www.fgks.org   »   [go: up one dir, main page]
Jump to content

Urethral cancer: Difference between revisions

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Browse history interactively
← Previous edit
Content deleted Content added
VisualWikitext
No edit summary
Tags: Visual edit Mobile edit Mobile web edit Advanced mobile edit
m Removed instances of same source being cited twice in successive sentences
 
(8 intermediate revisions by 4 users not shown)
Line 1: Line 1:
{{about|cancer of the urethra|cancer of the ureter|Ureteral cancer}}
{{About|cancer of the urethra|cancer of the ureter|Ureteral cancer}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2013}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2024}}
{{Infobox medical condition (new)
{{Infobox medical condition (new)
| name = Urethral cancer
| name = Urethral cancer
Line 25: Line 25:
}}
}}
<!-- Definition -->
<!-- Definition -->
'''Urethral cancer''' is a rare [[cancer]] originating from the [[urethra]].<ref name="Janisch2019">{{cite journal |last1=Janisch |first1=Florian |last2=Abufaraj |first2=Mohammad |last3=Fajkovic |first3=Harun |last4=Kimura |first4=Shoji |last5=Iwata |first5=Takehiro |last6=Nyirady |first6=Peter |last7=Rink |first7=Michael |last8=Shariat |first8=Shahrokh F. |title=Current Disease Management of Primary Urethral Carcinoma |journal=European Urology Focus |date=1 September 2019 |volume=5 |issue=5 |pages=722–734 |doi=10.1016/j.euf.2019.07.001 |pmid=31307949 |url=https://www.eu-focus.europeanurology.com/article/S2405-4569(19)30172-5/fulltext |language=en |issn=2405-4569|doi-access=free }}</ref> The disease has been classified by the [[TNM staging system]] and the [[World Health Organization]].<ref name="Janisch2019"/><ref name="Compérat2016"/><ref name="Brierley"/>
'''Urethral cancer''' is a rare [[cancer]] originating from the [[urethra]]. The disease has been classified by the [[TNM staging system]] and the [[World Health Organization]].<ref name="Janisch2019">{{cite journal |last1=Janisch |first1=Florian |last2=Abufaraj |first2=Mohammad |last3=Fajkovic |first3=Harun |last4=Kimura |first4=Shoji |last5=Iwata |first5=Takehiro |last6=Nyirady |first6=Peter |last7=Rink |first7=Michael |last8=Shariat |first8=Shahrokh F. |date=1 September 2019 |title=Current Disease Management of Primary Urethral Carcinoma |url=https://www.eu-focus.europeanurology.com/article/S2405-4569(19)30172-5/fulltext |journal=European Urology Focus |language=en |volume=5 |issue=5 |pages=722–734 |doi=10.1016/j.euf.2019.07.001 |issn=2405-4569 |pmid=31307949 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Compérat2016"/><ref name="Brierley"/>


<!-- Signs and symptoms -->
<!-- Signs and symptoms -->
Symptoms include [[Haematuria|blood in the urine]], lump at end of penis,<ref name="Janisch2019"/> or [[Penile discharge|bloody penile discharge]].<ref name=Kahan/>
Symptoms include [[Haematuria|blood in the urine]], lump at end of penis, or [[Penile discharge|bloody penile discharge]].<ref name=Kahan/>


<!-- Diagnosis -->
<!-- Diagnosis -->
Line 34: Line 34:


<!-- Epidemiology -->
<!-- Epidemiology -->
The most common type is papillary [[transitional cell carcinoma|urothelial carcinoma]].<ref name="Janisch2019"/><ref name="SEER6215ch30">{{cite book|chapter=Chapter 30: Cancers of Rare Sites|pages=251–262|publisher=National Cancer Institute|title=SEER Survival Monograph: Cancer Survival Among Adults: US SEER Program, 1988–2001, Patient and Tumor Characteristics|editor1-last=Ries|editor1-first=LAG|editor2-last=Young|editor2-first=JL|editor3-last=Keel|editor3-first=GE|editor4-last=Eisner|editor4-first=MP|editor5-last=Lin|editor5-first=YD|editor6-last=Horner|editor6-first=M-J|series=SEER Program|volume=NIH Pub. No. 07-6215|place=Bethesda, MD|year=2007|url=http://seer.cancer.gov/publications/survival|url-status=dead|access-date=18 October 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131010123756/http://seer.cancer.gov/publications/survival/|archive-date=10 October 2013|df=dmy-all}}</ref> Risk factors suggested include prolonged irritations of the urethra due to [[urinary catheterization]], chronic inflammation due to infection, radiation, [[Urethral diverticulum|diverticula of the urethra]], and urethral strictures.<ref name="Janisch2019"/>
The most common type is papillary [[transitional cell carcinoma|urothelial carcinoma]].<ref name="Janisch2019"/><ref name="SEER6215ch30">{{cite book|chapter=Chapter 30: Cancers of Rare Sites|pages=251–262|publisher=National Cancer Institute|title=SEER Survival Monograph: Cancer Survival Among Adults: US SEER Program, 1988–2001, Patient and Tumor Characteristics|editor1-last=Ries|editor1-first=LAG|editor2-last=Young|editor2-first=JL|editor3-last=Keel|editor3-first=GE|editor4-last=Eisner|editor4-first=MP|editor5-last=Lin|editor5-first=YD|editor6-last=Horner|editor6-first=M-J|volume=NIH Pub. No. 07-6215|place=Bethesda, MD|year=2007|url=http://seer.cancer.gov/publications/survival|url-status=dead|access-date=18 October 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131010123756/http://seer.cancer.gov/publications/survival/|archive-date=10 October 2013|df=dmy-all}}</ref> Risk factors suggested include prolonged irritations of the urethra due to [[urinary catheterization]], chronic inflammation due to infection, radiation, [[Urethral diverticulum|diverticula of the urethra]], and urethral strictures.<ref name="Janisch2019"/>


== Signs and symptoms ==
== Signs and symptoms ==
Line 46: Line 46:


== Diagnosis ==
== Diagnosis ==
Diagnosis is established by [[transurethral biopsy]] and histological findings.<ref name="Janisch2019"/> [[cystoscopy|Bladder cystoscopy]] is performed to detect if there is simultaneous bladder cancer.<ref name="Janisch2019"/>
Diagnosis is established by [[transurethral biopsy]] and histological findings. [[cystoscopy|Bladder cystoscopy]] is performed to detect if there is simultaneous bladder cancer.<ref name="Janisch2019"/>


==Histology==
==Histology==
The most common histology seen in primary urethral cancer (a cancer which originates in the urethra, as opposed to cancer cells from elsewhere in the body which [[Metastasis|metastasize]] to the area) is [[urothelium]], a type of transitional epithelium. Urothelial cell cancers comprise just over half of primary urethral cancers. Roughly another quarter of cases are [[Squamous-cell carcinoma|squamous cell carcinomas]], and the majority of the remainder are [[Adenocarcinoma|adenocarcinomas]], which originate from the cells of various [[Exocrine gland|secretory glands]] in and around the urethra. Up to 10% of primary urethral cancers have variant histology types, or have unclear cells of origin.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wenzel |first1=Mike |last2=Deuker |first2=Marina |last3=Nocera |first3=Luigi |last4=Collà Ruvolo |first4=Claudia |last5=Tian |first5=Zhe |last6=Shariat |first6=Shahrokh F. |last7=Saad |first7=Fred |last8=Briganti |first8=Alberto |last9=Becker |first9=Andreas |last10=Kluth |first10=Luis A. |last11=Chun |first11=Felix K.H. |last12=Karakiewicz |first12=Pierre I. |date=2021-01-29 |title=Comparison Between Urothelial and Non-Urothelial Urethral Cancer |journal=Frontiers in Oncology |volume=10 |pages=629692 |doi=10.3389/fonc.2020.629692 |doi-access=free |issn=2234-943X |pmc=7880052 |pmid=33585257}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last1=Li |first1=Yun Rose |title=Smith & Tanagho's General Urology |last2=Gottschalk |first2=Alexander R. |last3=Roach III |first3=Mack |publisher=McGraw Hill |year=2020 |edition=19th |location=New York |chapter=Chapter 26: Radiotherapy of Urologic Tumors}}</ref>
Types of urethral cancer include the most common type [[transitional cell carcinoma|urothelial carcinoma]], and others including [[squamous cell carcinoma]], and [[adenocarcinoma]]. Melanoma and sarcoma are rare.<ref name="Janisch2019"/>


==Staging==
==Staging==
The World Health Organization classification of tumours of the urinary system and male genital organs (4th edn) was published in January 2016.<ref name="Compérat2016">{{cite journal |last1=Compérat |first1=Eva |last2=Varinot |first2=Justine |title=Immunochemical and molecular assessment of urothelial neoplasms and aspects of the 2016 World Health Organization classification |journal=Histopathology |date=2016 |volume=69 |issue=5 |pages=717–726 |doi=10.1111/his.13025 |pmid=27353436 |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/his.13025 |language=en |issn=1365-2559|url-access=subscription}}</ref> Urethral cancer has also been classified by the [[TNM staging system]].<ref name="Brierley">{{cite book |last1=Brierley |first1=James D. |last2=Gospodarowicz |first2=Mary K. |last3=Wittekind |first3=Christian |title=TNM Classification of Malignant Tumours |date=2017 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1-119-26354-8 |edition=8th|page=208 |chapter=Urological Tumours|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=642GDQAAQBAJ&pg=PP208 |language=en}}</ref>
The World Health Organization classification of tumours of the urinary system and male genital organs (4th edn) was published in January 2016.<ref name="Compérat2016">{{cite journal |last1=Compérat |first1=Eva |last2=Varinot |first2=Justine |title=Immunochemical and molecular assessment of urothelial neoplasms and aspects of the 2016 World Health Organization classification |journal=Histopathology |date=2016 |volume=69 |issue=5 |pages=717–726 |doi=10.1111/his.13025 |pmid=27353436 |s2cid=24816719 |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/his.13025 |language=en |issn=1365-2559|url-access=subscription}}</ref> Urethral cancer has also been classified by the [[TNM staging system]].<ref name="Brierley">{{cite book |last1=Brierley |first1=James D. |last2=Gospodarowicz |first2=Mary K. |last3=Wittekind |first3=Christian |title=TNM Classification of Malignant Tumours |date=2017 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1-119-26354-8 |edition=8th|page=208 |chapter=Urological Tumours|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=642GDQAAQBAJ&pg=PP208 |language=en}}</ref>


{|class="wikitable"
{|class="wikitable"
Line 136: Line 136:
Surgery is the most common treatment for cancer of the urethra.<ref name="Pagliaro">{{cite book |last1=Pagliaro |first1=Lance |title=Rare Genitourinary Tumors |date=28 June 2016 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-319-30046-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cgGPDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA157|page=157|language=en}}</ref> One of the following types of surgery may be done: Open excision, Electro-resection with flash, [[Laser surgery]], [[Cystourethrectomy]], [[Cystoprostatectomy]], Anterior body cavity, or Incomplete or basic [[penectomy]] surgery.
Surgery is the most common treatment for cancer of the urethra.<ref name="Pagliaro">{{cite book |last1=Pagliaro |first1=Lance |title=Rare Genitourinary Tumors |date=28 June 2016 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-319-30046-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cgGPDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA157|page=157|language=en}}</ref> One of the following types of surgery may be done: Open excision, Electro-resection with flash, [[Laser surgery]], [[Cystourethrectomy]], [[Cystoprostatectomy]], Anterior body cavity, or Incomplete or basic [[penectomy]] surgery.


Radiation therapy is also an option.<ref name="Janisch2019"/> However, due to increased rates of complications such as [[urethral stricture]], urinary incontinence, [[stenosis]] of the urethra, non-infectious cystitis, and other disorders of the pelvic region, surgery is preferred over radiation therapy. Chemotherapy and radiation therapy are often used together against cancers which prove resistant to one or the other.<ref name=":0" />
Radiation therapy has also been used in some cases.<ref name="Janisch2019"/>


[[Chemotherapy]] is sometimes used to destroy urethral cancer cells. It is a systemic urethral cancer treatment (i.e., destroys urethral cancer cells throughout the body) that is administered orally or intravenously. Medications are often used in combination to destroy urethral cancer that has [[Metastasis|metastasized]]. Commonly used drugs include [[cisplatin]], [[vincristine]], and [[methotrexate]].{{clarify|date=December 2020}}
[[Chemotherapy]] is sometimes used to destroy urethral cancer cells. It is a systemic urethral cancer treatment (i.e., destroys urethral cancer cells throughout the body) that is administered orally or intravenously. Medications are often used in combination to destroy urethral cancer that has [[Metastasis|metastasized]]. Commonly used drugs include [[cisplatin]], [[vincristine]], and [[methotrexate]].{{clarify|date=December 2020}}
Line 145: Line 145:
Primary urethral cancer is rare and contributes to less than 1% of all cancers. It is three times more common in men than women and its incidence rises after the age of 75.<ref name="Janisch2019"/>
Primary urethral cancer is rare and contributes to less than 1% of all cancers. It is three times more common in men than women and its incidence rises after the age of 75.<ref name="Janisch2019"/>


Around half of affected people have locally advanced disease when they first present.<ref name="Janisch2019"/> 54–65% of cases are of the urothelial carcinoma type.<ref name="Janisch2019"/>
Around half of affected people have locally advanced disease when they first present. 54–65% of cases are of the urothelial carcinoma type.<ref name="Janisch2019"/>


Prolonged irritations of the urethra due to [[urinary catheterization]], chronic inflammation due to infection, radiation, [[Urethral diverticulum|diverticula of the urethra]], and urethral strictures, may increase the risk of primary urethral cancer.<ref name="Janisch2019"/> Other risk factors include [[squamous cell carcinoma]] (SCC) and [[Lichen sclerosus|genital lichen sclerosus]].<ref name="Janisch2019"/>
Prolonged irritations of the urethra due to [[urinary catheterization]], chronic inflammation due to infection, radiation, [[Urethral diverticulum|diverticula of the urethra]], and urethral strictures, may increase the risk of primary urethral cancer. Other risk factors include [[squamous cell carcinoma]] (SCC) and [[Lichen sclerosus|genital lichen sclerosus]].<ref name="Janisch2019"/>


== Prognosis ==
== Prognosis ==
A study of the National Cancer Database in the United States assessed cases of primary urethral cancer from 2004 to 2013, finding that median survival was 49 months with 5- and 10-year survival rates estimated at 46% and 31% respectively.<ref name="Sui2017">{{cite journal| author=Sui W, RoyChoudhury A, Wenske S, Decastro GJ, McKiernan JM, Anderson CB| title=Outcomes and Prognostic Factors of Primary Urethral Cancer. | journal=Urology | year= 2017 | volume= 100 | pages= 180–186 | doi=10.1016/j.urology.2016.09.042 | pmid=27720774}}</ref> A study of the RARECARE project, aimed at investigating rare cancers in Europe, estimated a 5-year relative survival rate of 54% in patients with cancer of the urethra.<ref name=Visser2012>{{cite journal| author=Visser O, Adolfsson J, Rossi S, Verne J, Gatta G, Maffezzini M | display-authors=etal| title=Incidence and survival of rare urogenital cancers in Europe. | journal=Eur J Cancer | year= 2012 | volume= 48 | issue= 4 | pages= 456–64 | doi=10.1016/j.ejca.2011.10.031| pmid=22119351}}</ref>
{{Expand section|date=November 2021}}
The 5 year survival rate after diagnosis is 32% to 51%. One study found that a 10 year survival rate was at 29%.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Raghavan|first=Derek|url=https://books.google.co.nz/books?id=19lGDgAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=tubular+carcinoma+prognosis&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&sa=X&redir_esc=y|title=Textbook of Uncommon Cancer|last2=Ahluwalia|first2=Manmeet S.|last3=Blanke|first3=Charles D.|last4=Brown|first4=Jubilee|last5=Kim|first5=Edward S.|last6=Reaman|first6=Gregory H.|last7=Sekeres|first7=Mikkael A.|date=2017-03-03|publisher=Wiley|isbn=978-1-119-19621-1|language=en}}</ref>{{Rp|page=60}}


==See also==
==See also==
Line 158: Line 157:


==References==
==References==
{{reflist}}
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
{{Medical resources
{{Medical resources
| DiseasesDB = 31473
| DiseasesDB = 31473

Latest revision as of 06:00, 25 February 2024

This article is about cancer of the urethra. For cancer of the ureter, see Ureteral cancer.

Urethral cancer
Micrograph of a urethral cancer, urothelial cell carcinoma, found on a prostate core biopsy. H&E stain.
SpecialtyOncology Urology
SymptomsBlood in the urine, lump at end of penis,[1] Bloody urethral discharge.[2]

Urethral cancer is a rare cancer originating from the urethra. The disease has been classified by the TNM staging system and the World Health Organization.[1][3][4]

Symptoms include blood in the urine, lump at end of penis, or bloody penile discharge.[2]

Diagnosis is established by transurethral biopsy.[1]

The most common type is papillary urothelial carcinoma.[1][5] Risk factors suggested include prolonged irritations of the urethra due to urinary catheterization, chronic inflammation due to infection, radiation, diverticula of the urethra, and urethral strictures.[1]

Signs and symptoms[edit]

Symptoms that may be caused by urethral cancer include:

Diagnosis[edit]

Diagnosis is established by transurethral biopsy and histological findings. Bladder cystoscopy is performed to detect if there is simultaneous bladder cancer.[1]

Histology[edit]

The most common histology seen in primary urethral cancer (a cancer which originates in the urethra, as opposed to cancer cells from elsewhere in the body which metastasize to the area) is urothelium, a type of transitional epithelium. Urothelial cell cancers comprise just over half of primary urethral cancers. Roughly another quarter of cases are squamous cell carcinomas, and the majority of the remainder are adenocarcinomas, which originate from the cells of various secretory glands in and around the urethra. Up to 10% of primary urethral cancers have variant histology types, or have unclear cells of origin.[6][7]

Staging[edit]

The World Health Organization classification of tumours of the urinary system and male genital organs (4th edn) was published in January 2016.[3] Urethral cancer has also been classified by the TNM staging system.[4]

TNM classification and 2016 WHO grading for primary urethral carcinoma[1][3][4]
T-category Description
TX Primary tumor cannot be assessed
T0 No evidence of primary tumor
Urethra (male and female)
Ta Noninvasive papillary, polypoid, or verrucous carcinoma
Tis Carcinoma in situ
T1 Tumor invades subepithelial connective tissue
T2 Tumor invades any of the following: corpus spongiosum, prostate, periurethral muscle
T3 Tumor invades any of the following: corpus cavernosum, beyond prostatic capsule, anterior vagina, bladder neck (extraprostatic extension)
T4 Tumor invades other adjacent organs (invasion of the bladder)
Urothelial (transitional cell) carcinoma of the prostate
Tis pu Carcinoma in situ, involvement of prostatic urethra
Tis pd Carcinoma in situ, involvement of prostatic ducts
T1 Tumor invades subepithelial connective tissue (for tumors involving prostatic urethra only)
T2 Tumor invades any of the following: prostatic stroma, corpus spongiosum, periurethral muscle
Ta Noninvasive papillary, polypoid, or verrucous carcinoma
T3 Tumor invades any of the following: corpus cavernosum, beyond prostatic capsule, bladder neck (extraprostatic extension)
T4 Tumor invades other adjacent organs (invasion of the bladder or rectum)
N—regional lymph nodes
NX Regional lymph nodes cannot be assessed
N0 No regional lymph node metastasis
N1 Metastasis in a single lymph node
N2 Metastasis in multiple lymph nodes
M—Distant Metastasis
M0 No distant metastasis
M1 Distant metastasis

Treatment[edit]

Surgery is the most common treatment for cancer of the urethra.[8] One of the following types of surgery may be done: Open excision, Electro-resection with flash, Laser surgery, Cystourethrectomy, Cystoprostatectomy, Anterior body cavity, or Incomplete or basic penectomy surgery.

Radiation therapy is also an option.[1] However, due to increased rates of complications such as urethral stricture, urinary incontinence, stenosis of the urethra, non-infectious cystitis, and other disorders of the pelvic region, surgery is preferred over radiation therapy. Chemotherapy and radiation therapy are often used together against cancers which prove resistant to one or the other.[7]

Chemotherapy is sometimes used to destroy urethral cancer cells. It is a systemic urethral cancer treatment (i.e., destroys urethral cancer cells throughout the body) that is administered orally or intravenously. Medications are often used in combination to destroy urethral cancer that has metastasized. Commonly used drugs include cisplatin, vincristine, and methotrexate.[clarification needed]

Side effects include anemia (causing fatigue, weakness), nausea and vomiting, loss of appetite, hair loss, mouth sores, increased risk for infection, shortness of breath, or excessive bleeding and bruising.[9]

Epidemiology[edit]

Primary urethral cancer is rare and contributes to less than 1% of all cancers. It is three times more common in men than women and its incidence rises after the age of 75.[1]

Around half of affected people have locally advanced disease when they first present. 54–65% of cases are of the urothelial carcinoma type.[1]

Prolonged irritations of the urethra due to urinary catheterization, chronic inflammation due to infection, radiation, diverticula of the urethra, and urethral strictures, may increase the risk of primary urethral cancer. Other risk factors include squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) and genital lichen sclerosus.[1]

Prognosis[edit]

A study of the National Cancer Database in the United States assessed cases of primary urethral cancer from 2004 to 2013, finding that median survival was 49 months with 5- and 10-year survival rates estimated at 46% and 31% respectively.[10] A study of the RARECARE project, aimed at investigating rare cancers in Europe, estimated a 5-year relative survival rate of 54% in patients with cancer of the urethra.[11]

See also[edit]

References[edit]

  1. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Janisch, Florian; Abufaraj, Mohammad; Fajkovic, Harun; Kimura, Shoji; Iwata, Takehiro; Nyirady, Peter; Rink, Michael; Shariat, Shahrokh F. (1 September 2019). "Current Disease Management of Primary Urethral Carcinoma". European Urology Focus. 5 (5): 722–734. doi:10.1016/j.euf.2019.07.001. ISSN 2405-4569. PMID 31307949.
  2. ^ a b c Kahan, Scott; Miller, Redonda; Smith, Ellen G. (2008). "126. Penile Discharge". Signs and Symptoms. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. ISBN 978-0-7817-7043-9.
  3. ^ a b c Compérat, Eva; Varinot, Justine (2016). "Immunochemical and molecular assessment of urothelial neoplasms and aspects of the 2016 World Health Organization classification". Histopathology. 69 (5): 717–726. doi:10.1111/his.13025. ISSN 1365-2559. PMID 27353436. S2CID 24816719.
  4. ^ a b c Brierley, James D.; Gospodarowicz, Mary K.; Wittekind, Christian (2017). "Urological Tumours". TNM Classification of Malignant Tumours (8th ed.). John Wiley & Sons. p. 208. ISBN 978-1-119-26354-8.
  5. ^ Ries, LAG; Young, JL; Keel, GE; Eisner, MP; Lin, YD; Horner, M-J, eds. (2007). "Chapter 30: Cancers of Rare Sites". SEER Survival Monograph: Cancer Survival Among Adults: US SEER Program, 1988–2001, Patient and Tumor Characteristics. Vol. NIH Pub. No. 07-6215. Bethesda, MD: National Cancer Institute. pp. 251–262. Archived from the original on 10 October 2013. Retrieved 18 October 2013.
  6. ^ Wenzel, Mike; Deuker, Marina; Nocera, Luigi; Collà Ruvolo, Claudia; Tian, Zhe; Shariat, Shahrokh F.; Saad, Fred; Briganti, Alberto; Becker, Andreas; Kluth, Luis A.; Chun, Felix K.H.; Karakiewicz, Pierre I. (29 January 2021). "Comparison Between Urothelial and Non-Urothelial Urethral Cancer". Frontiers in Oncology. 10: 629692. doi:10.3389/fonc.2020.629692. ISSN 2234-943X. PMC 7880052. PMID 33585257.
  7. ^ a b Li, Yun Rose; Gottschalk, Alexander R.; Roach III, Mack (2020). "Chapter 26: Radiotherapy of Urologic Tumors". Smith & Tanagho's General Urology (19th ed.). New York: McGraw Hill.
  8. ^ Pagliaro, Lance (28 June 2016). Rare Genitourinary Tumors. Springer. p. 157. ISBN 978-3-319-30046-7.
  9. ^ Urethral Cancer Treatment
  10. ^ Sui W, RoyChoudhury A, Wenske S, Decastro GJ, McKiernan JM, Anderson CB (2017). "Outcomes and Prognostic Factors of Primary Urethral Cancer". Urology. 100: 180–186. doi:10.1016/j.urology.2016.09.042. PMID 27720774.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  11. ^ Visser O, Adolfsson J, Rossi S, Verne J, Gatta G, Maffezzini M; et al. (2012). "Incidence and survival of rare urogenital cancers in Europe". Eur J Cancer. 48 (4): 456–64. doi:10.1016/j.ejca.2011.10.031. PMID 22119351.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Urethral_cancer&oldid=1210148517"