journal=Culture and Organization |date=2020-03-03 |volume=26 |issue=2 |pages=103–120 |doi=10.1080/14759551.2019.1699092 |hdl=1956/23327 |s2cid=214278775 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>
[[File:Table 1 - Core set of circular economy policy documents and reports.png|center|thumb|645x645px]]In addition to the above legislation, the EU has amended the Eco-design Working Plan to add circularity criteria and has enacted eco-design regulations with circular economy components for 7 product types (refrigerators, dishwashers, electronic displays, washing machines, welding equipment and servers and data storage products).<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal|last1=Calisto Friant|first1=Martin|last2=Vermeulen|first2=Walter J. V.|last3=Salomone|first3=Roberta|date=2021-07-01|title=Analysing European Union circular economy policies: words versus actions|journal=Sustainable Production and Consumption|language=en|volume=27|pages=337–353|doi=10.1016/j.spc.2020.11.001|s2cid=228878623|issn=2352-5509|doi-access=free|bibcode=2021SusPC..27..337C }}</ref> These eco-design regulations are aimed at increasing the reparability of products by improving the availability of spare parts and manuals.<ref name=":12" /> At the same time, the European research budget related to the circular economy has increased considerably in the last few years: it has reached 964 million euros between 2018 and 2020.<ref name=":7" /> In total, the European Union has invested 10 billion euros on Circular Economy projects between 2016 and 2019.<ref name=":12" />
 
One waste atlas aggregates some data about waste management of countries and cities, albeit the data is very limited.<ref>{{cite web |title=Waste Atlas |url=http://www.atlas.d-waste.com/ |access-date=29 May 2022 |archive-date=7 October 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141007045220/http://www.atlas.d-waste.com/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>
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The "Circularity Gap Report" indicates that "out of all the minerals, biomass, fossil fuels and metals that enter the [[world economy|world's economy]], only 8.6 percent are reused".<ref>{{cite news |title=World's consumption of materials hits record 100bn tonnes a year |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2020/jan/22/worlds-consumption-of-materials-hits-record-100bn-tonnes-a-year |access-date=29 May 2022 |work=The Guardian |date=22 January 2020 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=The world is now only 8.6% circular - CGR 2020 - Circularity Gap Reporting Initiative |url=https://www.circularity-gap.world/2020 |website=www.circularity-gap.world |access-date=29 May 2022 |language=en}}</ref>
 
The [[European Commission|European Commission's]]<nowiki/>s [[European Green Deal|Circular Economy Action Plan]] has resulted in a wide range of projects, with an emphasis on waste and material sustainability, as well as the circularity of consumer items. Despite a huge number of EU legislative measures, the European Union's circularity rate was 11.5% in 2022 and is slowing down currently.<ref name=":201">{{Cite web |last=Anyiego |first=Beldine |date=2022-08-15 |title=AFRICA: The Clean Oceans initiative will fund twice as many projects as expected? |url=https://www.copip.eu/news/africa-the-clean-oceans-initiative-will-fund-twice-as-many-projects-as-expected/ |access-date=2023-02-23 |website=COPIP}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bank |first=European Investment |date=2024-04-08 |title=Circular economy Overview 2024 |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/20240104-circular-economy-overview-2024 |language=EN}}</ref>
 
=== Programs ===
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===Circular Carbon Economy===
During the 2019 [[COP25]] in Madrid, [[William McDonough]] and marine ecologist [[Carlos M. Duarte|Carlos Duarte]] presented the Circular Carbon Economy at an event with the BBVA Foundation. The Circular Carbon Economy is based on McDonough's ideas from Carbon Is Not The Enemy[1]<ref>{{cite journal |last1=McDonough |first1=W |title=Carbon is not the enemy |journal=Nature |date=2016 |volume=539 |issue=7629 |pages=349–351 |doi=10.1038/539349a |pmid=27853228 |bibcode=2016Natur.539..349M |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/539349a#citeas}}</ref> and aims to serve as the framework for developing and organizing effective systems for carbon management. McDonough used the Circular Carbon Economy to frame discussions at the [[G20]] workshops in March 2020 before the framework's formal acceptance by the G20 Leaders in November 2020.
 
==Critiques of circular economy models==
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Research by Zink and Geyer (2017: 593) questioned the circular economy's engineering-centric assumptions: "However, proponents of the circular economy have tended to look at the world purely as an engineering system and have overlooked the economic part of the circular economy. Recent research has started to question the core of the circular economy—namely, whether closing material and product loops do, in fact, prevent primary production."<ref name="Zink">{{cite journal |last1=Zink |first1=Trevor |last2=Geyer |first2=Roland |date=June 2017 |title=Circular Economy Rebound |journal=Journal of Industrial Ecology |volume=21 |issue=3 |pages=593–602 |doi=10.1111/jiec.12545 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2017JInEc..21..593Z |s2cid=157110158}}</ref>
 
There are other critiques of the circular economy (CE).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lazarevic |first1=David |last2=Valve |first2=Helena |date=September 2017 |title=Narrating expectations for the circular economy: Towards a common and contested European transition |journal=Energy Research & Social Science |volume=31 |pages=60–69 |doi=10.1016/j.erss.2017.05.006|bibcode=2017ERSS...31...60L }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Valenzuela |first1=Francisco |last2=Böhm |first2=Steffen |date=2017 |title=Against wasted politics: A critique of the circular economy |url=http://www.ephemerajournal.org/contribution/against-wasted-politics-critique-circular-economy |journal=Ephemera |volume=17 |issue=1 |pages=23–60}}</ref> For example, Allwood (2014) discussed the limits of CE 'material circularity', and questioned the desirability of the CE in a reality with growing demand.<ref name="Allwood2014" /> Do CE secondary production activities (reuse, repair, and remake) actually reduce, or instead displace, primary production (natural resource extraction)? The problem CE overlooks, its untold story, is how displacement is governed mainly by market forces, according to McMillan et al. (2012).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=McMillan |first1=Colin A. |last2=Skerlos |first2=Steven J. |last3=Keoleian |first3=Gregory A. |date=June 2012 |title=Evaluation of the Metals Industry's Position on Recycling and its Implications for Environmental Emissions: Journal of Industrial Ecology |journal=Journal of Industrial Ecology |volume=16 |issue=3 |pages=324–333 |doi=10.1111/j.1530-9290.2012.00483.x |s2cid=59069446}}</ref> It's the tired old narrative, that the invisible hand of market forces will conspire to create full displacement of virgin material of the same kind, said Zink & Geyer (2017).<ref name="Zink" /> Korhonen, Nuur, Feldmann, and Birkie (2018) argued that "the basic assumptions concerning the values, societal structures, cultures, underlying world-views and the paradigmatic potential of CE remain largely unexplored".<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Korhonen |first1=Jouni |last2=Nuur |first2=Cali |last3=Feldmann |first3=Andreas |last4=Birkie |first4=Seyoum Eshetu |date=February 2018 |title=Circular economy as an essentially contested concept |journal=Journal of Cleaner Production |volume=175 |pages=544–552 |doi=10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.12.111|doi-access=free |bibcode=2018JCPro.175..544K }}</ref>
 
It is also often pointed out that there are fundamental limits to the concept, which are based, among other things, on the laws of [[thermodynamics]].<ref name="Reuter"/> According to the [[second law of thermodynamics]], all spontaneous processes are [[Irreversible process|irreversible]] and associated with an increase in [[entropy]]. It follows that in a real implementation of the concept, one would either have to deviate from the perfect reversibility in order to generate an entropy increase by generating waste, which would ultimately amount to still having parts of the economy which follow a linear scheme, or enormous amounts of energy would be required (from which a significant part would be dissipated in order to for the total entropy to increase).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Korhonen |first1=Jouni |last2=Honkasalo |first2=Antero |last3=Seppälä |first3=Jyri |date=January 2018 |title=Circular Economy: The Concept and its Limitations |journal=Ecological Economics |volume=143 |pages=37–46 |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.06.041|bibcode=2018EcoEc.143...37K }}</ref> In its comment to concept of the circular economy the European Academies' Science Advisory Council (EASAC) came to a similar conclusion:
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{{Blockquote|Recovery and recycling of materials that have been dispersed through pollution, waste and end-of-life product disposal require energy and resources, which increase in a nonlinear manner as the percentage of recycled material rises (owing to the second law of thermodynamics: entropy causing dispersion). Recovery can never be 100% (Faber et al., 1987). The level of recycling that is appropriate may differ between materials.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Circular economy: a commentary from the perspectives of the natural and social sciences|url=https://www.easac.eu/fileadmin/PDF_s/reports_statements/EASAC_Circular_Economy_Web.pdf|journal=European Academies' Science Advisory Council (EASAC)}}</ref>}}
 
In addition to this, the circular economy has been criticized for lacking a strong [[social justice]] component.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Genovese |first1=Andrea |last2=Pansera |first2=Mario |date=2021-04-03 |title=The Circular Economy at a Crossroads: Technocratic Eco-Modernism or Convivial Technology for Social Revolution? |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/10455752.2020.1763414 |journal=Capitalism Nature Socialism |volume=32 |issue=2 |pages=95–113 |doi=10.1080/10455752.2020.1763414 |issn=1045-5752 |s2cid=219477616}}</ref> Indeed, most circular economy visions, projects and policies do not address key social questions regarding how circular economy technologies and solutions will be controlled and how their benefits and costs will be distributed.<ref name=":13">{{Cite journal |last1=Calisto Friant |first1=Martin |last2=Vermeulen |first2=Walter J. V. |last3=Salomone |first3=Roberta |date=2020-10-01 |title=A typology of circular economy discourses: Navigating the diverse visions of a contested paradigm |journal=Resources, Conservation and Recycling |language=en |volume=161 |pages=104917 |doi=10.1016/j.resconrec.2020.104917 |issn=0921-3449 |s2cid=222121823|doi-access=free |bibcode=2020RCR...16104917C }}</ref> To respond to these limitations some academics and social movements prefer to speak of a circular society rather than a circular economy.<ref name=":13" /> They thereby advocate for a circular society where knowledge, political power, wealth, and resources are sustainably circulated in fundamentally democratic and redistributive manners, rather than just improving resource efficiency as most circular economy proposals do.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Calisto Friant |first1=Martin |last2=Vermeulen |first2=Walter J. V. |last3=Salomone |first3=Roberta |date=2023-05-25 |title=Transition to a Sustainable Circular Society: More than Just Resource Efficiency |journal=Circular Economy and Sustainability |volume=4 |pages=23–42 |language=en |doi=10.1007/s43615-023-00272-3 |issn=2730-5988|doi-access=free }}</ref>
 
Moreover, it has been argued that a [[Sustainable consumption#Degrowth|post-growth approach]] should be adopted for the circular economy where material loops are put (directly) at the service of wellbeing, instead of attempting to reconcile the circular economy with GDP growth.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bauwens |first1=Thomas |title=Are the circular economy and economic growth compatible? A case for post-growth circularity |journal=Resources, Conservation and Recycling |date=1 December 2021 |volume=175 |pages=105852 |doi=10.1016/j.resconrec.2021.105852 |language=en |issn=0921-3449|doi-access=free |bibcode=2021RCR...17505852B }}</ref> For example, efficiency improvements at the level of individual products could be offset by a growth in total or per-capita consumption,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Corvellec |first1=Hervé |last2=Stowell |first2=Alison F. |last3=Johansson |first3=Nils |title=Critiques of the circular economy |journal=Journal of Industrial Ecology |date=April 2022 |volume=26 |issue=2 |pages=421–432 |doi=10.1111/jiec.13187 |s2cid=238087986 |language=en |issn=1088-1980|doi-access=free |bibcode=2022JInEc..26..421C }}</ref> which only beyond-circularity measures like [[choice editing]] and [[rationing]] unsustainable products or emissions may be able to address.
 
==Related concepts==
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===Cradle to cradle===
{{main|Cradle to cradle design}}
Created by Walter R. Stahel and similar theorists, in which industry adopts the reuse and service-life extension of goods as a strategy of [[waste prevention]], regional job creation, and [[resource efficiency]] in order to decouple wealth from [[resource consumption]].<ref name="zhong">{{cite journal|last1=Zhong|first1=Shan|title=Tightening the loop on the circular economy: Coupled distributed recycling and manufacturing with recyclebot and RepRap 3-D printing|journal=Resources, Conservation and Recycling|date=2018|volume=128|pages=48–58|doi=10.1016/j.resconrec.2017.09.023|bibcode=2018RCR...128...48Z |s2cid=13833024 |url=https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-02111399/file/Tightening_the_Loop_on_the_Circular_Econ.pdf}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Cooper|first=Tim|year=2005|title=Slower Consumption Reflections on Product Life Spans and the "Throwaway Society"|journal=Journal of Industrial Ecology|volume=9| issue = 1–2|pages=51–67|doi=10.1162/1088198054084671|url=http://irep.ntu.ac.uk/id/eprint/994/1/NPS_1081a_Cooper.pdf|doi-access=free|bibcode=2005JInEc...9...51C }}</ref>
 
===Industrial ecology===
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