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creating page on behalf of User:Everdawn from User:Everdawn/Sandboxes/Chola navy
 
Unverifiable claim and reference, if the navy does not exist as a unit why would it has a chief? The name should have gathered attention from Hermann Kulke et al. and Majumdar et al., they're experts on this. Archaeological Survey of India's report is available in the internet, the page cited doesn't support the claim at all.
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{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2018}}
{{Infobox Military Unit|300px
{{Use Indian English|date=April 2018}}
|unit_name= Chola Navy
{{Multiple issues|
|image=[[Image:Battle_of_kedah.jpg]]‎
{{POV|date=June 2022}}
|caption= The The siege of keadh, the battle between Beemasenan's naval infantry and the defenders of Keadh fort
{{Notability|date=June 2022}}
|start_date= 3rd century CE
{{Refimprove|date=June 2022}}
|country= [[Chola|Chola Empire]]
}}
|allegiance=[[Chola Dynasty]]
{{Infobox military unit
|branch= [[Naval]]
| unit_name = Chola Navy
|type= [[Navy|Naval Force]]
| native_name =
|role=
| image = Battle of kedah.jpg
|size= 600-1000 Ships in the peak period.
| image_size = 300px
|command_structure= [[Chola military]]
| caption = Depiction of the siege of [[Kedah]], the battle between Beemasenan's Chola naval infantry and the defenders of Kedah fort.
|garrison=
| start_date =
|garrison_label=
| country = [[Chola Dynasty|Chola Empire]]
|equipment=
| allegiance = [[Chola Dynasty]]
|equipment_label=
| branch = [[Naval]]
|nickname=
| type = [[Navy|Naval Force]]
|motto=
| command_structure = [[Chola military]]
|colors=
| garrison =
|colors_label=
| garrison_label =
|march=
| equipment =
|mascot=
| equipment_label =
|battles=
| nickname =
<li> War of [[Pandya]] Succession (1172 CE)
| size =
* War of [[Pandya]] succession (1167 CE)
| motto =
* Kalinga Campaighn (1081-83)
| battles = * War of [[Pandya]] Succession (1172)
* The second expedition of [[Sri vijaya]] (1025 CE-1028CE)
* War of [[Pandya]] succession (1167)
* The first expedition of [[Sri vijaya]] (1022 CE -1025CE)
* Kalinga Campaighn (1081–83)
* Anexation of the khamboj (?-996CE)
* The invasion of Ceylon/Sri Lanka.(977CE-)
* The second expedition of [[Sri Vijaya]] (1025–1028)
* The first expedition of [[Sri Vijaya]] (1022–1025)
* Skirmishes with Pallava Navy (903-8 CE)
* Annexation of [[Kambojas and Cambodia|Kamboja]] (?–996)
|anniversaries=
* The invasion of Ceylon/Sri Lanka (977–?)
|decorations=
* Skirmishes with Pallava Navy (903–908)
|battle_honours=
<!-- Commanders -->| ceremonial_chief = Chola Emperor (''Chakravarthy'') – notably, [[Rajaraja I]] and [[Rajendra I]]
<!-- Commanders -->
| ceremonial_chief_label =
|current_commander=
| notable_commanders = *[[Vallavaraiyan Vandiyadevan]] (10th century)
|current_commander_label=
* Amarabujangan (12th century)
|ceremonial_chief= Supreme commander
* Beemaseenan – The famous admiral of the Siege of the Kedah (late 11th century)
|ceremonial_chief_label= Chakravarthy
* Karunaakaran – Admiral/general (late 12th century)
|colonel_of_the_regiment=
|colonel_of_the_regiment_label=
|notable_commanders=
<li>Amarabujangan (12th century CE)
* Beemaseenan - The famous admiral of the Siege of the keadh (Later 11 century CE)
* Karunaakaran - Admiral/general & a Pallava Prince in the service of cholas (later 12th Century CE)
<!-- Insignia -->
<!-- Insignia -->
*[[Pallavaraiyan (title)|Pallavaraiyan]] – Title used by several commanders
|identification_symbol=
| identification_symbol =
|identification_symbol_label=
| identification_symbol_label =
|identification_symbol_2=
| identification_symbol_2 =
|identification_symbol_2_label=
| identification_symbol_2_label =
}}
}}


The '''Cholas''' did not have a standing navy in modern sense. The maritime force of Cholas was formed from using ships used for trade, as they did not have a dedicated ship for naval combat. The ships were used for transporting the land army overseas.<ref name="MajumdarHistCult3" />{{rp|251}}<ref>{{Cite book |last=Sakhuja |first=Vijay |title=Nagapattinam to suvarnadwipa: Reflections on the chola naval expeditions to Southeast Asia |last2=Sakhuja |first2=Sangeeta |publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian Studies |year=2009 |location=Singapore |pages=76-90 |chapter=Rajendra Chola I’s Naval Expedition to Southeast Asia: A Nautical Perspective}}</ref>{{rp|77}}
The term '''Chola Navy''' comprised the naval forces of the '''[[Chola Empire]]''' along with several other Naval-arms of the country . The Chola navy played a vital role in the expansion of the [[Chola Empire]] and conquests of the [[Ceylon]] islands, Sri Vijaya (present day Indonesia), Spread of [[Hinduism]], [[Dravidian architecture]] and [[culture]] to the South east Asia. And in curbing the [[piracy]] in [[Southeast Asia]] in the 900CE. The Chola Admirals commanded much respect and prestige in the society.


The Cholas were at the height of their power from the latter half of the 9th century CE through the early 13th century CE.<ref name="SastriHOSI"/>{{rp|5}} Between 1010 and 1153 CE, Rajaraja's successors continued the expansion, making the Chola Empire a military, economic and cultural power in [[South Asia|South]] and [[South-East Asia]].<ref name=keay/>{{rp|215}} During this period, the Chola Navy helped expand the empire with Naval expeditions to the [[Pala Empire|Pala]] of [[Pataliputra]], along the [[Ganges]] and the [[Chola invasion of Srivijaya]] (present-day Indonesia) in 1025 CE,<ref name=meyer73>Meyer, p. 73</ref> as well as repeated embassies to China.<ref name="SastriHOSI"/>{{rp|158}} The Chola Navy declined in the 13th century when the Cholas fought land battles with the [[Chalukyas]] of Andhra-Kannada area in South India, and with the rise of the [[Pandyan dynasty]].<ref name="SastriHOSI">{{cite book | title=[[A History of South India: From Prehistoric Times to the Fall of Vijayanagar]]| last=Sastri|first=K. A. Nilakanta |author-link=K.A. Nilakanta Sastri| year=1955| publisher=Oxford University Press}}</ref>{{rp|175}}
The Navy grew both in size and status during the [[Medieval Cholas]] reign. The navy commanders also acted as diplomats in some instances. From 900CE to 1100CE, the navy had grown from a small backwater entity to that of a potent power projection and diplomatic symbol in all of Asia.But was gradually reduced in significance, due to the later-day conflicts with [[Chalukyas]] taking place mainly in the land.
== History ==
{{Quotation|The Persians are famed for their archers, the Turks for their horsemen, and India for its armies.}} - An Arab proverb


==History==
This proverb could be be still true if not for the periods of [[Chola Empire]] and the [[Maratha|Maratha Empire]]. Notable points of time in India's Naval domination of the sub-continent and beyond. Historians see it fit to divide the [[Chola Dynasty|Chola Reign]] into three distinct phases. The first era is the period of [[Early Cholas]] .The second phase is of [[Vijalaya Cholas]] and the final phase in the empire was the [[Chalukya Chola]] period.
{{Main|Chola Dynasty}}
Under [[Rajaraja Chola I]] and his son [[Rajendra Chola I]], the dynasty became a military, economic and cultural power in [[Asia]].<ref name="kulke">{{cite book | last1 = Kulke | first1 = Hermann | first2 = Dietmar | last2 = Rothermund | title = A History of India | location = Berlin | publisher = Psychology Press | date = 2004 | isbn = 978-1138961159 }}</ref>{{rp|115}}<ref name="keay">Keay, John (12 April 2011), ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=0IquM4BrJ4YC India - A History]'', Open Road + Grove/Atlantic, {{ISBN|978-0-8021-9550-0}}.</ref>{{rp|215}} Rajaraja Chola conquered peninsular [[South India]], annexed parts of [[Sri Lanka]] and occupied the islands of the northernmost atolls of the Maldives.<ref name="keay" />{{rp|215}} Rajendra Chola sent a victorious expedition to North India that touched the river [[Ganges]] and defeated the [[Pala Empire|Pala]] ruler of [[Pataliputra]], [[Mahipala]]. He also successfully raided kingdoms of [[Maritime Southeast Asia]].{{efn|name=Sastri2}}<ref name="SastriCholas">{{cite book|title=The CōĻas|last=Sastri|first=K. A. Nilakanta |author-link=K.A. Nilakanta Sastri|year=1935|publisher=University of Madras}}</ref>{{rp|211–220}}<ref name="meyer73" />


=== Early Activity ===
=== Early Chola period (c. 4th century BCE–200 CE) ===
The Cholas were mentioned in [[Ashokan Edicts in Delhi|Ashokan Edicts]] of 3rd Century BCE (located in modern [[Delhi]]) as one of the neighboring kingdoms in the South.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.cs.colostate.edu/~malaiya/ashoka.html|title=KING ASHOKA: His Edicts and His Times|website=www.cs.colostate.edu|access-date=2018-10-07}}</ref> The earliest mention of specific Chola rulers is found in [[Sangam literature]] (c. 100 BCE–250 CE).<ref name="sangam">''"History of India by Literary Sources"'', Prof. E.S. Narayana Pillai, Cochin University</ref> The ''[[Mahavamsa]]'' mentions a Chola prince known as [[Ellalan]] invading and conquering [[Sri Lanka]] around 235 BCE with the help of a [[Mysore]] army.{{sfnp|Tripathi|1967|p=457|ps=}}<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yhXRDSgBuL0C|title=History of the Kannada Language|last=R|first=Narasimhacharya|publisher=Asian Educational Services|year=1942|isbn=9788120605596|pages=48}}</ref>
Ancient Indians had been very good mariners from time immemorial, but the first accountable sea-faring traditions can be dated back to 2400 BCE, if not earlier. The excavations in [[Lothal]] clearly gives an idea of the ancient port city and its advanced science and technology, including Naval-tradition. They used [[Shell Compass]] to navigate the high-seas and used the study of astronomy for Ocean navigation 2000 years before the ancient [[Greeks]].


===Imperial Chola period (848–1070 CE)===
The earliest Chola kings of whom there is tangible evidence are mentioned in the [[Sangam literature]]. Scholars now generally agree that this literature belongs to the first few centuries of the [[common era]].<ref name="sangam">History of India by Literary Sources, By: Prof. E.S. Narayana Pillai, Cochin University </ref>The Sangam literature is full of names of the kings and the princes, and of the poets who extolled them. Despite a rich literature that depicts the life and work of these people, these cannot be worked into connected history.
{{see also|Medieval Cholas}}
====Rajaraja I and Rajendra I====
This period also marked the departure in thinking from the age-old traditions. Rajaraja commissioned various foreigners (prominently, the Arabs and Chinese) in the naval building program.<ref>''"India and China- Oceanic, Educational and technological cooperation"'', Journal of Indian Ocean Studies 10:2 (August 2002), Pages 165–171</ref>


An inscription from [[Sirkazhi]], dated to 1187 AD, mentions a naval officer called Araiyan Kadalkolamitantaan alias Amarakon Pallavaraiyan. He is mentioned as the Tandalnayagam of the Karaippadaiyilaar. The term Karaippadaiyilaar means ''forces or army of the seashore'' and the title ''Tandalnayagam'' is similar to Dandanayaka and means ''commander of the forces''. The title Kadalkolamitantaan means "one who floated while the sea was engulfed".<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2swhCXJVRzwC&q=chola+pallavaraiyan&pg=PA92|title=Nagapattinam to Suvarnadwipa: Reflections on the Chola Naval Expeditions to Southeast Asia|author=Hermann Kulke, K Kesavapany, Vijay Sakhuja|year=2009|publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 2009|pages=92–93|isbn=9789812309372}}</ref>
=== Ancient Navy ===
The earliest record of Chola Naval activity by an external source is dated around 1st century CE,<ref>South India Handbook:By Robert Bradnock, Page 142 </ref> the Roman report of [[Poompuhar|Kaveripoompattinam]](presently known as '''Poombuhar''') as ''Haverpoum '' and a description of how the Trade vessels were escorted by the King's fleet to the estuary as it was a natural harbor in the mouth of the river [[Kaveri]].


==Trade, commerce, and diplomacy==
We could gather much insight into the naval activities of the Cholas from, [[Periplus of the Erythrean Sea]]. In this work, the unknown merchant describes the activity of escort-ships assigned to the merchant vessels with valuable cargo. These early naval ships had some sort of a rudimentary flame-thrower and or a catapult type weapon.<ref>The Commerce and Navigation of the Ancients in the Indian Ocean: By William Vincent, Page: 517-521 </ref>
{{multiple image
| align = right
| direction = vertical
| total_width = 200
| caption_align = center
| header = Chola Territorial Extent
| image1 = Rajendra map new.svg
| link1 = [[Rajendra Chola I]]
| caption1 = c.1030 CE (under [[Rajendra I]])
| image2 = Chola Empire map2.png
| link2 = [[Rajendra Chola II|Rajendra II]]
| caption2 = c.1055 CE (under [[Rajendra Chola II|Rajendra II]])
| image3 = Rajendra map new.png
| link3 = [[Virarajendra Chola]]
| caption3 = c.1065 CE (under [[Virarajendra Chola]])
}}


The Cholas excelled in foreign trade and maritime activity, extending their influence overseas to China and Southeast Asia.<ref name="kulke" />{{rp|116–117}} A fragmentary Tamil inscription found in [[Sumatra]] cites the name of a merchant guild ''Nanadesa Tisaiyayirattu Ainnutruvar'' (literally, "the five hundred from the four countries and the thousand directions"), a famous merchant guild in the Chola country.<ref name="kulke" />{{rp|118}} The inscription is dated 1088, indicating that there was an active overseas trade during the Chola period.<ref name="kulke" />{{rp|117}}
Little historical evidence exists of the maritime activities of this era, except some excavated wooden plaques depicting Naval engagements in the vicinity of the old city (''See [[Poompuhar]] for details about the city & its fate'').


Towards the end of the 9th century, southern India had developed extensive maritime and commercial activity, especially with the Chinese and [[Arab]]s.<ref name=kulke/>{{rp|12,118}} The Cholas, being in possession of parts of both the west and the east coasts of peninsular India, were at the forefront of these ventures.<ref name=kulke/>{{rp|124}}<ref>Tripathi, p 465</ref><ref>Tripathi, p 477</ref> The [[Tang dynasty]] of China, the [[Srivijaya]] empire in the Malayan archipelago under the Sailendras, and the [[Abbasid]] [[caliphate]] at [[Baghdad]] were the main trading partners.<ref name="SastriCholas"/>{{rp|604}}
=== Medieval Navy ===
[[Image:Ship compartments.jpg|thumb|300px|The model of a Chola Era Ship's hull, built by the [[ASI]], based on a wreck 19 miles off the coast of Poombuhar, displayed in a Museum in [[Tirunelveli]]]]
The period immediately following the 3rd century CE until 7th century CE is a blind spot in the maritime tradition of the Cholas. But, it can be safely assumed from the contemporary activities of the [[Pandyas]] and [[Pallava]]s. In the Interregnum, the Cholas were probably reduced to [[Vassal]]s of [[Pallava]]s, though at times they switched sides and allied with [[Pandyas]] and tried to dispose their overlords. But, there is no concrete line of kings or court recordings.


The trade with the Chinese was a very lucrative enterprise, and [[Trade guild]]s needed the king's approval and the license from the [[customs]] force/department to embark on overseas voyages for trade.<ref>''"Antiquities of India: An Account of the History and Culture of Ancient Hindustan"'', Lionel D. Barnett, Page 216.</ref>
But, even during this time the [[Cholas]] had maintained a small but potent Naval force based inland in the [[Kaveri]] river. During this time they dominated the inland trade in the [[Kaveri]] basin and [[Musuri]] is their major inland port. Dry-docks exist to this day.<ref>The [[Archaeological Survey of India]]'s report on Ancient ports, 1996, Pages76-79</ref>


===Cooperation with the Chinese===
=== Interregnum ===
Chinese [[Song Dynasty]] reports record that an embassy from ''Chulian'' (Chola) reached the Chinese court in the year 1077,<ref name=kulke/>{{rp|117}}<ref name=keay/>{{rp|223}}<ref>See Thapar, p xv</ref> and that the king of the Chulien at the time was called ''Ti-hua-kia-lo''.<ref name="SastriCholas"/>{{rp|316}} It is possible that these syllables denote "Deva Kulo[tunga]" (Kulothunga Chola I). This embassy was a trading venture and was highly profitable to the visitors, who returned with "81,800 strings of copper coins in exchange for articles of tributes, including glass articles, and spices".{{efn|name=Sastri1}}<ref name="SastriHOSI"/>{{rp|173}}
{{main article | Chola dynasty}}
Little is known about the transition period of around three centuries from the end of the Sangam age (c. 300) to that in which the Pandyas and [[Pallava]]s dominate the Tamil country. An obscure dynasty, the [[Kalabhras]], invaded the Tamil country, displaced the existing kingdoms and ruled for around three centuries. They were displaced by the Pallavas and the Pandyas in the 6th century. Little is known of the fate of the Cholas during the succeeding three centuries until the accession of Vijayalaya in the second quarter of the ninth century.


==Vessels and weapons==
=== Imperial Navy with Blue water capabilities ===
{{multiple image
The Imperial Chola navy took its shape in the aftermath of the resurgence of Chola power, with the rise of Vijalaya dynasty. The evolution of combat ships and naval-architecture elsewhere played an important part in the development of the [[Pallava]] Navy. There were serious effort in the period of [[Simavishnu]] to control the piracy in the SE Asia and to establish a Tamil friendly regime in the Malay. But, it had to wait three Centuries and by the hands of a new Naval power , the [[Cholas]]. When the [[Pallavas]] were in the heydays, the Cholas took advantage of this and took control of not only the territories, but the cultural and socio-economic mantle. Thus, the Medieval Cholas inherited the will to dominate trade and control seas from the Pallavas.
| total_width = 350
| image1 = Periplus 244 Indian coins.png
| image2 = Ajanta Caves boat sketched by Mookerji.jpg
| footer = Ships of classical India, left to right:<br>
*Kurumbar or Pallava coin of the [[Coromandel coast]]; showing a two-masted ship like the modern coasting vessel or ''[[Dhoni (fishing vessel)|d'honi]]''
*[[Andhra Pradesh|Andhra]] coin from Eastern Indian coast, showing a two-masted ship, ca. 1st–3rd century AD.
*Sketch of a ship based on a mural in [[Ajanta Caves]], ca. 6th century.
}}


Information regarding Chola vessels is lacking. Because of this, the technique used for naval battles and how the battles were fought is unknown. R.C. Majumdar argues that the naval battles fought by Chola are basically land battles fought on ships, and the ships used were transports used for transporting the army.<ref name="MajumdarHistCult3">{{cite book |last=Majumdar |first=Romesh Chandra |url=https://archive.org/details/struggleforempir05bhar/page/250/mode/2up?q= |title=The History and Culture of the Indian People, Volume V: The Struggle for Empire |publisher=[[Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan]] |year=2001 |location=Mumbai |author-link=R. C. Majumdar}}</ref>{{rp|251}}
This phase of the history is the most known one , partly due the survival of the edicts and inscriptions from the time along with reliable Foreign narratives. this has enabled the historians to interpolate the various accounts and come up with a clear account.


==Campaigns==
The three decades of conflict with the [[Sinhala]] king Mahinda V came to a swift end, after [[Rajaraja chola]] I's ascent to the throne and his decisive use of the Naval flotilla to subdue the Sinhalese .
In the tenure spanning the 700 years of its ''documented'' existence, the Chola Navy was involved in confrontations for probably 500 years.<ref>The Politics of Plunder: The Cholas in Eleventh-Century Ceylon,George W. Spencer,The Journal of Asian Studies, Vol. 35, No. 3 (May, 1976), pp. 405–419, Summary at {{jstor|2053272}}</ref> There were frequent skirmishes and many pitched battles. Not to mention long campaigns and expeditions. The 5th centuries of conflict between the [[Pandyas]] and [[Chola Dynasty|Cholas]] for the control of the peninsula gave rise to many [[legend]]s and [[Folklore|folktales]]. Not to mention the [[hero]]es in both sides. The notable campaigns are below:<ref>"An atlas and survey of south Asian History" , By M E Sharpe, 1995, Published by Lynne Rienner, Pages 22–28</ref><ref>
The geo-Politics of Asia, By [[Michael D. Swaine]] & Ashley J. Tellis, Published by Konark publishers for the center for policy research, New Delhi, Page 217-219</ref><ref>D The Chola Maritime Activities in Early Historical Setting, By: Dr. K.V. Hariharan</ref>


::* War of [[Pandya]] Succession (1172)
This period also marked the departure in thinking from the age-old traditions, for Rajaraja commissioned various foreigners (Prominently, the Arabs and Chinese)<ref>India and China- Oceanic, Educational and technological cooperation" , Journal of Indian Ocean Studies 10:2 (August 2002), Pages 165-171</ref> in the naval building program. This effort was continued and the benefits reaped under his [[Rajendra Chola]] I. He led a successful expedition against the [[Sri Vijaya]] (present day Indonesia) and subdued Sailendra. Though there were friendly exchanges between the [[Sri Vijaya]] empire and the Chola Empire in preceding times(including the construction of [[chudamani]] [[Pagoda]] in [[Nagapattinam]]), the raid seemed to have been motivated by the commercial interests rather than any political motives.
::* War of [[Pandya]] succession (1167)

::* The destruction of the Bali fleet (1148)
==== Trade, Commerce and diplomacy ====
::* Sea battle of the Kalinga Campaign (1081–1083)
The trade with the Chinese was a very lucrative enterprise, and [[Trade guild]]s needed the king's approval and the license from the [[customs]] force/department<ref>Antiquities of India: An Account of the History and Culture of Ancient Hindustan - Page 216
::* The second expedition of [[Sri Vijaya]] (1031–1034)
by Lionel D. Barnett</ref> to embark on overseas voyages for trade. The normal voyage of the day's trade involves three legs of journey. Which started with the Indian goods(mainly spices, cotton and gems) being shipped to china and in the return leg the Chinese goods (silk, incense,iron) were brought back to Chola ports. After some materials are utilized for local consumption, the remaining cargo along with Indian cargo is shipped to the [[Arabs]]. Traditionally, this involves transfer of material/cargo to many ships before the ultimate destination is reached.
::* The first expedition of [[Sri Vijaya]] (1027–1029)

::* The Annexation of [[Kedah]] (1024–1025)
The Strategic position of the [[Sri Vijaya]] and [[Kahamboj]] as a mid-point in the trade route was crucial. Upto 5th century CE, the [[Arabs]] traded with Chinese directly using [[Sri Vijaya]] as a port of call and replenishment hub. Realizing their potential, the [[Sri Vijaya]] empire began to encourage the sea piracy surrounding the area. The benefits were two-fold, the loot from piracy was a good bounty and it ensured their sovereignty and cooperation from all the trading parties.
::* Annexation of the [[Kambojas and Cambodia|Kamboja]] (?–996)

::* The invasion of Ceylon/Sri Lanka (977–?)
[[Image:Chinese Flamethrower.JPG|thumb|300px|right|A Chinese Flame thrower of the 9th Century CE, Designs like this were incorporated into the Chola Navy]]
::* Skirmishes with Pallava Navy (903–8)
When the piracy soared to unprecedented levels due to a internal succession confusion, two princes fought over the Throne and in turn relied on the loot from the sea-piracy for their civil-war.

The Arabs, on whom the Cholas were dependent of horses for their [[cavalry]] corps, began to demand high prices for their trade in the absence of Chinese commodity, this led to a slew of reduction in the Chola army.<ref>The Military History of south Asia, By Col. Peter Stanford, 1932 </ref>
Also, the sea trade with china was virtually impossible without the loss of 1/3 of the convoy for every voyage. Even escorted convoys came under attacks, which was a new factor. After repeated diplomatic missions urging the Sri Vijaya empire to curb the piracy, little result came.

The Chinese were equally infuriated by this act, as they too were losing revenue.In one particular note, the Cholas went as far as to conquer the [[Kamboja]] and gave it to the Sri vijaya kings (as per their request) to ensure cooperation in the curbing piracy.

There existed a close diplomatic tie between the [[Song dynasty]] of [[China]] and the [[Medieval Cholas]],which facilitated many technological innovations to travel both ways. The more interesting ones to have reached Chola shores are,

* The famous Chinese ship-designs employing independent water tight compartments in the [[hull]] of a ship.
* The mariner's compass
* The continuously shooting [[Flamethrowers]] for naval warfare.<ref>Historical Military Heritage of the Tamils By Ca. Vē. Cuppiramaṇiyan̲, Ka.Ta. Tirunāvukkaracu, International Institute of Tamil Studies</ref>

Perhaps, the culmination of three century's (combined) naval traditions of [[Pallavas]] and [[Cholas]] led to the most known accomplishment of the Chola Navy(or any South Indian power for that matter).<ref>Military Leadership in India: Vedic Period to Indo-Pak Wars
By Rajendra Nath, ISBN 817095018X, Pages: 112-119</ref>, Namely the 1st expedition of the Chola navy into the [[Malay]] peninsula.


== Organization and Administration ==
The Ancient navy was based on the trade vessel designs with little more than boarding implements, though this changed throughout the history. The later day navy was a specialized force with specially built ships for each type of combat.

The Imperial navy of the [[Medieval Cholas]] was composed of a multitude of forces in its command. In addition to the regular [[Navy]] (Kappal-Padai), there were many [[Auxiliaries|auxiliary]] [[forces]] that could be used in naval combat. The Chola Navy was an autonomous service unlike many of its contemporaries. The [[Army]] depended on the Naval-fleets for transportation and logistics. The Navy also had a core of [[Marines]]. Even Saboteurs were used, who were trained Pearl-fishermen. Who could dive and disable an enemy vessel by destroying/damaging the Rudder.<ref>Historical Military Heritage of the Tamils By Ca. Vē. Cuppiramaṇiyan̲, Ka.Ta. Tirunāvukkaracu, International Institute of Tamil Studies</ref>

The Chola navy could undertake any of the following combat and non-combat missions,

* Peacetime patrol and interdiction of piracy.
* Escort trade conveys.
* Escort friendly vessels.
* Naval battle close to home ports and at high-seas.
* Establish a beachhead and or reinforce the Army in times of need.
* Denial of passage for allies of the state's enemies.
* Sabotage of enemy vessels
This multi-dimensional force enabled the Cholas to achieve the Military, Political and cultural hegemony over the vast dominion of the Cholas.

=== Administration ===
The King/Emperor was the [[Supreme commander]] of all the Military forces including the [[Navy]].

The navy is organized mostly on role based squadrons & divisions, containing various types of ships assigned for a specific role and home-ported in an associated base/port. This procedure became necessary, especially after the conquest of Ceylon. Normally, a '''Ganam''' (Fleet-Squadron) would (the largest individual unit)be commanded by a '''Ganathipathy'''.

(should not be confused with the elephant headed god [[Ganapathy]]).

There were numerous sub-units of operational reasons and organizational reasons or other wise. Some are presented below,

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Unit Name
! Commander
! Modern-day equivalent
! Composition
! Functions/Duties
! Notes
|-
|'''Kanni''' - Wartime/special purpose formation
|Senior '''Kalapathy''', Normally ''Kalapathy'' is the rank of a commanding officer of a Ship (akin to Captain)
| Not more than five ships of any role.
|'''Kanni'' In Tamil means ''trap'' .‡1 It is a tactical formation, used to attract enemy combatants to a particular area. Where larger bodies (usually, a Thalam or 2) ships will ambush the enemy.
|During a strategic deployment, the formation will be used many times before engaging in themain combat to decimate the enemy fleet. ('')
|Also had a very bad reputation with the Navy Wives, since high numbers of ships were lost in this role as the friendlies' arrival were delayed in unfavorable currents.<ref>Indian Ocean Strategies Through the Ages, with Rare and Antique Maps
By Moti Lal Bhargava, Publishers: Reliance publication house, ISBN 818504757X</ref>
|-
|'''Jalathalam''' or simply '''Thalam''' ‡2 - A permanent formation.
|'''Jalathalathipathy''' - The lord of ''Thalam''
|The smallest self sustained unit in naval formation, consisted 5 main battle vessels, 3 Auxiliaries and 2 Logistics and 1 or 2 Privateers.
| A ''Thalam'' can be used for reconnaissance, patrol or interdiction.
| Normally, 2-3 ''Thalam'' operated in a vicinity on scouting or search & destroy missions. while can search a wide area, can reach to each other's aid in short duration.
|A fully equipped Chola ''Thalam'' is said to have been able to withstand an attack by more than twice its size. this is attributed to the superior range of missile weapons in Chola Inventory.
|-
| '''Mandalam''' - A semi-permanent formation. Mostly used in battle/Overseas deployment.
| '''Mandalathipathy''' - The lord of ''Mandalam''
| Roughly equivalent to [[Task force]] or [[Battle groups]]
| Composed of 40-50 Ships of various roles. ('''Mandalam''' in Tamil and various Indian languages is the word of 48)
| They can used as an individual combat unit, especially during ''pincer'' or ''break-neck'' maneuvering in high-seas.
|-
| '''Ganam''' - A permanent formation
| '''Ganathipathy''' - Literally, Athipathy (lord) of the ''Ganam'', equivalent to modern-day rear-admiral
| [[Squadron_(naval)|Fleet-Squadron ]]
| Composed of 100-150 Ships of various roles. ('''Ganam''' in Tamil means ''volume'' and ''three'' (due to the third axis maybe). A ''ganam'' comprises of three '''Mandalam'''
| A self-reliant unit of the force, only lesser than the Fleet. Had combat, reconnaissance, logistics and resupply/repair units.
| Normally, this will be the minimum strength/size of the overseas deployment.

|-
| '''Ani'''
| '''Anipathy''' - lord of an ''Ani''
| [[Taskforce]] or [[battle group]]
| Composed of 3 ''Ganam''s(Fleet-division) minimum. So the no: of ships it consisted depended on it.But, normally 300-500 ships.
| Mainly an Expedition order than normal formation. But, during long deployments, they were deployed. (only 2 instances of an ''Ani'' being deployed in a combat has been documented.<ref>
The Encyclopedia of Military History from 3500 B.C. to the Present - Page 1470-73
by Richard Ernest Dupuy, Trevor Nevitt Dupuy -1986, </ref> )
|-
|'''Pirivu'''
| Normally headed by a prince/confidante of the King, title depends on the sea where the fleet is based. For example, The eastern fleet would be named as '''Keelpirivu'''-'''athipathy''' or ''Nayagan''' or ''Thevan/r''' , depending on the person.
|[[Naval fleet|Fleet]]
|they functioned much like modern Fleets. There were 2-4 fleets in chola navy during various times. The principle fleet was based in east. Later on a 2nd fleet was based on Ceylon/Sri Lanka. During and after the Rajendra I, 3 or 4 Fleets existed.
|The rise of [[Chera]] naval power gave more than a little loss in revenue, prompting the Cholas to station a Fleet permenantly in the Malabar and to engage Mercenary navies to support the Chola strategic design.
|}


''''Note''' : The Chola Navy used both naval-ranks & army-style ranks. While some of the modern-day convention of Ranks do applied, Like; the Army Capitan is equal to a Lieutenant in Navy and a Navy Capitan is equal to a Colonel in the army; others were totally different.So a small comparison is provided for comparison.


‡- Nomenclature
1, ''' Kanni''' May mean any of the following in Tamil, the application on the meaning is in context of the usage. Virgin/Unmarried Girl, First timer, the Eastern corner/direction.
2, '''Thalam'' being both the name of a tactical formation of the army and navy. '''Thalapathy''' meaning the lord of a ''Thalam'' roughly a division, and the rank is comparable to Modern-day colonel.

=== Rank Structure ===
The chola navy used a hybrid rank structure, there were dedicated Naval ranks as well as Army-derived ranks.<ref>The history of the navies of India, BY William Shaf 1996, Pages-45-47</ref>


* The Supreme Commander :'''Chakravarthy''' - The Emperor

* The Commander-in Chief of Navy :'''Jalathipathhi''' - roughly, the Admiral of the Navy.

* The commander of the Fleet : '''Pirivu'''+ '''Athipathy''' or '''Devar/n''' or '''Nayagan''' - The equivalent of an Admiral

* The commander of the Fleet-Squadron : '''Ganathipathy''' - the equivalent of a rear-admiral (roughly)

* The commander of a group : '''Mandalathipathy'''#(refer below) - the equivalent of a Vice-admiral

* The commander of the Ship : '''Kalapathy''' -The equivalent of a captain in modern navies.

* The officer in-charge of Arms in a ship : '''Kaapu''' - Roughly the Executive officer and Weapons officer rolled into one.

* The officer in-charge of the oarsmen/masts : '''Seevai''' - roughly the equivalent of the Master Chief and Engineering officer.

* The officer in-charge of boarding Party (Marines) : '''Eeitimaar''' - Major/Captain in marines.

=== Other Naval Arms ===
'''The auxiliary forces of the Chola Navy'''
In addition to the Standing Navy of the state, there were other services which had a naval arm of its own. Notable among them are the [[Customs Department]], [[Militia]] and the state monopoly of [[Pearl fisheries]]. In addition to the state services, a small but formidable forces were maintained by various [[trade-guilds]], these guilds are highly regulated and acted as mercenaries and reinforcements in times of need.<ref>The Corporate Life in ancient India, By Prof RC Majumdar, Ramesh Chandra. 1920, Madras University Press, Available online at http://deas.repec.org/b/hay/hetboo/majumdar1920.html </ref>

==== Customs & Exercise ====
The '''Customs''' force, called '''Sungu''' (SUNGA ILLAKA) was highly organized and unlike anything in the ancient world. It was under the command of a Director-general like position called '''Thalai-Thirvai'''. '''Thalai - Head, Thirvai- duty(customs)'''. It was highly evolved and had various departments<ref>Maritime trade and state development in early Southeast Asia, Kenneth Hallp.34, citing Pattinapalai, a Sangam poem of the first centuries AD, quoted in K.V. Subrahmanya Aiyer, 'Largest provincial organisations in ancient India', Quarterly Journal of the Mythic Society 65, 1 (1954-55): 38.,</ref> Some are

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! '''Department'''
! '''Duties'''
! '''Assets'''
|-
| '''Thirvai''' (Customs duty & Exercise)
| This unit employed some of the brilliant merchants of the time and most were professional economists. They deduced and fixed the percentage of the Customs duty of a commodity for a particular season. (trade-voyages were influenced by ocean currents and hence the price changed accordingly)
| They normally had boarding officers, boarding crafts and some sea vessels; as most of thier duty was inland.
|-
| '''Aaivu''' ([[Inspection]] & [[enforcement]])
| This unit was the ''Action'' arm of the trade law, they inspected ships for contraband, illegal goods, wrong declaring of tonnage, small crimes control and the protection of the Harbors under Chola dominion.
| These units employed some of the fast assault and boarding vessels of the time and in more that one reported occasion, the Navy had sought its help in intercepting rouge vessels.†
|-
| '''Ottru''' ([[Intelligence Corps]])
| They were the Intelligence corps of the territorial waters of the Chola dominion. They normally tailed foreign vessels, performed path-finding for larger forces/conveys and gave periodic updates for the Kings and the trade-guilds of the happenings in the sea.
| They operated highly capable vessels which are noted for stealth and speed, rather than brute force and weapons platforms. Most of the ships they operated were [[Privateer]]s and contained no national markings. We have some understandings of their crafts, which seemed to have been equiped with concealable catapults and [[napalm]] throwers (not [[Trebuchet]]s like the ones employed by the naval ships.)
|-
| '''Kallarani''' ([[Pirate]] squad)
|Technically, they weren't employed by either the sovereign or the state. But rather, they are [[pirates]] themselves who have received the Royal Pardon on the pledge of their support of the [[Chola Empire]]. They had been used in more than a few instances to deal with the Arab piracy in the western water. They have also been used as Coast Gaurd.
| These mercenaries operated anything that they could capture and composed of multi-national-ethnic corps. Notable among them are the Arabian [[Amir]]s , who were highly respected upon their oath of allegiance and their fervor in combat.
|-
| '''Karaipirivu''' ([[Coastal defense]])
| They performed duties akin to the modern coast-guard, search 7 rescue and costal patrols. But mainly they were land-based and scattered along the long coast-line to provide a sea-ward defense.
|they operated substantially smaller crafts and occasionally even ''catamaran''s . Nevertheless, they were feared by petty crooks and coastal thives.
|}

==== Coast Guard ====
In the later years of the 1100 CE, the [[Navy]] was constantly battling in many fronts to protect Chola Commercial, religious and Political interests. So the home ports were literally, undefended. This led to a change in the of outlook Chola naval strategy, the sturdier and larger vessels were repeatedly called to reinforce the high-sea flotilla, leading to the development of a specialized Auxiliary force of fast and heavily armed light ships in large numbers. The erstwhile '''Karaipirivu''' was the natural choice for this expansion and in time they became an autonomous force vested with the duties of protecting the Chola territorial waters, home ports, patrol of newly captured ports and coastal cities.

==== Privateers ====
The state's dependence on overseas trade for much valued foreign exchange created the powerful Trade-guilds. Some of which grew more powerful than the regional governors. <ref>The Corporate Life in ancient India, By Prof RC Majumdar, Ramesh Chandra. 1920, Madras University Press, </ref>
And in the increasingly competitive field of international trade, the state faced with difficulties to reinforce and or rescue stranded Merchant ships in high seas, in a timely manner. This led to the establishment of [[privateer]] navies. Like its European counterparts, they had no National markings and employed multi-national crews.

But, they were employed by the Trade-guilds rather than the Empire, giving the Traders an edge in the seas. Normally, they performed path-finding, escort and protection duties. but, in more than a few occasions, these forces had been summoned to serve the Empire's interests.

Notable Trade guilds which employed a privateer navy were,

* '''Nanadesa Tisaiyayirattu Ainnutruvar''' - literally, "the five hundred from the four countries and the thousand directions"

* '''Maalainattu Thiribuvana Vaanibar kzhulumam''' - The merchants from the high-country in three worlds (meaning the 3 domiciles of Chinese, Indian and Arabian empires)

* '''Maadathu valaingair (or valainzhr)vaanibar Kzhu''' - The pearl exporters form the [[Kanjeepuram|Kanchi]]

== Vessels and Weapons ==
[[Image:SongJunk.jpg|thumb|250px|right|A [[Song Dynasty]] [[Junk (ship)|junk]] ship, 13th century; Chinese ships of the Song period featured [[Hull (watercraft)|hull]]s with [[Bulkhead (partition)|watertight compartments]] Some of these vessels are believed to have been employed by the [[Chola navy]] too.<ref>Southeast Asia, Past and Present By D. R. Sardesai, Page 47</ref>]]

Even before the accounts of the 1st century BC, there were written accounts of Ship-building and war-craft at sea. Professor R.C. Majumdar says that there existed a comprehensive book of Naval-architecture in India dating back to 2nd century BC, if not earlier.

During the reign of Raja Raja and his son, there were a complex classification of class of vessels and its utility. Some of the survived classes' name and utility are below.<ref>
The History and Culture of the Indian People , By Prof R C Majumdar Pages, 642-646</ref>

* '''Dharani''' - The equivalent of modern-day [[destroyers]] designed to take combat to high-seas.

* '''Loola''' - The equivalent of a modern day [[Corvette]]s; designed to perform light combat and escort duties.
* '''Vajra''' - The equivalent of a Frigate maybe, a fast attack craft lightly armored.

* '''Thirisadai''' - Probably the battle cruisers or Battleships of the day, they are reported to be armored heavily and can engage more than 2 targets in combat, and relies on its built rather than speed to survive and attack.<ref>
The History shipbuilding in the sub-continent , By Prof R C Majumdar, Pages, 521-523, 604-616</ref>

Though all ships of the time employed a small Marine force (for boarding enemy vessels), this class of ship seems to have had a separate cabins and training area for them.<ref>A History of South-east Asia - Page 55
by Daniel George Edward Hall - Asia, Southeastern Publishers, 1955, Pages 465-472, 701-706</ref>
This ship also is said to be able to engage in asymmetrical warfare.
<br />

{| class="wikitable"
|-
| '''Dharani'''
| The primary Weapons platform with extensive endurance(up to 3 months), They normally engaged in groups and avoided one on one encounters.
|''Probably'' can be equated to a '''[[Destroyer]]'''.
|-
|'''Lola'''
|They were lightly armored, fast attack vessels. Normally performed escort duties. They cannot perfoem frontal assaults.
| Equvalent to modern day '''[[Corvette]]'''
|-
|'''Vajara'''
|They were highly capable fast attack crafts, Typically used to reinforce/rescue a stranded fleet.
| ''Probably'', can be equated to a '''[[Frigate]]'''
|-
|'''Thirisadai'''
|The heaviest class known, had extensive war-fighting capabilities and endurance.had a dedicated marine force of around 400 [[Marines]] to board enemy vessels. They are reported to be able to engage three vessels of ''Dharani'' class. Hence the name ''Thirisadai'', which means , ''three braids.'' (braid was also the time's name for oil-fire)
|This class can be attributed/compared to modern '''[[Battle cruiser]]''' or '''[[Battleship]]s'''.
|}
[[Image:Anchor of an unknown Lola(ship).jpg|thumb|250px|This is the Anchor of an Unknown LOLA class Chola ship, excavated by the [[Indian Navy]] [[divers]] off the coast of Poombuhar.]]

Apart from class definitions, there are names of [[Royal Yacht]]s and their architecture.
Some of which are,
* Akramandham - A royal Yacht with the Royal quarters in the stern.
* Neelamandham - A royal Yacht with extensive facilities for conducting courts and accommodation for hi-officials/ministers.
* Sarpammugam - these were smaller yachts used in the Rivers (with ornamental snake heads)

In addition to these , we find many names of Ship classes in [[Purananuru]] and its application in both inland waters and open oceans. Some of them are,

*Yanthiram - Hybrid ship employing bot sails and oars or probably Paddle wheels of some type (as ''Yanthiram'' is literally translated to mechanical wheel)
*Kalam - Large vessels with 3 masts which can travel in any direction irrespective of winds.
*Punai - medium sized vessels that can be used to coastal shipping as well as inland.
*Patri - Large barge type vessel used to ferrying trade goods.
*Oodam - Small boat with large oars.
*Ambi - Medium sized boat with a single mast and oars.
*Toni - small boat used in rocky terrain.


== Campaigns ==
In the tenure spanning the 7 Centuries its ''documented'' existence, the Chola Navy was involved in confrontations for probably 500 years.<ref>The Politics of Plunder: The Cholas in Eleventh-Century Ceylon,George W. Spencer,The Journal of Asian Studies, Vol. 35, No. 3 (May, 1976), pp. 405-419, Summary available online at http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0021-9118(197605)35%3A3%3C405%3ATPOPTC%3E2.0.CO%3B2-U</ref> There were frequent skirmishes and many pitched battles. Not to mention long campaigns and expeditions. The 5 centuries of conflict between the [[Pandyas]] and [[Cholas]] for the control of the peninsula gave rise to many [[legends]] and [[folktales]]. Not to mention the [[heroes]] in both sides. The notable campaigns are below<ref>"An atlas and survey of south Asian History" , By M E Sharpe, 1995, Published by Lynne Rienner, Pages 22-28</ref><ref>
The geo-Politics of Asia,By Michael D. Swaine & Ashley J. Tellis, Published by Konark publishers for the center for policy research, New Delhi,Page 217-219</ref><ref>D The Chola Maritime Activities in Early Historical Setting, By: Dr. K.V. Hariharan</ref>

::* War of [[Pandya]] Succession (1172 CE)
::* War of [[Pandya]] succession (1167 CE)
::* The destruction of the Bali fleet (1148CE)
::* Sea battle of the Kalinga Campaighn (1081CE-1083CE)
::* The second expedition of [[Sri vijaya]] (1031CE-1034CE)
::* The first expedition of [[Sri vijaya]] (1027CE -1029CE)
::* The Annexation of [[Kedah]] (1024-1025 CE)
::* Annexation of the Khamboj (?-996CE)
::* The invasion of Ceylon/Sri Lanka.(977CE-?)
::* Skirmishes with Pallava Navy (903-8 CE)

=== Recruitment and Service ===
The chola emperors gave a free hand to the Admirals in recruiting and training of sailors, engineers, oarsmen and marines. There were no complicated tests and evaluation process. Any citizen or even non citizen could sign up for the naval service. But, one did not end up in the work of his choice. Preference were given to ex-servicemen, their sons and noblemen. But, this attitude changed in later days. And many class of soldiers / sailors distinguished themselves, irrespective of rank and class.

But, the prized position of all were th Siege engineers, and they commanded much admiration among the crew. Despite all normalance, the caste system did played a role in selection and service, the ''marines'' were typically recruited from the [[Maravar]] community, noted for thier undying loyality and ferocity in combat. The saboteurs were typically recruited from the [[Valaingar]] community. the navigators and deck-officers were recruited from [[Vaishya]] community. The commander of the ship mostly hailed from the [[Kshatraya]] community.

=== Ports and fleets ===
the most ancient of ports used by Cholas was the [[Poombuhar]], later on they used many poerts and even created some new ones.Some of the famous ports are,

* Arickamedu
* Poombuhar.
* Kanchipuram.
* Nagapatinam.
* Kulachal.
* Korkai
* Kadalur.
* Thuthukudi

In addition to these sea ports there were many inland ports and dry dock connected by Rivers [[Kaveri ]] and [[Thamarabarani]] which served commercial fleets and in times of war, to facilitate mass production, ships were built inland and ferried through the rivers to the Ocean.
* Musuri
* Worayur or Urayur

The fleets were normally named after the dead monarchs and god's name. The most distinguished ones were granted Royal prefixes like Theiva-sovereign's name-fleet name. During the reign of [[Rajaraja Chola I]] and [[Rajendra Chola I]], there were 5 fleets, each catering to particular needs. The main fleet was home ported in Nagapatinam. The other fleets were home ported in Kadalur and a small fleet was also based in Kanchipuram.

In addition to the main fleets of war ships , there were 2 fleets of [[Logistics]] and transport ships to serve the needs of the Army; involved in a bloody war in Ceylon and later in SE Asia.

In the later years this numbers increased drastically and a several fleets were created anew. During the later 11th century CE, there were a total 9 battle fleets, based in various dominians across the vast expanses of the [[Chola empire]] ranging from the present day Aceh, Ankorwat to the southern reaches of ceylon/Sri Lanka.

== Political, Cultural and Economic Impact ==
[[Image:Siva_Temple_in_Kadaram.jpg|thumb|300Px|right| The ancient Siva Temple in [[Kadaram]] built by the Chola trade-guild stationed there.]]
[[Image:Angkor_wat_Chola_ship.jpg‎ |thumb|300Px|right| An engraving in a Cambodian temple in [[Angkor Wat]] , with a Chola Ship in the background]]

The Grand vision and imperial energy of the Father and son duo [[Raja Raja chola I]] and [[Rajendra Chola I]] is undoubtedly the underlying reason for expansion and prosperity. But, this was accomplished by the tireless efforts and pains of the Navy. In essence, Raja Raja was the first person in the Sub-continent to realize the power projection capabilities of a powerful navy. He and his successors initiated a massive naval buildup and continued supporting it. And they used it more than just wars.

The chola navy was a potent Diplomatic symbol, It was the carrier of Chola might and prestige. It spread the Dravidian culture, the literary and architectural grandeur. For the sake of comparison, it was just the equivalent of the " '''Gunboat diplomacy''' " of the modern day [[Great power]]s and [[super power]]s.

There is evidence to show that the king of Kambujadesa (modern Cambodia) sent a ornamental chariot to the Chola Emperor, probably to appease him so that his strategic attention does not extend further than the Malay peninsula.

Talking of impact, after 8 centuries (from Kulothunga's time) and Islamic conversion, Indonesia still has a high regard for their connections with the cholas (navy). The Indonesian submarine museum is housed in an old Russian whiskey-class submarine. Which was named '''"Pasopati"''' , one of the names of the hindu god [[Shiva]]. Still exciting fact is the cultural ties spread by the chola navies. The motto of the Indonesian navy is '''Jalaseva Jayamahe''' , which is Sanskrit for "On the sea we are glorious."

And there are very many surviving examples of the temples built around Dravadian Architecture, in Vietnam, Cambodia, Indonesia, Malaysia and Sri Lanka.

==Popular culture==
From the Sangam age poems to commemorate the victory of the sovereign of the day to the immortalized Kalinga Campaign of the [[Kulothnga Chola I]] in the [[Kalingathu parani]]. ''Parani'' is a special type of literary work, which; according to the traditions and rules of linguistics of [[Tamil|Tamizh]] can only be composed on a king/general whose forces have killed a thousand elephants in combat.

In modern times, more than a few Romance has been inspired by the Chola Navy, and mostly in Tamil Language and literature.

* '''[[Yavana rani]]''' : A historical novel by Sandilyian surrounding the events of the [[Karikala]]'s Ascendence to throne.

* '''[[Ponniyin selvan]]''' : The crowning glory of the Rajaraja is idolized in this Novel surrounding the assination of his brother and crown prince Aditha Karikalan. More than a passing note is given of the navy and its organization in this Magnum opus by Kalki. Krishnamoorthy.

* '''[[Kadal pura]]''' : Another historical novel by sandilyan surrounding the foundation of the [[Chalukya Chola]] dynasty in India and the [[Song Dynasty]] in china. Sandilyan gives more than a passing evidence to prove that the song-emperor and Kulothunga chola were friends. By far, this work gives the most intricate details of the navies of the day and naval warfare. In this work he describes the various weapons and tactics employed by the Cholas and Chinese navies and their combined efforts to overthrow the Sri Vijaya dynasty.

*'''[[Kanni Maadam]]''' : A historical novel by Sandilyan in the time of Rajathiraja Chola. The work describes the Pandyas' civil war .It elaborates the war by proxy, between the sinhalese and cholas. The pallavas are all but gone, they are in the service of both Cholas and pandyas. It features some of the most detailed tactical maneuvering in battlefield. It also highlights the importance of the Naval power and logistics in an overseas campaign.


==Timeline of events==
==Timeline of events==
The major events which had direct impact in the development of the Chola Naval capabality is listed here, which is in no case comprehensive . But, some of the events had deep impact nevertheless.
The major events which had direct and some of them deep impact in the development of the Chola Naval capability are listed here, which is in no case comprehensive.


'''Literary references and recordings'''
'''Archeological Evidence:'''
* 356–321 BCE: The Periplus of Niarchus, an officer of Alexander the Great, describes the Persian coast. Niarchus commissioned thirty oared galleys to transport the troops of Alexander the Great from northwest India back to Mesopotamia, via the Persian Gulf and the Tigris, an established commercial route.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://lrrc3.plc.upenn.edu/indianocean/group5/penny01.html |title=Archived copy |access-date=2008-12-25 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030604184224/http://lrrc3.plc.upenn.edu/indianocean/group5/penny01.html |archive-date=2003-06-04 }}</ref>
The dated excavations,
* 334–323 BCE: Eratosthenes, the librarian at Alexandria, drew a map which includes Sri Lanka and the mouth of the Ganges. Which states the exchange of traffic and commodity in the regions.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://ias.berkeley.edu/orias/spice/textobjects/moreonmaps.htm |title=Archived copy |access-date=2008-12-25 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070814114413/http://ias.berkeley.edu/orias/spice/textobjects/moreonmaps.htm |archive-date=2007-08-14 }}</ref>
* 3000 BCE - Dugboats were found in '''Arikamedu''', what is now in [[Pondychery]]
* 2400 BCE - Highly functonal port is in operation in [[Lothal]] of what is now [[Gujurat]]
* 700 BCE - The first mention of the word ''Yavana'' in pottery around korkai.(meaning Greeks or Romans)
* 300 BCE - A load-stone compass with chinese inscriptions is found off the coast of Kaaveripoompatnam.
* 100 BCE - A settlement of [[Tamil]]/[[Pakrit]] speaking merchants founded in Rome.
* Later 1st Century BCE - Roman glass were found in Southern costal regions of [[Tamilnadu]]


==Gallery==
<gallery>
File:Chola coin with legend "Uttama".png|An early silver coin of [[Uththama Chola|Uttama Chola]] found in Sri Lanka showing the Tiger emblem of the Cholas<ref name="SastriHOSI"/>{{rp|18}}<ref>Chopra ''et al.'', p 31</ref>
File:Hinduism_Expansion_in_Asia.svg|Map showing the expansion of Hinduism in Southeast Asia, with significant influence due to the Chola Navy in [[Thailand]], [[Malaysia]], [[Indonesia]], [[Vietnam]], [[Laos]], and [[Cambodia]].
File:Rajendra territories cl.png|The Chola empire and region of influence at the height of its power (c. 1050) during the reign of [[Rajendra Chola I]].
</gallery>


==See also==
'''Literary references and Recordings'''
* [[Chola dynasty]]
* 356-321 BCE: The Periplus of Niarchus, an officer of Alexander the Great, describes the Persian coast. Niarchus commissioned thirty oared galleys to transport the troops of Alexander the Great from northwest India back to Mesopotamia, via the '''Persian Gulf''' and the ''Tigris'', an established commercial route.<ref>http://lrrc3.plc.upenn.edu/indianocean/group5/penny01.html</ref>
* [[Chola military]]
* [[Dravidian architecture]]


==References==
* 334-323 BCE: Eratosthenes, the librarian at Alexandria, drew a map which includes Sri Lanka and the mouth of the Ganges.Which states the exchange of traffic and comodity in the regions.<ref>http://ias.berkeley.edu/orias/spice/textobjects/moreonmaps.htm</ref>
* 207-190 BCE: In a puranaanuru song, there is an advice for enterprising soldiers, which when translated literally comes to " He should ride the horse like the Phalavas, Muster the elephant like cherals, & must organize the defense of a fort like the '''Yavanas''', this brings to light the existence of roman settlements.
* 1st century BCE : When Vennikkuyithiar mentiones about [[Karikala]], he mentiones several class of inland vessls by Name some are '''Kalam, Punai & Patri'''.

== References ==
{{Reflist}}
{{Reflist}}


==Footnotes==
== External links ==
{{notelist|refs=
{{efn|name=Sastri1|''"The Tamil merchants took glassware, [[camphor]], [[sandalwood]], [[rhinoceros]] horns, [[ivory]], rose water, [[asafoetida]], spices such as [[Black pepper|pepper]], [[cloves]], etc."'' – [[K.A. Nilakanta Sastri]], ''A History of South India'', p 173}}
{{efn|name=Sastri2|The ''kadaram'' campaign is first mentioned in Rajendra's inscriptions dating from his 14th year. The name of the [[Srivijaya]] king was Sangrama Vijayatungavarman. – [[K.A. Nilakanta Sastri]], ''The CōĻas'', pp 211–220}}
}}

==External links==
* http://www.tifr.res.in/~akr/crab_webtifr.html (Indian subcontinent section)
* http://www.tifr.res.in/~akr/crab_webtifr.html (Indian subcontinent section)
* http://www.sabrizain.demon.co.uk/malaya/early2.htm
* https://web.archive.org/web/20080514170634/http://www.sabrizain.demon.co.uk/malaya/early2.htm
* http://www.tsr8283.com/general/history.htm
* https://web.archive.org/web/20091203133836/http://www.tsr8283.com/general/history.htm
* http://nandhivarman.indiainteracts.com/2007/11/01/chola-maritime-conquests-and-technological-grandeur/
* http://nandhivarman.indiainteracts.com/2007/11/01/chola-maritime-conquests-and-technological-grandeur/
* http://www.cmi.ac.in/gift/Archeaology/arch_tambaramhistory.htm
* http://www.cmi.ac.in/gift/Archeaology/arch_tambaramhistory.htm
* http://www.sangam.org/articles/view2/print.php?uid=1012
* http://www.sangam.org/articles/view2/print.php?uid=1012
* http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/NAVY/History/1600s/Prakash.html
* https://web.archive.org/web/20081105144141/http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/NAVY/History/1600s/Prakash.html
*{{citation|last=Keay|first=John|title=India: A History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0IquM4BrJ4YC|date=12 April 2011|publisher=Open Road + Grove/Atlantic|isbn=978-0-8021-9550-0}}

* {{Citation | last = Tripati | first = Sila | title = Ships on Hero Stones from the West Coast of India | journal = International Journal of Nautical Archaeology | volume = 35 | issue = 1 | pages = 88–96 | date = April 2006 | year = 2006 | language = en | url = http://www.sabrizain.org/malaya/library/herostones.pdf | doi = 10.1111/j.1095-9270.2005.00081.x | s2cid = 162192060 }}
== See also ==
* {{Citation | last = Rao | first = K.V. Ramakrishna | title = The Shipping Technology of Cholas | journal = 27th Annual South Indian History Congress | pages = 326–345 | year = 2007 | url = https://sangam.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/The-Shipping-Technology-of-Cholas-2007.pdf }}
'''In wikipedia'''
* [[Chola dynasty]]
[[Category:Chola Empire|Navy]]
* [[Chola Military]]
[[Category:Military of Chola]]
[[Category:History of Thanjavur]]
* [[Dravidian Architecture]]
[[Category:Srivijaya]]
[[Category:Military history of Southeast Asia]]
[[Category:Naval history of India]]
[[Category:Disbanded navies]]

Revision as of 22:09, 27 June 2022

Chola Navy
File:Battle of kedah.jpg
Depiction of the siege of Kedah, the battle between Beemasenan's Chola naval infantry and the defenders of Kedah fort.
CountryChola Empire
AllegianceChola Dynasty
BranchNaval
TypeNaval Force
Part ofChola military
Engagements
  • War of Pandya Succession (1172)
  • War of Pandya succession (1167)
  • Kalinga Campaighn (1081–83)
  • The second expedition of Sri Vijaya (1025–1028)
  • The first expedition of Sri Vijaya (1022–1025)
  • Annexation of Kamboja (?–996)
  • The invasion of Ceylon/Sri Lanka (977–?)
  • Skirmishes with Pallava Navy (903–908)
Commanders
Ceremonial chiefChola Emperor (Chakravarthy) – notably, Rajaraja I and Rajendra I
Notable
commanders
  • Vallavaraiyan Vandiyadevan (10th century)
  • Amarabujangan (12th century)
  • Beemaseenan – The famous admiral of the Siege of the Kedah (late 11th century)
  • Karunaakaran – Admiral/general (late 12th century)
  • Pallavaraiyan – Title used by several commanders

The Cholas did not have a standing navy in modern sense. The maritime force of Cholas was formed from using ships used for trade, as they did not have a dedicated ship for naval combat. The ships were used for transporting the land army overseas.[1]: 251 [2]: 77 

The Cholas were at the height of their power from the latter half of the 9th century CE through the early 13th century CE.[3]: 5  Between 1010 and 1153 CE, Rajaraja's successors continued the expansion, making the Chola Empire a military, economic and cultural power in South and South-East Asia.[4]: 215  During this period, the Chola Navy helped expand the empire with Naval expeditions to the Pala of Pataliputra, along the Ganges and the Chola invasion of Srivijaya (present-day Indonesia) in 1025 CE,[5] as well as repeated embassies to China.[3]: 158  The Chola Navy declined in the 13th century when the Cholas fought land battles with the Chalukyas of Andhra-Kannada area in South India, and with the rise of the Pandyan dynasty.[3]: 175 

History

Main article: Chola Dynasty

Under Rajaraja Chola I and his son Rajendra Chola I, the dynasty became a military, economic and cultural power in Asia.[6]: 115 [4]: 215  Rajaraja Chola conquered peninsular South India, annexed parts of Sri Lanka and occupied the islands of the northernmost atolls of the Maldives.[4]: 215  Rajendra Chola sent a victorious expedition to North India that touched the river Ganges and defeated the Pala ruler of Pataliputra, Mahipala. He also successfully raided kingdoms of Maritime Southeast Asia.[a][7]: 211–220 [5]

Early Chola period (c. 4th century BCE–200 CE)

The Cholas were mentioned in Ashokan Edicts of 3rd Century BCE (located in modern Delhi) as one of the neighboring kingdoms in the South.[8] The earliest mention of specific Chola rulers is found in Sangam literature (c. 100 BCE–250 CE).[9] The Mahavamsa mentions a Chola prince known as Ellalan invading and conquering Sri Lanka around 235 BCE with the help of a Mysore army.[10][11]

Imperial Chola period (848–1070 CE)

See also: Medieval Cholas

Rajaraja I and Rajendra I

This period also marked the departure in thinking from the age-old traditions. Rajaraja commissioned various foreigners (prominently, the Arabs and Chinese) in the naval building program.[12]

An inscription from Sirkazhi, dated to 1187 AD, mentions a naval officer called Araiyan Kadalkolamitantaan alias Amarakon Pallavaraiyan. He is mentioned as the Tandalnayagam of the Karaippadaiyilaar. The term Karaippadaiyilaar means forces or army of the seashore and the title Tandalnayagam is similar to Dandanayaka and means commander of the forces. The title Kadalkolamitantaan means "one who floated while the sea was engulfed".[13]

Trade, commerce, and diplomacy

Chola Territorial Extent
c.1030 CE (under Rajendra I)
c.1055 CE (under Rajendra II)
c.1065 CE (under Virarajendra Chola)

The Cholas excelled in foreign trade and maritime activity, extending their influence overseas to China and Southeast Asia.[6]: 116–117  A fragmentary Tamil inscription found in Sumatra cites the name of a merchant guild Nanadesa Tisaiyayirattu Ainnutruvar (literally, "the five hundred from the four countries and the thousand directions"), a famous merchant guild in the Chola country.[6]: 118  The inscription is dated 1088, indicating that there was an active overseas trade during the Chola period.[6]: 117 

Towards the end of the 9th century, southern India had developed extensive maritime and commercial activity, especially with the Chinese and Arabs.[6]: 12, 118  The Cholas, being in possession of parts of both the west and the east coasts of peninsular India, were at the forefront of these ventures.[6]: 124 [14][15] The Tang dynasty of China, the Srivijaya empire in the Malayan archipelago under the Sailendras, and the Abbasid caliphate at Baghdad were the main trading partners.[7]: 604 

The trade with the Chinese was a very lucrative enterprise, and Trade guilds needed the king's approval and the license from the customs force/department to embark on overseas voyages for trade.[16]

Cooperation with the Chinese

Chinese Song Dynasty reports record that an embassy from Chulian (Chola) reached the Chinese court in the year 1077,[6]: 117 [4]: 223 [17] and that the king of the Chulien at the time was called Ti-hua-kia-lo.[7]: 316  It is possible that these syllables denote "Deva Kulo[tunga]" (Kulothunga Chola I). This embassy was a trading venture and was highly profitable to the visitors, who returned with "81,800 strings of copper coins in exchange for articles of tributes, including glass articles, and spices".[b][3]: 173 

Vessels and weapons

Ships of classical India, left to right:
  • Kurumbar or Pallava coin of the Coromandel coast; showing a two-masted ship like the modern coasting vessel or d'honi
  • Andhra coin from Eastern Indian coast, showing a two-masted ship, ca. 1st–3rd century AD.
  • Sketch of a ship based on a mural in Ajanta Caves, ca. 6th century.

Information regarding Chola vessels is lacking. Because of this, the technique used for naval battles and how the battles were fought is unknown. R.C. Majumdar argues that the naval battles fought by Chola are basically land battles fought on ships, and the ships used were transports used for transporting the army.[1]: 251 

Campaigns

In the tenure spanning the 700 years of its documented existence, the Chola Navy was involved in confrontations for probably 500 years.[18] There were frequent skirmishes and many pitched battles. Not to mention long campaigns and expeditions. The 5th centuries of conflict between the Pandyas and Cholas for the control of the peninsula gave rise to many legends and folktales. Not to mention the heroes in both sides. The notable campaigns are below:[19][20][21]

  • War of Pandya Succession (1172)
  • War of Pandya succession (1167)
  • The destruction of the Bali fleet (1148)
  • Sea battle of the Kalinga Campaign (1081–1083)
  • The second expedition of Sri Vijaya (1031–1034)
  • The first expedition of Sri Vijaya (1027–1029)
  • The Annexation of Kedah (1024–1025)
  • Annexation of the Kamboja (?–996)
  • The invasion of Ceylon/Sri Lanka (977–?)
  • Skirmishes with Pallava Navy (903–8)

Timeline of events

The major events which had direct and some of them deep impact in the development of the Chola Naval capability are listed here, which is in no case comprehensive.

Literary references and recordings

  • 356–321 BCE: The Periplus of Niarchus, an officer of Alexander the Great, describes the Persian coast. Niarchus commissioned thirty oared galleys to transport the troops of Alexander the Great from northwest India back to Mesopotamia, via the Persian Gulf and the Tigris, an established commercial route.[22]
  • 334–323 BCE: Eratosthenes, the librarian at Alexandria, drew a map which includes Sri Lanka and the mouth of the Ganges. Which states the exchange of traffic and commodity in the regions.[23]

Gallery

  • An early silver coin of Uttama Chola found in Sri Lanka showing the Tiger emblem of the Cholas[3]: 18 [24]
    An early silver coin of Uttama Chola found in Sri Lanka showing the Tiger emblem of the Cholas[3]: 18 [24]
  • Map showing the expansion of Hinduism in Southeast Asia, with significant influence due to the Chola Navy in Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia, Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia.
    Map showing the expansion of Hinduism in Southeast Asia, with significant influence due to the Chola Navy in Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia, Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia.
  • The Chola empire and region of influence at the height of its power (c. 1050) during the reign of Rajendra Chola I.
    The Chola empire and region of influence at the height of its power (c. 1050) during the reign of Rajendra Chola I.

See also

References

  1. ^ a b Majumdar, Romesh Chandra (2001). The History and Culture of the Indian People, Volume V: The Struggle for Empire. Mumbai: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan.
  2. ^ Sakhuja, Vijay; Sakhuja, Sangeeta (2009). "Rajendra Chola I's Naval Expedition to Southeast Asia: A Nautical Perspective". Nagapattinam to suvarnadwipa: Reflections on the chola naval expeditions to Southeast Asia. Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. pp. 76–90.
  3. ^ a b c d e Sastri, K. A. Nilakanta (1955). A History of South India: From Prehistoric Times to the Fall of Vijayanagar. Oxford University Press.
  4. ^ a b c d Keay, John (12 April 2011), India - A History, Open Road + Grove/Atlantic, ISBN 978-0-8021-9550-0.
  5. ^ a b Meyer, p. 73
  6. ^ a b c d e f g Kulke, Hermann; Rothermund, Dietmar (2004). A History of India. Berlin: Psychology Press. ISBN 978-1138961159.
  7. ^ a b c Sastri, K. A. Nilakanta (1935). The CōĻas. University of Madras.
  8. ^ "KING ASHOKA: His Edicts and His Times". www.cs.colostate.edu. Retrieved 7 October 2018.
  9. ^ "History of India by Literary Sources", Prof. E.S. Narayana Pillai, Cochin University
  10. ^ Tripathi (1967), p. 457
  11. ^ R, Narasimhacharya (1942). History of the Kannada Language. Asian Educational Services. p. 48. ISBN 9788120605596.
  12. ^ "India and China- Oceanic, Educational and technological cooperation", Journal of Indian Ocean Studies 10:2 (August 2002), Pages 165–171
  13. ^ Hermann Kulke, K Kesavapany, Vijay Sakhuja (2009). Nagapattinam to Suvarnadwipa: Reflections on the Chola Naval Expeditions to Southeast Asia. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 2009. pp. 92–93. ISBN 9789812309372.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  14. ^ Tripathi, p 465
  15. ^ Tripathi, p 477
  16. ^ "Antiquities of India: An Account of the History and Culture of Ancient Hindustan", Lionel D. Barnett, Page 216.
  17. ^ See Thapar, p xv
  18. ^ The Politics of Plunder: The Cholas in Eleventh-Century Ceylon,George W. Spencer,The Journal of Asian Studies, Vol. 35, No. 3 (May, 1976), pp. 405–419, Summary at JSTOR 2053272
  19. ^ "An atlas and survey of south Asian History" , By M E Sharpe, 1995, Published by Lynne Rienner, Pages 22–28
  20. ^ The geo-Politics of Asia, By Michael D. Swaine & Ashley J. Tellis, Published by Konark publishers for the center for policy research, New Delhi, Page 217-219
  21. ^ D The Chola Maritime Activities in Early Historical Setting, By: Dr. K.V. Hariharan
  22. ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 4 June 2003. Retrieved 25 December 2008.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  23. ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 14 August 2007. Retrieved 25 December 2008.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  24. ^ Chopra et al., p 31

Footnotes

  1. ^ The kadaram campaign is first mentioned in Rajendra's inscriptions dating from his 14th year. The name of the Srivijaya king was Sangrama Vijayatungavarman. – K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, The CōĻas, pp 211–220
  2. ^ "The Tamil merchants took glassware, camphor, sandalwood, rhinoceros horns, ivory, rose water, asafoetida, spices such as pepper, cloves, etc." – K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, p 173

External links

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