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[[Image:Louvres-antiquites-egyptiennes-img 2713.jpg|thumb|260px|Contract for metayage, papyrus, 35th year of [[Amasis II]] (533 BC, [[Demotic (Egyptian)|26th Dynasty]])]]
The '''metayage'''{{efn|{{IPAc-en|UK|ˌ|m|eɪ|t|eɪ|ˈ|(|j|)|ɑː|ʒ|,_|ˌ|m|ɛ|t|-}}, {{IPAc-en|US|-|t|ə|ˈ|j|-}};<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.collinsdictionary.com/amp/english/metayage|title=Metayage|work=[[Collins English Dictionary]]|publisher=[[HarperCollins]]|accessdate=March 23, 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite dictionary |url=http://www.lexico.com/definition/m%C3%A9tayage |title=métayage |dictionary=[[Lexico|Oxford Dictionaries]] UK English Dictionary |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]}}{{dead link|date=September 2022|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref><ref>{{Cite Merriam-Webster|métayage|accessdate=March 23, 2019}}</ref> {{lang-fr|métayage}} {{IPA-fr|metɛjaʒ|}}; {{lang-es|mediería}} {{IPA-es|meðjeˈɾi.a|}}; {{lang-it|mezzadria}} {{IPA-it|meddzaˈdriːa|}}.}} system is the cultivation of land for a proprietor by one who receives a proportion of the produce, as a kind of [[sharecropping]]. Another class of land tenancy in France is named {{ill|fermage|lt=''fermage''|fr}}, whereby the rent is paid annually in banknotes. A farm operating under ''métayage'' was known as a ''métairie'', the origin of some place names in areas where the system was used, such as [[Metairie, Louisiana]].
==Origin and function==
Métayage was available under [[Roman law]], although it was not in widespread use.<ref>Cato, Marcus Porcius ''De Re Rustica'' Capitula CXXXVI - CXXXVII</ref><ref>Crook, J.A. (1967) ''Law and Life of Rome: 90 B.C. to A.D. 212'' Cornell Univ. Press: Ithaca, NY. p. 157</ref> It proved useful after the emancipation of Roman slaves as the newly freed peasants had no land or cash (the same phenomenon happened in Brazil and the US when slavery was banned).
In what is now northern Italy and southeastern France, the post [[Black Death]] population explosion of the late Middle Ages, combined with the relative lack of free land, made métayage an attractive system for both landowner and farmer. Once institutionalized, it continued into the 18th Century, although the base causes had been relieved by emigration to the [[New World]].{{Citation needed|date=November 2009}}.
Métayage was used early in the [[Middle Ages]] in northern France and the [[Rhineland]]s, where burgeoning prosperity encouraged large-scale vineyard planting, similar to what the ancient Romans had accomplished using slave labor. The hyperinflation that followed the influx of Incan-American gold made Métayage preferable to cash tenancy and wage labour for both parties. Called ''complant'', a laborer (in French ''[[prendeur]]'', in Italian ''mezzadro'') would offer to plant and tend to an uncultivated parcel of land belonging to a land owner (in French ''[[bailleur]]'', in Italian ''concedente''). The ''prendeur'' would have ownership of the vines and the ''bailleur'' would receive anywhere from a third to two-thirds of the vines' production in exchange for the use of his soil.<ref>Hugh Johnson, ''Vintage: The Story of Wine'' pg 116. Simon and Schuster 1989</ref> This system was used extensively in planting the [[Champagne region]].<ref>[http://www.maisons-champagne.com/traduction/english/bonal_gb/pages/01/01-02_gb.htm Excerpts from R. Dion’s “ Histoire de la Vigne et du Vin en France“] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927205512/http://www.maisons-champagne.com/traduction/english/bonal_gb/pages/01/01-02_gb.htm |date=2007-09-27 }}</ref> ''Bailleur'' was also used as the name for the proprietor under métayage. The contract still exists today in Switzerland.<ref>[http://www.agrivalais.ch/fr/agriculteurs/metayagevigne.pdf agrivalais.ch: "Contrat de métayage dans la vigne"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121224213505/http://www.agrivalais.ch/fr/agriculteurs/metayagevigne.pdf |date=2012-12-24 }}</ref>
In the eighteenth century c. 75% of leased lands in western, southern and central France were sharecropped. North of the [[Loire]] it was only common in [[Lorraine]].<ref>Sharecropping and Sharecroppers, T J Byres, page 18</ref>
In Italy and France, respectively, it was called ''mezzadria'' and ''métayage'', or halving - the halving, that is, of the produce of the soil between landowner and land-holder. Halving didn't imply equal amounts of the produce but rather division according to agreement. The produce was divisible in certain definite proportions, which obviously must have varied with the varying fertility of the soil and other circumstances and did in practice vary so much that the [[landlord]]'s share was sometimes as much as two-thirds, sometimes as little as one-third. Sometimes the landlord supplied all the stock, sometimes only part - the cattle and seed perhaps, while the farmer provided the implements; or perhaps only half the seed and half the cattle, the farmer finding the other halves. Thus the ''instrumentum fundi'' of [[Roman Law]] was combined within métayage.<ref>Crook, J.A. (1967) ''Law and Life of Rome: 90 B.C. to A.D. 212'' Cornell Univ. Press: Ithaca, NY. p. 158</ref> Taxes were also frequently divided, being paid wholly by one or the other, or jointly by both.
In the 18th Century, métayage agreements began to give way to agreements to share profits from the sale of the crops and to straight tenant farming, although the practice in its original form could still be found in isolated communities until the early 20th Century.<ref>Shaffer, John W. (1982) ''Family and Farm: Agrarian Change and Household Organization in the Loire Valley, 1500-1900'' State University of New York Press: Albany. {{ISBN|0-87395-562-5}}</ref> By 1929, there were still 200,000 Métayers, farming 11% of French cultivated land (same % in 1892). It was most common in [[Landes forest|Landes]] and [[Allier]] (72% and 49% respectively).<ref>Land Tenure and Political Tendency in Rural France: The Case of Sharecropping, S Sokoloff, European Studies Review, 1980, page 361</ref> As the métayage practice changed, the term ''colonat partiaire'' began to be applied to the old practice of sharing-out the actual crop, while métayage was used for the sharing-out of the proceeds from the sale of the crops. ''Colonat partiaire'' was still practised in the French overseas departments, notably [[Réunion]],<ref>[http://www.jir.fr/article.php3?id_article=129806 "Le colonat partiaire" ''Clicanoo, Journal de l'Ile de la Réunion'' 15 May 2006] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071008061920/http://www.jir.fr/article.php3?id_article=129806 |date=8 October 2007 }};</ref> until 2006 when it was abolished.<ref>[http://www.admi.net/jo/20060106/AGRX0500091L.html Art. L. 462-28, French National Assembly, Law No 2006-11 of January 5 2006 ''Journal officiel de la République Française'' of January 6, 2006];</ref>
In France, there was also a system termed ''métayage par groupes'', which consisted of letting a sizeable farm not to one métayer but to an association of several who would work together for the general good under the supervision of either the landlord or his bailiff. This arrangement got past the difficulty of finding tenants having sufficient capital and labour to run the larger farms.
In France, since 1983, these métayage and similar farming contracts have been regulated by Livre IV of the Rural Code.<ref>[http://admi.net/code/index-CRURALNL.html French Rural Code Livre IV ''Baux ruraux'']</ref>
==Localities==
The system was once universal in certain provinces of [[Italy]] and [[France]], and survived there in places until the end of the nineteenth century. Similar systems formerly existed in [[Portugal]], [[Old Castile|Castile]],<ref>[http://libro.uca.edu/vassberg/land5.htm D. Vassberg "Land and Society in Golden Age Castile"]</ref> and in [[Greece]],<ref>Moreau-Christophe, Louis-Mathurin (1849) ''Du Droit a l'Oisiveté et de l'Organisation du Travail Servile Dans les Républiques Grecques et Romaine'' Chez Guillaumin et Ce, Libraires: Paris, pp. 258-261.</ref> and in the countries bordering on the [[Danube]]. It is tracked to this day in statistics of the [[European Commission]].<ref>[http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:2009:329:0001:0028:FR:PDF eur-lex.eu: "RÈGLEMENT (CE) No 1200/2009 DE LA COMMISSION" 30 Nov 2009]</ref><ref>[http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:2001:255:0001:0051:FR:PDF eur-lex.eu: "REGLEMENT (CE) No 1837/2001 DE LA COMMISSION" 10 Sep 2001]</ref><ref>[http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:2002:216:0001:0041:FR:PDF eur-lex.eu: "RÈGLEMENT (CE) No 1444/2002 DE LA COMMISSION" 24 Jul 2002]</ref> Métayage was used in French colonies, particularly after the demise of slavery. Also, because of its utility métayage spread to nearby British colonies such as Nevis, St. Lucia and Tobago.<ref>Richardson, Bonham C. (1992) ''The Caribbean in the Wider World, 1492-1992: A Regional Geography'' Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, p. 74. {{ISBN|0-521-35186-3}}</ref><ref>Marshall, W.K. (1965) “Métayage in the Sugar Industry of the British Windward Islands, 1838-1865" ''The Jamaican Historical Review'' 5:28-55.</ref> It still occurs in former French possessions, particularly in [[Madagascar]].<ref>[http://www.ilo.cornell.edu/ilo/briefs.html ''Dynamics in Social Service Delivery and the Rural Economy of Madagascar: Descriptive Results of the 2004 Commune Survey'' International Labour organization (ILO), (April 2005)]</ref> In the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Congo]] the system is used in the vicinity of [[Kahuzi-Biéga National Park]] as a means to protect the natural environment.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.irec.net/index.jsp?p=28&f=227 |title=irec.net: "Le metayage agricole comme l'un des moyens de la protection des ressources naturelles de kahuzi biega" (Ntamwira Kasigwa: thesis, 2000) |access-date=2014-04-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140413142443/http://www.irec.net/index.jsp?p=28&f=227 |archive-date=2014-04-13 |url-status=dead }}</ref> In Mexico the system is used in animal husbandry.<ref>[https://www.researchgate.net/publication/45515239_Le_mtayage_d%27levage_au_Mexique__colonisations_foncires_et_dynamiques_d%27une_institution_agraire_dans_l%27histoire_contemporaine "Le métayage d'élevage au Mexique : colonisations foncières et dynamiques d'une institution agraire dans l'histoire contemporaine" (H. Cochet, Eric Léonard, Bernard Tallet)]</ref>
The term ''métayage'' is also applied to modern-day flexible cash leases at least in the nominally common law Canadian province of [[Ontario]],<ref>''Flexible Cash Lease Agreements/Contrats de métayage portant sur les cultures'', Factsheet 812 (2001) Ministry of Agriculture, Government of Ontario accessed at [http://www.omafra.gov.on.ca/french/busdev/facts/01-068.htm][https://web.archive.org/web/20070802143042/http://omafra.gov.on.ca/french/busdev/facts/01-068.htm] with English version at [http://www.omafra.gov.on.ca/english/busdev/facts/01-069.htm][https://web.archive.org/web/20090328025503/http://www.omafra.gov.on.ca/english/busdev/facts/01-069.htm] June 20, 2006</ref> and in 2006 in all of Canada, 13,030 farms occupying 2,316,566ha were counted by Statistics Canada.<ref name=statscan>[http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/95-629-x/4/4124092-fra.htm statcan.gc.ca: "Mode d'occupation, 2006: Tableau 4.5-5 - Mode d'occupation déclaré des terres possédées, louées, en métayage ou utilisées sous d'autres arrangements - Superficie en métayage, année de recensement 2006"]</ref> The same study of metayage found 2,489 farms covering 130,873ha in Ontario.<ref name=statscan/> The system was useful in Quebec for most agricultural properties at least as far back as the year 1800,<ref>[http://www.biographi.ca/en/bio/antrobus_john_5E.html biographi.ca: "DCB entry for ANTROBUS, JOHN"]</ref> and is still tracked statistically by value in Quebec as "loyer en espèces et à la part - agriculture".<ref>[http://www.bdso.gouv.qc.ca/pls/ken/Ken254_Clas.page_clas?p_iden_tran=REPERULWQEM50-125261503633b$u%29&p_lang=2&p_id_03t03=1053 bdso.gouv.qc.ca: "Databank of Official Statistics on Québec - Definitions"]</ref> It appears to benefit from favourable tax treatment in Canada,<ref>[http://www.cra-arc.gc.ca/F/pub/gl/p-253/p-253-f.pdf "Énoncé de politique sur la TPS/TVH - Metayage" (P-253) 13 Jan 2009] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131004033801/http://www.cra-arc.gc.ca/F/pub/gl/p-253/p-253-f.pdf |date=2013-10-04 }}</ref> where it is known as "sharecropping".<ref>[http://www.cra-arc.gc.ca/F/pub/tg/t4036/t4036-f.html cra-arc.gc.ca: "Revenus de location 2013" T4036(F) Rév. 13]</ref> In forestry metayage is the subject of a Government of Canada infosheet,<ref>[https://cfs.nrcan.gc.ca/publications?id=25075 nrcan.gc.ca: "La ferme forestière en métayage. 2004. Masse, S. Ressources naturelles Canada, Service canadien des forêts, Centre de foresterie des Laurentides, Québec, QC. L’éclaircie No. 11. 2 p."]</ref> and socio-economic report,<ref>[http://www.modelforest.org/media/k2/attachments/BSL_Viabilit_socio_conomique_FR.pdf "La viabilité socio-économique de la ferme forestière en métayage" (Masse, S: Service canadien des forêts, Centre de foresterie des Laurentides, Natural Resources Canada)]{{dead link|date=January 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> and has been the subject in Quebec of recent scholarly research.<ref>[http://theses.ulaval.ca/archimede/fichiers/23961/23961.html ulaval.ca: "Des fermes forestières en métayage sur le territoire public québécois. Vers un outil d'évaluation pour les communautés" (Roy, ME: MSc thesis, 2006)]</ref>
==Criticism==
British writers were unanimous in condemning the métayage system, until [[John Stuart Mill]] adopted a different tone. They judged it by its appearance in France, where under the ''[[ancien régime]]'' all direct [[tax]]es were paid by the métayer with the noble landowner being exempt. With the taxes being assessed according to the visible produce of the soil, they operated as penalties upon productiveness. Under this system, a métayer could fancy that his interest lay less in exerting himself to augment the total share to be divided between himself and his landlord and instead be encouraged to defraud the latter part of his rightful share. This was partly due to the métayer's relative state of destitution and with the fixed duration of his tenure - without which the metayage could not prosper. French metayers, in [[Arthur Young (writer)|Arthur Young]]'s time, were "removable at pleasure, and obliged to conform in all things to the will of their landlords," and so in general they so remained.<ref name="Cruveilhier, J. 1894">Cruveilhier, J. (1894) ''Étude sur le métayage'' Paris.</ref>
In 1600, the landlord [[Olivier de Serres]] wrote 'Le théâtre de l'agriculture' which recommends Métayage as cash tenants took all the risks so would demand lower rent while hired labour was expensive to manage.<ref>The Economic Theory of Sharecropping in Early Modern France, Philip Hoffman, The Journal of Economic History 1984, page 312</ref> [[Jean Charles Leonard de Sismondi|Simonde de Sismondi]] expressed dissatisfaction in 1819 with the institution of métayage because it reinforced the poverty of the peasants and prevented any social or cultural development.<ref>[[Jean Charles Leonard de Sismondi|de Sismondi, Simonde]] (1819) ''Nouveaux principes d'economie politique, ou de la Richesse dans ses rapports avec la population'' translated as ''New Principles of Political Economy of Wealth in Its Relation to Population '' by Richard Hyse, Transaction Publishers: London (1991). {{ISBN|0-88738-336-X}}</ref>{{page needed|date=December 2017}}
Although métayage and extreme rural poverty usually coincided, there were provinces in France and Italy (especially on the plains of [[Lombardy]]) where the contrary was the case.<ref name="Cruveilhier, J. 1894"/>
==See also==
*[[Sharecropping]]
*[[Sharefarming]]
*[[Tenant farmer]]
==Notes==
{{notelist}}
==References==
{{reflist}}
{{1911|wstitle=Métayage System|volume=18|page=257}}
[[Category:Agricultural labor]]' |
New page wikitext, after the edit (new_wikitext) | '==Origin and function==
Métayage was available under [[Roman law]], although it was not in widespread use.<ref>Cato, Marcus Porcius ''De Re Rustica'' Capitula CXXXVI - CXXXVII</ref><ref>Crook, J.A. (1967) ''Law and Life of Rome: 90 B.C. to A.D. 212'' Cornell Univ. Press: Ithaca, NY. p. 157</ref> It proved useful after the emancipation of Roman slaves as the newly freed peasants had no land or cash (the same phenomenon happened in Brazil and the US when slavery was banned).
In what is now northern Italy and southeastern France, the post [[Black Death]] population explosion of the late Middle Ages, combined with the relative lack of free land, made métayage an attractive system for both landowner and farmer. Once institutionalized, it continued into the 18th Century, although the base causes had been relieved by emigration to the [[New World]].{{Citation needed|date=November 2009}}.
Métayage was used early in the [[Middle Ages]] in northern France and the [[Rhineland]]s, where burgeoning prosperity encouraged large-scale vineyard planting, similar to what the ancient Romans had accomplished using slave labor. The hyperinflation that followed the influx of Incan-American gold made Métayage preferable to cash tenancy and wage labour for both parties. Called ''complant'', a laborer (in French ''[[prendeur]]'', in Italian ''mezzadro'') would offer to plant and tend to an uncultivated parcel of land belonging to a land owner (in French ''[[bailleur]]'', in Italian ''concedente''). The ''prendeur'' would have ownership of the vines and the ''bailleur'' would receive anywhere from a third to two-thirds of the vines' production in exchange for the use of his soil.<ref>Hugh Johnson, ''Vintage: The Story of Wine'' pg 116. Simon and Schuster 1989</ref> This system was used extensively in planting the [[Champagne region]].<ref>[http://www.maisons-champagne.com/traduction/english/bonal_gb/pages/01/01-02_gb.htm Excerpts from R. Dion’s “ Histoire de la Vigne et du Vin en France“] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927205512/http://www.maisons-champagne.com/traduction/english/bonal_gb/pages/01/01-02_gb.htm |date=2007-09-27 }}</ref> ''Bailleur'' was also used as the name for the proprietor under métayage. The contract still exists today in Switzerland.<ref>[http://www.agrivalais.ch/fr/agriculteurs/metayagevigne.pdf agrivalais.ch: "Contrat de métayage dans la vigne"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121224213505/http://www.agrivalais.ch/fr/agriculteurs/metayagevigne.pdf |date=2012-12-24 }}</ref>
In the eighteenth century c. 75% of leased lands in western, southern and central France were sharecropped. North of the [[Loire]] it was only common in [[Lorraine]].<ref>Sharecropping and Sharecroppers, T J Byres, page 18</ref>
In Italy and France, respectively, it was called ''mezzadria'' and ''métayage'', or halving - the halving, that is, of the produce of the soil between landowner and land-holder. Halving didn't imply equal amounts of the produce but rather division according to agreement. The produce was divisible in certain definite proportions, which obviously must have varied with the varying fertility of the soil and other circumstances and did in practice vary so much that the [[landlord]]'s share was sometimes as much as two-thirds, sometimes as little as one-third. Sometimes the landlord supplied all the stock, sometimes only part - the cattle and seed perhaps, while the farmer provided the implements; or perhaps only half the seed and half the cattle, the farmer finding the other halves. Thus the ''instrumentum fundi'' of [[Roman Law]] was combined within métayage.<ref>Crook, J.A. (1967) ''Law and Life of Rome: 90 B.C. to A.D. 212'' Cornell Univ. Press: Ithaca, NY. p. 158</ref> Taxes were also frequently divided, being paid wholly by one or the other, or jointly by both.
In the 18th Century, métayage agreements began to give way to agreements to share profits from the sale of the crops and to straight tenant farming, although the practice in its original form could still be found in isolated communities until the early 20th Century.<ref>Shaffer, John W. (1982) ''Family and Farm: Agrarian Change and Household Organization in the Loire Valley, 1500-1900'' State University of New York Press: Albany. {{ISBN|0-87395-562-5}}</ref> By 1929, there were still 200,000 Métayers, farming 11% of French cultivated land (same % in 1892). It was most common in [[Landes forest|Landes]] and [[Allier]] (72% and 49% respectively).<ref>Land Tenure and Political Tendency in Rural France: The Case of Sharecropping, S Sokoloff, European Studies Review, 1980, page 361</ref> As the métayage practice changed, the term ''colonat partiaire'' began to be applied to the old practice of sharing-out the actual crop, while métayage was used for the sharing-out of the proceeds from the sale of the crops. ''Colonat partiaire'' was still practised in the French overseas departments, notably [[Réunion]],<ref>[http://www.jir.fr/article.php3?id_article=129806 "Le colonat partiaire" ''Clicanoo, Journal de l'Ile de la Réunion'' 15 May 2006] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071008061920/http://www.jir.fr/article.php3?id_article=129806 |date=8 October 2007 }};</ref> until 2006 when it was abolished.<ref>[http://www.admi.net/jo/20060106/AGRX0500091L.html Art. L. 462-28, French National Assembly, Law No 2006-11 of January 5 2006 ''Journal officiel de la République Française'' of January 6, 2006];</ref>
In France, there was also a system termed ''métayage par groupes'', which consisted of letting a sizeable farm not to one métayer but to an association of several who would work together for the general good under the supervision of either the landlord or his bailiff. This arrangement got past the difficulty of finding tenants having sufficient capital and labour to run the larger farms.
In France, since 1983, these métayage and similar farming contracts have been regulated by Livre IV of the Rural Code.<ref>[http://admi.net/code/index-CRURALNL.html French Rural Code Livre IV ''Baux ruraux'']</ref>
==Localities==
The system was once universal in certain provinces of [[Italy]] and [[France]], and survived there in places until the end of the nineteenth century. Similar systems formerly existed in [[Portugal]], [[Old Castile|Castile]],<ref>[http://libro.uca.edu/vassberg/land5.htm D. Vassberg "Land and Society in Golden Age Castile"]</ref> and in [[Greece]],<ref>Moreau-Christophe, Louis-Mathurin (1849) ''Du Droit a l'Oisiveté et de l'Organisation du Travail Servile Dans les Républiques Grecques et Romaine'' Chez Guillaumin et Ce, Libraires: Paris, pp. 258-261.</ref> and in the countries bordering on the [[Danube]]. It is tracked to this day in statistics of the [[European Commission]].<ref>[http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:2009:329:0001:0028:FR:PDF eur-lex.eu: "RÈGLEMENT (CE) No 1200/2009 DE LA COMMISSION" 30 Nov 2009]</ref><ref>[http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:2001:255:0001:0051:FR:PDF eur-lex.eu: "REGLEMENT (CE) No 1837/2001 DE LA COMMISSION" 10 Sep 2001]</ref><ref>[http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:2002:216:0001:0041:FR:PDF eur-lex.eu: "RÈGLEMENT (CE) No 1444/2002 DE LA COMMISSION" 24 Jul 2002]</ref> Métayage was used in French colonies, particularly after the demise of slavery. Also, because of its utility métayage spread to nearby British colonies such as Nevis, St. Lucia and Tobago.<ref>Richardson, Bonham C. (1992) ''The Caribbean in the Wider World, 1492-1992: A Regional Geography'' Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, p. 74. {{ISBN|0-521-35186-3}}</ref><ref>Marshall, W.K. (1965) “Métayage in the Sugar Industry of the British Windward Islands, 1838-1865" ''The Jamaican Historical Review'' 5:28-55.</ref> It still occurs in former French possessions, particularly in [[Madagascar]].<ref>[http://www.ilo.cornell.edu/ilo/briefs.html ''Dynamics in Social Service Delivery and the Rural Economy of Madagascar: Descriptive Results of the 2004 Commune Survey'' International Labour organization (ILO), (April 2005)]</ref> In the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Congo]] the system is used in the vicinity of [[Kahuzi-Biéga National Park]] as a means to protect the natural environment.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.irec.net/index.jsp?p=28&f=227 |title=irec.net: "Le metayage agricole comme l'un des moyens de la protection des ressources naturelles de kahuzi biega" (Ntamwira Kasigwa: thesis, 2000) |access-date=2014-04-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140413142443/http://www.irec.net/index.jsp?p=28&f=227 |archive-date=2014-04-13 |url-status=dead }}</ref> In Mexico the system is used in animal husbandry.<ref>[https://www.researchgate.net/publication/45515239_Le_mtayage_d%27levage_au_Mexique__colonisations_foncires_et_dynamiques_d%27une_institution_agraire_dans_l%27histoire_contemporaine "Le métayage d'élevage au Mexique : colonisations foncières et dynamiques d'une institution agraire dans l'histoire contemporaine" (H. Cochet, Eric Léonard, Bernard Tallet)]</ref>
The term ''métayage'' is also applied to modern-day flexible cash leases at least in the nominally common law Canadian province of [[Ontario]],<ref>''Flexible Cash Lease Agreements/Contrats de métayage portant sur les cultures'', Factsheet 812 (2001) Ministry of Agriculture, Government of Ontario accessed at [http://www.omafra.gov.on.ca/french/busdev/facts/01-068.htm][https://web.archive.org/web/20070802143042/http://omafra.gov.on.ca/french/busdev/facts/01-068.htm] with English version at [http://www.omafra.gov.on.ca/english/busdev/facts/01-069.htm][https://web.archive.org/web/20090328025503/http://www.omafra.gov.on.ca/english/busdev/facts/01-069.htm] June 20, 2006</ref> and in 2006 in all of Canada, 13,030 farms occupying 2,316,566ha were counted by Statistics Canada.<ref name=statscan>[http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/95-629-x/4/4124092-fra.htm statcan.gc.ca: "Mode d'occupation, 2006: Tableau 4.5-5 - Mode d'occupation déclaré des terres possédées, louées, en métayage ou utilisées sous d'autres arrangements - Superficie en métayage, année de recensement 2006"]</ref> The same study of metayage found 2,489 farms covering 130,873ha in Ontario.<ref name=statscan/> The system was useful in Quebec for most agricultural properties at least as far back as the year 1800,<ref>[http://www.biographi.ca/en/bio/antrobus_john_5E.html biographi.ca: "DCB entry for ANTROBUS, JOHN"]</ref> and is still tracked statistically by value in Quebec as "loyer en espèces et à la part - agriculture".<ref>[http://www.bdso.gouv.qc.ca/pls/ken/Ken254_Clas.page_clas?p_iden_tran=REPERULWQEM50-125261503633b$u%29&p_lang=2&p_id_03t03=1053 bdso.gouv.qc.ca: "Databank of Official Statistics on Québec - Definitions"]</ref> It appears to benefit from favourable tax treatment in Canada,<ref>[http://www.cra-arc.gc.ca/F/pub/gl/p-253/p-253-f.pdf "Énoncé de politique sur la TPS/TVH - Metayage" (P-253) 13 Jan 2009] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131004033801/http://www.cra-arc.gc.ca/F/pub/gl/p-253/p-253-f.pdf |date=2013-10-04 }}</ref> where it is known as "sharecropping".<ref>[http://www.cra-arc.gc.ca/F/pub/tg/t4036/t4036-f.html cra-arc.gc.ca: "Revenus de location 2013" T4036(F) Rév. 13]</ref> In forestry metayage is the subject of a Government of Canada infosheet,<ref>[https://cfs.nrcan.gc.ca/publications?id=25075 nrcan.gc.ca: "La ferme forestière en métayage. 2004. Masse, S. Ressources naturelles Canada, Service canadien des forêts, Centre de foresterie des Laurentides, Québec, QC. L’éclaircie No. 11. 2 p."]</ref> and socio-economic report,<ref>[http://www.modelforest.org/media/k2/attachments/BSL_Viabilit_socio_conomique_FR.pdf "La viabilité socio-économique de la ferme forestière en métayage" (Masse, S: Service canadien des forêts, Centre de foresterie des Laurentides, Natural Resources Canada)]{{dead link|date=January 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> and has been the subject in Quebec of recent scholarly research.<ref>[http://theses.ulaval.ca/archimede/fichiers/23961/23961.html ulaval.ca: "Des fermes forestières en métayage sur le territoire public québécois. Vers un outil d'évaluation pour les communautés" (Roy, ME: MSc thesis, 2006)]</ref>
==Criticism==
British writers were unanimous in condemning the métayage system, until [[John Stuart Mill]] adopted a different tone. They judged it by its appearance in France, where under the ''[[ancien régime]]'' all direct [[tax]]es were paid by the métayer with the noble landowner being exempt. With the taxes being assessed according to the visible produce of the soil, they operated as penalties upon productiveness. Under this system, a métayer could fancy that his interest lay less in exerting himself to augment the total share to be divided between himself and his landlord and instead be encouraged to defraud the latter part of his rightful share. This was partly due to the métayer's relative state of destitution and with the fixed duration of his tenure - without which the metayage could not prosper. French metayers, in [[Arthur Young (writer)|Arthur Young]]'s time, were "removable at pleasure, and obliged to conform in all things to the will of their landlords," and so in general they so remained.<ref name="Cruveilhier, J. 1894">Cruveilhier, J. (1894) ''Étude sur le métayage'' Paris.</ref>
In 1600, the landlord [[Olivier de Serres]] wrote 'Le théâtre de l'agriculture' which recommends Métayage as cash tenants took all the risks so would demand lower rent while hired labour was expensive to manage.<ref>The Economic Theory of Sharecropping in Early Modern France, Philip Hoffman, The Journal of Economic History 1984, page 312</ref> [[Jean Charles Leonard de Sismondi|Simonde de Sismondi]] expressed dissatisfaction in 1819 with the institution of métayage because it reinforced the poverty of the peasants and prevented any social or cultural development.<ref>[[Jean Charles Leonard de Sismondi|de Sismondi, Simonde]] (1819) ''Nouveaux principes d'economie politique, ou de la Richesse dans ses rapports avec la population'' translated as ''New Principles of Political Economy of Wealth in Its Relation to Population '' by Richard Hyse, Transaction Publishers: London (1991). {{ISBN|0-88738-336-X}}</ref>{{page needed|date=December 2017}}
Although métayage and extreme rural poverty usually coincided, there were provinces in France and Italy (especially on the plains of [[Lombardy]]) where the contrary was the case.<ref name="Cruveilhier, J. 1894"/>
==See also==
*[[Sharecropping]]
*[[Sharefarming]]
*[[Tenant farmer]]
==Notes==
{{notelist}}
==References==
{{reflist}}
{{1911|wstitle=Métayage System|volume=18|page=257}}
[[Category:Agricultural labor]]' |
Unified diff of changes made by edit (edit_diff) | '@@ -1,6 +1,2 @@
-{{short description|Cultivation of land for a proprietor by one who receives a proportion of the produce}}
-[[Image:Louvres-antiquites-egyptiennes-img 2713.jpg|thumb|260px|Contract for metayage, papyrus, 35th year of [[Amasis II]] (533 BC, [[Demotic (Egyptian)|26th Dynasty]])]]
-The '''metayage'''{{efn|{{IPAc-en|UK|ˌ|m|eɪ|t|eɪ|ˈ|(|j|)|ɑː|ʒ|,_|ˌ|m|ɛ|t|-}}, {{IPAc-en|US|-|t|ə|ˈ|j|-}};<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.collinsdictionary.com/amp/english/metayage|title=Metayage|work=[[Collins English Dictionary]]|publisher=[[HarperCollins]]|accessdate=March 23, 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite dictionary |url=http://www.lexico.com/definition/m%C3%A9tayage |title=métayage |dictionary=[[Lexico|Oxford Dictionaries]] UK English Dictionary |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]}}{{dead link|date=September 2022|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref><ref>{{Cite Merriam-Webster|métayage|accessdate=March 23, 2019}}</ref> {{lang-fr|métayage}} {{IPA-fr|metɛjaʒ|}}; {{lang-es|mediería}} {{IPA-es|meðjeˈɾi.a|}}; {{lang-it|mezzadria}} {{IPA-it|meddzaˈdriːa|}}.}} system is the cultivation of land for a proprietor by one who receives a proportion of the produce, as a kind of [[sharecropping]]. Another class of land tenancy in France is named {{ill|fermage|lt=''fermage''|fr}}, whereby the rent is paid annually in banknotes. A farm operating under ''métayage'' was known as a ''métairie'', the origin of some place names in areas where the system was used, such as [[Metairie, Louisiana]].
-
==Origin and function==
Métayage was available under [[Roman law]], although it was not in widespread use.<ref>Cato, Marcus Porcius ''De Re Rustica'' Capitula CXXXVI - CXXXVII</ref><ref>Crook, J.A. (1967) ''Law and Life of Rome: 90 B.C. to A.D. 212'' Cornell Univ. Press: Ithaca, NY. p. 157</ref> It proved useful after the emancipation of Roman slaves as the newly freed peasants had no land or cash (the same phenomenon happened in Brazil and the US when slavery was banned).
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Parsed HTML source of the new revision (new_html) | '<div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none" /><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><span class="toctogglespan"><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></span></div>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Origin_and_function"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Origin and function</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2"><a href="#Localities"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Localities</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-3"><a href="#Criticism"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Criticism</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-4"><a href="#See_also"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-5"><a href="#Notes"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">Notes</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-6"><a href="#References"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a></li>
</ul>
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<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Origin_and_function">Origin and function</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<p>Métayage was available under <a href="/wiki/Roman_law" title="Roman law">Roman law</a>, although it was not in widespread use.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a></sup> It proved useful after the emancipation of Roman slaves as the newly freed peasants had no land or cash (the same phenomenon happened in Brazil and the US when slavery was banned).
</p><p>In what is now northern Italy and southeastern France, the post <a href="/wiki/Black_Death" title="Black Death">Black Death</a> population explosion of the late Middle Ages, combined with the relative lack of free land, made métayage an attractive system for both landowner and farmer. Once institutionalized, it continued into the 18th Century, although the base causes had been relieved by emigration to the <a href="/wiki/New_World" title="New World">New World</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2009)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>.
</p><p>Métayage was used early in the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a> in northern France and the <a href="/wiki/Rhineland" title="Rhineland">Rhinelands</a>, where burgeoning prosperity encouraged large-scale vineyard planting, similar to what the ancient Romans had accomplished using slave labor. The hyperinflation that followed the influx of Incan-American gold made Métayage preferable to cash tenancy and wage labour for both parties. Called <i>complant</i>, a laborer (in French <i><a href="/wiki/Prendeur" title="Prendeur">prendeur</a></i>, in Italian <i>mezzadro</i>) would offer to plant and tend to an uncultivated parcel of land belonging to a land owner (in French <i><a href="/wiki/Bailleur" title="Bailleur">bailleur</a></i>, in Italian <i>concedente</i>). The <i>prendeur</i> would have ownership of the vines and the <i>bailleur</i> would receive anywhere from a third to two-thirds of the vines' production in exchange for the use of his soil.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a></sup> This system was used extensively in planting the <a href="/wiki/Champagne_region" class="mw-redirect" title="Champagne region">Champagne region</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a></sup> <i>Bailleur</i> was also used as the name for the proprietor under métayage. The contract still exists today in Switzerland.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a></sup>
</p><p>In the eighteenth century c. 75% of leased lands in western, southern and central France were sharecropped. North of the <a href="/wiki/Loire" title="Loire">Loire</a> it was only common in <a href="/wiki/Lorraine" title="Lorraine">Lorraine</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a></sup>
</p><p>In Italy and France, respectively, it was called <i>mezzadria</i> and <i>métayage</i>, or halving - the halving, that is, of the produce of the soil between landowner and land-holder. Halving didn't imply equal amounts of the produce but rather division according to agreement. The produce was divisible in certain definite proportions, which obviously must have varied with the varying fertility of the soil and other circumstances and did in practice vary so much that the <a href="/wiki/Landlord" title="Landlord">landlord</a>'s share was sometimes as much as two-thirds, sometimes as little as one-third. Sometimes the landlord supplied all the stock, sometimes only part - the cattle and seed perhaps, while the farmer provided the implements; or perhaps only half the seed and half the cattle, the farmer finding the other halves. Thus the <i>instrumentum fundi</i> of <a href="/wiki/Roman_Law" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Law">Roman Law</a> was combined within métayage.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a></sup> Taxes were also frequently divided, being paid wholly by one or the other, or jointly by both.
</p><p>In the 18th Century, métayage agreements began to give way to agreements to share profits from the sale of the crops and to straight tenant farming, although the practice in its original form could still be found in isolated communities until the early 20th Century.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a></sup> By 1929, there were still 200,000 Métayers, farming 11% of French cultivated land (same % in 1892). It was most common in <a href="/wiki/Landes_forest" title="Landes forest">Landes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Allier" title="Allier">Allier</a> (72% and 49% respectively).<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a></sup> As the métayage practice changed, the term <i>colonat partiaire</i> began to be applied to the old practice of sharing-out the actual crop, while métayage was used for the sharing-out of the proceeds from the sale of the crops. <i>Colonat partiaire</i> was still practised in the French overseas departments, notably <a href="/wiki/R%C3%A9union" title="Réunion">Réunion</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a></sup> until 2006 when it was abolished.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a></sup>
</p><p>In France, there was also a system termed <i>métayage par groupes</i>, which consisted of letting a sizeable farm not to one métayer but to an association of several who would work together for the general good under the supervision of either the landlord or his bailiff. This arrangement got past the difficulty of finding tenants having sufficient capital and labour to run the larger farms.
</p><p>In France, since 1983, these métayage and similar farming contracts have been regulated by Livre IV of the Rural Code.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a></sup>
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<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Localities">Localities</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<p>The system was once universal in certain provinces of <a href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italy</a> and <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a>, and survived there in places until the end of the nineteenth century. Similar systems formerly existed in <a href="/wiki/Portugal" title="Portugal">Portugal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Old_Castile" title="Old Castile">Castile</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a></sup> and in <a href="/wiki/Greece" title="Greece">Greece</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a></sup> and in the countries bordering on the <a href="/wiki/Danube" title="Danube">Danube</a>. It is tracked to this day in statistics of the <a href="/wiki/European_Commission" title="European Commission">European Commission</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a></sup> Métayage was used in French colonies, particularly after the demise of slavery. Also, because of its utility métayage spread to nearby British colonies such as Nevis, St. Lucia and Tobago.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a></sup> It still occurs in former French possessions, particularly in <a href="/wiki/Madagascar" title="Madagascar">Madagascar</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a></sup> In the <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Democratic Republic of the Congo">Congo</a> the system is used in the vicinity of <a href="/wiki/Kahuzi-Bi%C3%A9ga_National_Park" title="Kahuzi-Biéga National Park">Kahuzi-Biéga National Park</a> as a means to protect the natural environment.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a></sup> In Mexico the system is used in animal husbandry.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a></sup>
</p><p>The term <i>métayage</i> is also applied to modern-day flexible cash leases at least in the nominally common law Canadian province of <a href="/wiki/Ontario" title="Ontario">Ontario</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a></sup> and in 2006 in all of Canada, 13,030 farms occupying 2,316,566ha were counted by Statistics Canada.<sup id="cite_ref-statscan_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-statscan-24">[24]</a></sup> The same study of metayage found 2,489 farms covering 130,873ha in Ontario.<sup id="cite_ref-statscan_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-statscan-24">[24]</a></sup> The system was useful in Quebec for most agricultural properties at least as far back as the year 1800,<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a></sup> and is still tracked statistically by value in Quebec as "loyer en espèces et à la part - agriculture".<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a></sup> It appears to benefit from favourable tax treatment in Canada,<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a></sup> where it is known as "sharecropping".<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a></sup> In forestry metayage is the subject of a Government of Canada infosheet,<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a></sup> and socio-economic report,<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a></sup> and has been the subject in Quebec of recent scholarly research.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a></sup>
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<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Criticism">Criticism</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<p>British writers were unanimous in condemning the métayage system, until <a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">John Stuart Mill</a> adopted a different tone. They judged it by its appearance in France, where under the <i><a href="/wiki/Ancien_r%C3%A9gime" title="Ancien régime">ancien régime</a></i> all direct <a href="/wiki/Tax" title="Tax">taxes</a> were paid by the métayer with the noble landowner being exempt. With the taxes being assessed according to the visible produce of the soil, they operated as penalties upon productiveness. Under this system, a métayer could fancy that his interest lay less in exerting himself to augment the total share to be divided between himself and his landlord and instead be encouraged to defraud the latter part of his rightful share. This was partly due to the métayer's relative state of destitution and with the fixed duration of his tenure - without which the metayage could not prosper. French metayers, in <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Young_(writer)" class="mw-redirect" title="Arthur Young (writer)">Arthur Young</a>'s time, were "removable at pleasure, and obliged to conform in all things to the will of their landlords," and so in general they so remained.<sup id="cite_ref-Cruveilhier,_J._1894_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cruveilhier,_J._1894-32">[32]</a></sup>
</p><p>In 1600, the landlord <a href="/wiki/Olivier_de_Serres" title="Olivier de Serres">Olivier de Serres</a> wrote 'Le théâtre de l'agriculture' which recommends Métayage as cash tenants took all the risks so would demand lower rent while hired labour was expensive to manage.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Jean_Charles_Leonard_de_Sismondi" class="mw-redirect" title="Jean Charles Leonard de Sismondi">Simonde de Sismondi</a> expressed dissatisfaction in 1819 with the institution of métayage because it reinforced the poverty of the peasants and prevented any social or cultural development.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (December 2017)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup>
</p><p>Although métayage and extreme rural poverty usually coincided, there were provinces in France and Italy (especially on the plains of <a href="/wiki/Lombardy" title="Lombardy">Lombardy</a>) where the contrary was the case.<sup id="cite_ref-Cruveilhier,_J._1894_32-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cruveilhier,_J._1894-32">[32]</a></sup>
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<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="See_also">See also</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sharecropping" title="Sharecropping">Sharecropping</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sharefarming" title="Sharefarming">Sharefarming</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Tenant_farmer" title="Tenant farmer">Tenant farmer</a></li></ul>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Notes">Notes</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="References">References</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cato, Marcus Porcius <i>De Re Rustica</i> Capitula CXXXVI - CXXXVII</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Crook, J.A. (1967) <i>Law and Life of Rome: 90 B.C. to A.D. 212</i> Cornell Univ. Press: Ithaca, NY. p. 157</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hugh Johnson, <i>Vintage: The Story of Wine</i> pg 116. Simon and Schuster 1989</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.maisons-champagne.com/traduction/english/bonal_gb/pages/01/01-02_gb.htm">Excerpts from R. Dion’s “ Histoire de la Vigne et du Vin en France“</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070927205512/http://www.maisons-champagne.com/traduction/english/bonal_gb/pages/01/01-02_gb.htm">Archived</a> 2007-09-27 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.agrivalais.ch/fr/agriculteurs/metayagevigne.pdf">agrivalais.ch: "Contrat de métayage dans la vigne"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121224213505/http://www.agrivalais.ch/fr/agriculteurs/metayagevigne.pdf">Archived</a> 2012-12-24 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sharecropping and Sharecroppers, T J Byres, page 18</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Crook, J.A. (1967) <i>Law and Life of Rome: 90 B.C. to A.D. 212</i> Cornell Univ. Press: Ithaca, NY. p. 158</span>
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<li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Shaffer, John W. (1982) <i>Family and Farm: Agrarian Change and Household Organization in the Loire Valley, 1500-1900</i> State University of New York Press: Albany. <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1215172403">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a{background-size:contain}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a{background-size:contain}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a{background-size:contain}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:#d33}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:#d33}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#2C882D;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911F}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{color:#f8a397}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{color:#f8a397}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911F}}</style><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87395-562-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-87395-562-5">0-87395-562-5</a></span>
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<li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Land Tenure and Political Tendency in Rural France: The Case of Sharecropping, S Sokoloff, European Studies Review, 1980, page 361</span>
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<li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jir.fr/article.php3?id_article=129806">"Le colonat partiaire" <i>Clicanoo, Journal de l'Ile de la Réunion</i> 15 May 2006</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071008061920/http://www.jir.fr/article.php3?id_article=129806">Archived</a> 8 October 2007 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>;</span>
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<li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.admi.net/jo/20060106/AGRX0500091L.html">Art. L. 462-28, French National Assembly, Law No 2006-11 of January 5 2006 <i>Journal officiel de la République Française</i> of January 6, 2006</a>;</span>
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<li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://admi.net/code/index-CRURALNL.html">French Rural Code Livre IV <i>Baux ruraux</i></a></span>
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<li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://libro.uca.edu/vassberg/land5.htm">D. Vassberg "Land and Society in Golden Age Castile"</a></span>
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<li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Moreau-Christophe, Louis-Mathurin (1849) <i>Du Droit a l'Oisiveté et de l'Organisation du Travail Servile Dans les Républiques Grecques et Romaine</i> Chez Guillaumin et Ce, Libraires: Paris, pp. 258-261.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:2009:329:0001:0028:FR:PDF">eur-lex.eu: "RÈGLEMENT (CE) No 1200/2009 DE LA COMMISSION" 30 Nov 2009</a></span>
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<li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:2001:255:0001:0051:FR:PDF">eur-lex.eu: "REGLEMENT (CE) No 1837/2001 DE LA COMMISSION" 10 Sep 2001</a></span>
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<li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:2002:216:0001:0041:FR:PDF">eur-lex.eu: "RÈGLEMENT (CE) No 1444/2002 DE LA COMMISSION" 24 Jul 2002</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Richardson, Bonham C. (1992) <i>The Caribbean in the Wider World, 1492-1992: A Regional Geography</i> Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, p. 74. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-35186-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-35186-3">0-521-35186-3</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Marshall, W.K. (1965) “Métayage in the Sugar Industry of the British Windward Islands, 1838-1865" <i>The Jamaican Historical Review</i> 5:28-55.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ilo.cornell.edu/ilo/briefs.html"><i>Dynamics in Social Service Delivery and the Rural Economy of Madagascar: Descriptive Results of the 2004 Commune Survey</i> International Labour organization (ILO), (April 2005)</a></span>
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<li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140413142443/http://www.irec.net/index.jsp?p=28&f=227">"irec.net: "Le metayage agricole comme l'un des moyens de la protection des ressources naturelles de kahuzi biega" (Ntamwira Kasigwa: thesis, 2000)"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.irec.net/index.jsp?p=28&f=227">the original</a> on 2014-04-13<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2014-04-09</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=irec.net%3A+%22Le+metayage+agricole+comme+l%27un+des+moyens+de+la+protection+des+ressources+naturelles+de+kahuzi+biega%22+%28Ntamwira+Kasigwa%3A+thesis%2C+2000%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.irec.net%2Findex.jsp%3Fp%3D28%26f%3D227&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetayage" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/45515239_Le_mtayage_d%27levage_au_Mexique__colonisations_foncires_et_dynamiques_d%27une_institution_agraire_dans_l%27histoire_contemporaine">"Le métayage d'élevage au Mexique : colonisations foncières et dynamiques d'une institution agraire dans l'histoire contemporaine" (H. Cochet, Eric Léonard, Bernard Tallet)</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Flexible Cash Lease Agreements/Contrats de métayage portant sur les cultures</i>, Factsheet 812 (2001) Ministry of Agriculture, Government of Ontario accessed at <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.omafra.gov.on.ca/french/busdev/facts/01-068.htm">[1]</a><a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070802143042/http://omafra.gov.on.ca/french/busdev/facts/01-068.htm">[2]</a> with English version at <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.omafra.gov.on.ca/english/busdev/facts/01-069.htm">[3]</a><a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090328025503/http://www.omafra.gov.on.ca/english/busdev/facts/01-069.htm">[4]</a> June 20, 2006</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-statscan-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-statscan_24-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-statscan_24-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/95-629-x/4/4124092-fra.htm">statcan.gc.ca: "Mode d'occupation, 2006: Tableau 4.5-5 - Mode d'occupation déclaré des terres possédées, louées, en métayage ou utilisées sous d'autres arrangements - Superficie en métayage, année de recensement 2006"</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.biographi.ca/en/bio/antrobus_john_5E.html">biographi.ca: "DCB entry for ANTROBUS, JOHN"</a></span>
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<li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bdso.gouv.qc.ca/pls/ken/Ken254_Clas.page_clas?p_iden_tran=REPERULWQEM50-125261503633b$u%29&p_lang=2&p_id_03t03=1053">bdso.gouv.qc.ca: "Databank of Official Statistics on Québec - Definitions"</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cra-arc.gc.ca/F/pub/gl/p-253/p-253-f.pdf">"Énoncé de politique sur la TPS/TVH - Metayage" (P-253) 13 Jan 2009</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131004033801/http://www.cra-arc.gc.ca/F/pub/gl/p-253/p-253-f.pdf">Archived</a> 2013-10-04 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cra-arc.gc.ca/F/pub/tg/t4036/t4036-f.html">cra-arc.gc.ca: "Revenus de location 2013" T4036(F) Rév. 13</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cfs.nrcan.gc.ca/publications?id=25075">nrcan.gc.ca: "La ferme forestière en métayage. 2004. Masse, S. Ressources naturelles Canada, Service canadien des forêts, Centre de foresterie des Laurentides, Québec, QC. L’éclaircie No. 11. 2 p."</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.modelforest.org/media/k2/attachments/BSL_Viabilit_socio_conomique_FR.pdf">"La viabilité socio-économique de la ferme forestière en métayage" (Masse, S: Service canadien des forêts, Centre de foresterie des Laurentides, Natural Resources Canada)</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged January 2018">permanent dead link</span></a></i>]</span></sup></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://theses.ulaval.ca/archimede/fichiers/23961/23961.html">ulaval.ca: "Des fermes forestières en métayage sur le territoire public québécois. Vers un outil d'évaluation pour les communautés" (Roy, ME: MSc thesis, 2006)</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Cruveilhier,_J._1894-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Cruveilhier,_J._1894_32-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cruveilhier,_J._1894_32-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Cruveilhier, J. (1894) <i>Étude sur le métayage</i> Paris.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The Economic Theory of Sharecropping in Early Modern France, Philip Hoffman, The Journal of Economic History 1984, page 312</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Jean_Charles_Leonard_de_Sismondi" class="mw-redirect" title="Jean Charles Leonard de Sismondi">de Sismondi, Simonde</a> (1819) <i>Nouveaux principes d'economie politique, ou de la Richesse dans ses rapports avec la population</i> translated as <i>New Principles of Political Economy of Wealth in Its Relation to Population </i> by Richard Hyse, Transaction Publishers: London (1991). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-88738-336-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-88738-336-X">0-88738-336-X</a></span>
</li>
</ol></div></div>
<p><span class="noprint"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/12px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/18px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/24px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></span></span> </span>This article incorporates text from a publication now in the <a href="/wiki/Public_domain" title="Public domain">public domain</a>: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFChisholm1911" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Hugh_Chisholm" title="Hugh Chisholm">Chisholm, Hugh</a>, ed. (1911). "<a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/M%C3%A9tayage_System" class="extiw" title="s:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Métayage System">Métayage System</a>". <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i>. Vol. 18 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 257.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=M%C3%A9tayage+System&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.pages=257&rft.edition=11th&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1911&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetayage" class="Z3988"></span>
</p></div>' |
Whether or not the change was made through a Tor exit node (tor_exit_node) | false |
Unix timestamp of change (timestamp) | '1711277732' |