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| authority = Stanier 1943
| authority = Stanier 1943
| type_strain = ''Aeromonas hydrophila''
| type_strain = ''Aeromonas hydrophila''
| subdivision_ranks = Species
| subdivision_ranks = Species
| subdivision =''[[Aeromonas aquariorum|A. aquariorum]]''<br>
| subdivision =
''[[Aeromonas aquariorum|A. aquariorum]]''<br/>
''[[Aeromonas allosaccharophila|A. allosaccharophila]]'' <br>
''[[Aeromonas allosaccharophila|A. allosaccharophila]]'' <br/>
''[[Aeromonas aquatica|A. aquatica]]'' <ref name=Aeromonas>{{cite journal|last1=Parte|first1=A.C.|title=Aeromonas|website=[[LPSN]]|url=https://lpsn.dsmz.de/genus/aeromonas}}</ref><br>
''[[Aeromonas aquatica|A. aquatica]]''<ref name=Aeromonas>{{cite journal|last1=Parte|first1=A. C.|title=Aeromonas|website=[[LPSN]]|url=https://lpsn.dsmz.de/genus/aeromonas}}</ref><br/>
''[[Aeromonas australiensis|A. australiensis]]'' <br>
''[[Aeromonas australiensis|A. australiensis]]'' <br/>
''[[Aeromonas bestiarum|A. bestiarum]]''<br>
''[[Aeromonas bestiarum|A. bestiarum]]''<br/>
''[[Aeromonas bivalvium|A. bivalvium]]''<br>
''[[Aeromonas bivalvium|A. bivalvium]]''<br/>
''[[Aeromonas caviae|A. caviae]]''<br>
''[[Aeromonas caviae|A. caviae]]''<br/>
''[[Aeromonas dhakensis|A. dhakensis]]''<ref name=Aeromonas/><br>
''[[Aeromonas dhakensis|A. dhakensis]]''<ref name=Aeromonas/><br/>
''[[Aeromonas diversa|A. diversa]]''<br>
''[[Aeromonas diversa|A. diversa]]''<br/>
''[[Aeromonas encheleia|A. encheleia]]''<br>
''[[Aeromonas encheleia|A. encheleia]]''<br/>
''[[Aeromonas enteropelogenes|A. enteropelogenes]]''<br>
''[[Aeromonas enteropelogenes|A. enteropelogenes]]''<br/>
''[[Aeromonas eucrenophila|A. eucrenophila]]''<br>
''[[Aeromonas eucrenophila|A. eucrenophila]]''<br/>
''[[Aeromonas finlandensis|A. finlandensis]]''<ref name=Aeromonas/><br>
''[[Aeromonas finlandensis|A. finlandensis]]''<ref name=Aeromonas/><br/>
''[[Aeromonas fluvialis|A. fluvialis]]''<br>
''[[Aeromonas fluvialis|A. fluvialis]]''<br/>
''[[Aeromonas hydrophila|A. hydrophila]]''<br>
''[[Aeromonas hydrophila|A. hydrophila]]''<br/>
''[[Aeromonas jandaei|A. jandaei]]''<br>
''[[Aeromonas jandaei|A. jandaei]]''<br/>
''[[Aeromonas lacus|A. lacus]]''<ref name=Aeromonas/><br>
''[[Aeromonas lacus|A. lacus]]''<ref name=Aeromonas/><br/>
''[[Aeromonas media|A. media]]''<br>
''[[Aeromonas media|A. media]]''<br/>
''[[Aeromonas molluscorum|A. molluscorum]]''<br>
''[[Aeromonas molluscorum|A. molluscorum]]''<br/>
''[[Aeromonas piscicola|A. piscicola]]''<br>
''[[Aeromonas piscicola|A. piscicola]]''<br/>
''[[Aeromonas popoffii|A. popoffii]]''<br>
''[[Aeromonas popoffii|A. popoffii]]''<br/>
''[[Aeromonas punctata|A. punctata]]''<br>
''[[Aeromonas punctata|A. punctata]]''<br/>
''[[Aeromonas rivipollensis|A. rivipollensis]]''<ref name=Aeromonas/><br>
''[[Aeromonas rivipollensis|A. rivipollensis]]''<ref name=Aeromonas/><br/>
''[[Aeromonas rivuli|A. rivuli]]''<br>
''[[Aeromonas rivuli|A. rivuli]]''<br/>
''[[Aeromonas salmonicida|A. salmonicida]]''<br>
''[[Aeromonas salmonicida|A. salmonicida]]''<br/>
''[[Aeromonas sanarellii|A. sanarellii]]''<br>
''[[Aeromonas sanarellii|A. sanarellii]]''<br/>
''[[Aeromonas schubertii|A. schubertii]]''<br>
''[[Aeromonas schubertii|A. schubertii]]''<br/>
''[[Aeromonas sharmana|A. sharmana]]''<br>
''[[Aeromonas sharmana|A. sharmana]]''<br/>
''[[Aeromonas simiae|A. simiae]]''<br>
''[[Aeromonas simiae|A. simiae]]''<br/>
''[[Aeromonas taiwanensis|A. taiwanensis]]''<br>
''[[Aeromonas taiwanensis|A. taiwanensis]]''<br/>
''[[Aeromonas tecta|A. tecta]]''<br>
''[[Aeromonas tecta|A. tecta]]''<br/>
''[[Aeromonas veronii|A. veronii]]''
''[[Aeromonas veronii|A. veronii]]''
}}
}}


'''''Aeromonas''''' is a genus of [[Gram-negative]], [[Facultative anaerobic organism|facultative anaerobic]], rod-shaped bacteria that morphologically resemble members of the family [[Enterobacteriaceae]]. Most of the 14 described species have been associated with human diseases. The most important pathogens are ''[[Aeromonas hydrophila|A. hydrophila]]'', ''[[Aeromonas caviae|A. caviae]]'', and ''[[Aeromonas veronii|A. veronii]]'' biovar ''sobria''. The organisms are ubiquitous in fresh and brackish water.<ref name=JoergGraf>{{cite book | author = Graf J (editor). | title = Aeromonas | publisher = Caister Academic Press | year = 2015 | isbn = 978-1-908230-56-0 }}</ref>
'''''Aeromonas''''' is a genus of [[gram-negative]], [[Facultative anaerobic organism|facultative anaerobic]], rod-shaped bacteria that morphologically resemble members of the family [[Enterobacteriaceae]]. Most of the 14 described species have been associated with human diseases. The most important pathogens are ''[[Aeromonas hydrophila|A. hydrophila]]'', ''[[Aeromonas caviae|A. caviae]]'', and ''[[Aeromonas veronii|A. veronii]]'' biovar ''sobria''. The organisms are ubiquitous in fresh and brackish water.<ref name=JoergGraf>{{cite book | author = Graf J (editor). | title = Aeromonas | publisher = Caister Academic Press | year = 2015 | isbn = 978-1-908230-56-0 }}</ref>


They group with the gamma subclass of the Proteobacteria.<ref name="pmid1380289">{{cite journal |vauthors=Martinez-Murcia AJ, Benlloch S, Collins MD |title=Phylogenetic interrelationships of members of the genera Aeromonas and Plesiomonas as determined by 16S ribosomal DNA sequencing: lack of congruence with results of DNA-DNA hybridizations |journal=Int. J. Syst. Bacteriol. |volume=42 |issue=3 |pages=412–21 |date=July 1992 |pmid=1380289 |doi=10.1099/00207713-42-3-412 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
They group with the gamma subclass of the Proteobacteria.<ref name="pmid1380289">{{cite journal |vauthors=Martinez-Murcia AJ, Benlloch S, Collins MD |title=Phylogenetic interrelationships of members of the genera ''Aeromonas'' and ''Plesiomonas'' as determined by 16S ribosomal DNA sequencing: lack of congruence with results of DNA-DNA hybridizations |journal=International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology |volume=42 |issue=3 |pages=412–21 |date=July 1992 |pmid=1380289 |doi=10.1099/00207713-42-3-412 |doi-access=free }}</ref>


Two major diseases associated with ''Aeromonas'' are [[gastroenteritis]] and wound infections, with or without [[bacteremia]]. Gastroenteritis typically occurs after the ingestion of contaminated water or food, whereas wound infections result from exposure to contaminated water. In its most severe form, ''Aeromonas'' spp. can cause [[necrotizing fasciitis]], which is life-threatening, usually requiring treatment with [[antibiotics]] and even amputation.<ref name="MinnagantiPatel2000">{{cite journal|last1=Minnaganti|first1=Venkat R.|last2=Patel|first2=Pankaj J.|last3=Iancu|first3=Dan|last4=Schoch|first4=Paul E.|last5=Cunha|first5=Burke A.|title=Necrotizing fasciitis caused by Aeromonas hydrophila|journal=Heart & Lung: The Journal of Acute and Critical Care|volume=29|issue=4|year=2000|pages=306–308|issn=0147-9563|doi=10.1067/mhl.2000.106723|pmid=10900069}}</ref>
Two major diseases associated with ''Aeromonas'' are [[gastroenteritis]] and wound infections, with or without [[bacteremia]]. Gastroenteritis typically occurs after the ingestion of contaminated water or food, whereas wound infections result from exposure to contaminated water. In its most severe form, ''Aeromonas'' spp. can cause [[necrotizing fasciitis]], which is life-threatening, usually requiring treatment with [[antibiotics]] and even amputation.<ref name="MinnagantiPatel2000">{{cite journal|last1=Minnaganti|first1=Venkat R.|last2=Patel|first2=Pankaj J.|last3=Iancu|first3=Dan|last4=Schoch|first4=Paul E.|last5=Cunha|first5=Burke A.|title=Necrotizing fasciitis caused by ''Aeromonas hydrophila''|journal=Heart & Lung: The Journal of Acute and Critical Care |volume=29|issue=4|year=2000|pages=306–308|issn=0147-9563|doi=10.1067/mhl.2000.106723|pmid=10900069}}</ref>


Although some potential virulence factors (e.g. [[endotoxin]]s, [[hemolysin]]s, [[enterotoxin]]s, adherence factors) have been identified, their precise roles are unknown. ''Aeromonas'' species cause:
Although some potential virulence factors (e.g. [[endotoxin]]s, [[hemolysin]]s, [[enterotoxin]]s, adherence factors) have been identified, their precise roles are unknown. ''Aeromonas'' species cause:
Line 58: Line 59:


== Wound infection ==
== Wound infection ==
Wound infections are the second-most common type of human infection associated with ''Aeromonas''.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|title = Aeromonas spp. clinical microbiology and disease|journal = Journal of Infection|pages = 109–118|volume = 62|issue = 2|doi = 10.1016/j.jinf.2010.12.003|pmid = 21163298|first = Jennifer L.|last = Parker|first2 = Jonathan G.|last2 = Shaw|year = 2011}}</ref> They are associated with penetrating wounds or abrasions that place the wound in contact with fresh water or soil.<ref name=":0" />
Wound infections are the second-most common type of human infection associated with ''Aeromonas''.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|title = ''Aeromonas'' spp. clinical microbiology and disease|journal = Journal of Infection|pages = 109–118|volume = 62|issue = 2|doi = 10.1016/j.jinf.2010.12.003|pmid = 21163298|first = Jennifer L.|last = Parker|first2 = Jonathan G.|last2 = Shaw|year = 2011}}</ref> They are associated with penetrating wounds or abrasions that place the wound in contact with fresh water or soil.<ref name=":0" />


=== Medicinal leeches ===
=== Medicinal leeches ===
''Aeromonas'' species are [[endosymbiont]]s of ''[[Hirudo medicinalis]]'', a species of [[leech]] that is [[Food and Drug Administration|FDA]]-approved for use in [[vascular surgery]] such as skin grafts and [[Flap (surgery)|flaps]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|title = Preventing infective complications following leech therapy: Is practice keeping pace with current research?|journal = Microsurgery|date = 2009-11-01|issn = 1098-2752|pages = 619–625|volume = 29|issue = 8|doi = 10.1002/micr.20666|pmid = 19399888|language = en|first = Iain S.|last = Whitaker|first2 = Cyril|last2 = Kamya|first3 = Ernest A.|last3 = Azzopardi|first4 = Joerg|last4 = Graf|first5 = Moshe|last5 = Kon|first6 = William C.|last6 = Lineaweaver|url = https://cronfa.swan.ac.uk/Record/cronfa18833/Download/0018833-06012015145324.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title = FDA approves leeches as medical devices|url = http://www.nbcnews.com/id/5319129/ns/health-health_care/t/fda-approves-leeches-medical-devices/#.Vqpxg1MrKEI|website = msnbc.com|access-date = 2016-01-28}}</ref> ''Aeromonas'' aides leeches in digesting blood meals.<ref>{{Cite web|title = Aeromonas-Hirudo medicinalis symbiosis|url = http://sp.uconn.edu/~mcbstaff/graf/AvHm/AvHmmain.htm|website = sp.uconn.edu|access-date = 2016-01-28}}</ref> ''H. medicinalis'' used after surgery has led to ''Aeromonas'' infections, most commonly with ''A. veronii''.<ref name=":1" /> This can present as a local [[cellulitis]], though can progress to [[Subcutaneous tissue|subcutaneous]] [[abscess]] and [[sepsis]].<ref name=":1" />
''Aeromonas'' species are [[endosymbiont]]s of ''[[Hirudo medicinalis]]'', a species of [[leech]] that is [[Food and Drug Administration|FDA]]-approved for use in [[vascular surgery]] such as skin grafts and [[Flap (surgery)|flaps]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|title = Preventing infective complications following leech therapy: Is practice keeping pace with current research?|journal = Microsurgery|date = 1 November 2009 |issn = 1098-2752|pages = 619–625|volume = 29|issue = 8|doi = 10.1002/micr.20666|pmid = 19399888 |first = Iain S.|last = Whitaker|first2 = Cyril|last2 = Kamya|first3 = Ernest A.|last3 = Azzopardi|first4 = Joerg|last4 = Graf|first5 = Moshe|last5 = Kon|first6 = William C.|last6 = Lineaweaver|url = https://cronfa.swan.ac.uk/Record/cronfa18833/Download/0018833-06012015145324.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title = FDA approves leeches as medical devices|url = http://www.nbcnews.com/id/5319129/ns/health-health_care/t/fda-approves-leeches-medical-devices/#.Vqpxg1MrKEI|website = msnbc.com|access-date =28 January 2016}}</ref> ''Aeromonas'' aides leeches in digesting blood meals.<ref>{{Cite web|title = ''Aeromonas''-''Hirudo medicinalis'' symbiosis|url = http://sp.uconn.edu/~mcbstaff/graf/AvHm/AvHmmain.htm|website = sp.uconn.edu|access-date =28 January 2016}}</ref> ''H. medicinalis'' used after surgery has led to ''Aeromonas'' infections, most commonly with ''A. veronii''.<ref name=":1" /> This can present as a local [[cellulitis]], though can progress to [[Subcutaneous tissue|subcutaneous]] [[abscess]] and [[sepsis]].<ref name=":1" />


== Respiratory infection ==
== Respiratory infection ==
''Aeromonas'' species have also been associated with [[pneumonia]] after [[Drowning|near-drowning]] events, especially in fresh water.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|title = Pneumonia Associated with Near-Drowning|url = http://cid.oxfordjournals.org/content/25/4/896|journal = Clinical Infectious Diseases|date = 1997-10-01|issn = 1058-4838|pmid = 9356805|pages = 896–907|volume = 25|issue = 4|doi = 10.1086/515532|language = en|first = Peter T.|last = Ender|first2 = Matthew J.|last2 = Dolan|doi-access = free}}</ref> Most commonly this has been reported with ''A. hydrophila'', though the ability of clinical laboratories to correctly identify species of ''Aeromonas'' has been limited.<ref name=":2" /> ''Aeromonas'' pneumonia due to episodes of near-drowning are frequently complicated by [[bacteremia]] and death.<ref name=":2" />
''Aeromonas'' species have also been associated with [[pneumonia]] after [[Drowning|near-drowning]] events, especially in fresh water.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|title = Pneumonia Associated with Near-Drowning|url = http://cid.oxfordjournals.org/content/25/4/896|journal = Clinical Infectious Diseases|date =1 October 1997 |issn = 1058-4838|pmid = 9356805|pages = 896–907|volume = 25|issue = 4|doi = 10.1086/515532 |first = Peter T.|last = Ender|first2 = Matthew J.|last2 = Dolan|doi-access = free}}</ref> Most commonly this has been reported with ''A. hydrophila'', though the ability of clinical laboratories to correctly identify species of ''Aeromonas'' has been limited.<ref name=":2" /> ''Aeromonas'' pneumonia due to episodes of near-drowning are frequently complicated by [[bacteremia]] and death.<ref name=":2" />


==Antimicrobial therapy==
==Antimicrobial therapy==
Line 78: Line 79:


==Further reading==
==Further reading==
* {{Cite book | last1 = Walker | first1 = S. J. | chapter = AEROMONAS | doi = 10.1016/B0-12-227055-X/00015-8 | title = Encyclopedia of Food Sciences and Nutrition | url = https://archive.org/details/encyclopediafood10caba | url-access = limited | pages = [https://archive.org/details/encyclopediafood10caba/page/n68 62]–65 | year = 2003 | isbn = 9780122270550 | pmid = | pmc = | publisher = Academic Press| place = Oxford| editor = Benjamin Caballero| chapter-url = }}
* {{Cite book | last1 = Walker | first1 = S. J. | chapter = ''Aeromonas'' | doi = 10.1016/B0-12-227055-X/00015-8 | title = Encyclopedia of Food Sciences and Nutrition | url = https://archive.org/details/encyclopediafood10caba | url-access = limited | pages = [https://archive.org/details/encyclopediafood10caba/page/n68 62]–65 | year = 2003 | isbn = 9780122270550 | pmid = | pmc = | publisher = Academic Press| place = Oxford| editor = Benjamin Caballero| chapter-url = }}
* {{Cite journal | last1 = Janda | first1 = J. M. | last2 = Abbott | first2 = S. L. | doi = 10.1128/CMR.00039-09 | title = The Genus Aeromonas: Taxonomy, Pathogenicity, and Infection | journal = Clinical Microbiology Reviews | volume = 23 | issue = 1 | pages = 35–73 | year = 2010 | pmid = 20065325| pmc =2806660 }}
* {{Cite journal | last1 = Janda | first1 = J. M. | last2 = Abbott | first2 = S. L. | doi = 10.1128/CMR.00039-09 | title = The Genus ''Aeromonas'': Taxonomy, Pathogenicity, and Infection | journal = Clinical Microbiology Reviews | volume = 23 | issue = 1 | pages = 35–73 | year = 2010 | pmid = 20065325| pmc =2806660 }}


{{Taxonbar|from=Q137647}}
{{Taxonbar|from=Q137647}}

Revision as of 20:56, 7 July 2020

Aeromonas
Aeromonas hydrophila
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Domain: Bacteria
Phylum: Pseudomonadota
Class: Gammaproteobacteria
Order: Aeromonadales
Family: Aeromonadaceae
Genus: Aeromonas
Stanier 1943
Type strain
Aeromonas hydrophila
Species

A. aquariorum
A. allosaccharophila
A. aquatica[1]
A. australiensis
A. bestiarum
A. bivalvium
A. caviae
A. dhakensis[1]
A. diversa
A. encheleia
A. enteropelogenes
A. eucrenophila
A. finlandensis[1]
A. fluvialis
A. hydrophila
A. jandaei
A. lacus[1]
A. media
A. molluscorum
A. piscicola
A. popoffii
A. punctata
A. rivipollensis[1]
A. rivuli
A. salmonicida
A. sanarellii
A. schubertii
A. sharmana
A. simiae
A. taiwanensis
A. tecta
A. veronii

Aeromonas is a genus of gram-negative, facultative anaerobic, rod-shaped bacteria that morphologically resemble members of the family Enterobacteriaceae. Most of the 14 described species have been associated with human diseases. The most important pathogens are A. hydrophila, A. caviae, and A. veronii biovar sobria. The organisms are ubiquitous in fresh and brackish water.[2]

They group with the gamma subclass of the Proteobacteria.[3]

Two major diseases associated with Aeromonas are gastroenteritis and wound infections, with or without bacteremia. Gastroenteritis typically occurs after the ingestion of contaminated water or food, whereas wound infections result from exposure to contaminated water. In its most severe form, Aeromonas spp. can cause necrotizing fasciitis, which is life-threatening, usually requiring treatment with antibiotics and even amputation.[4]

Although some potential virulence factors (e.g. endotoxins, hemolysins, enterotoxins, adherence factors) have been identified, their precise roles are unknown. Aeromonas species cause:

  1. opportunistic systemic disease in immunocompromised patients
  2. diarrheal disease in otherwise healthy individuals
  3. wound infections

Caution about differential diagnosis

If automated machines are not using the most updated database, Elizabethkingia meningoseptica may be mistaken for Aeromonas salmonicida.

Association with human diarrhea and human intestinal infections

There is literature on this subject, but many papers have not adequately studied the causal role of the Aeromonas strain(s) that were isolated from the cases that were studied. The presence of an Aeromonas strain in a fecal specimen does not prove, or even imply that the strain was causing the diarrhea. Gastrointestinal disease in children is usually an acute, severe illness, whereas that in adults tends to be chronic diarrhea. Severe Aeromonas gastroenteritis resembles shigellosis, with blood and leukocytes in the stool. Acute diarrheal disease is self-limited, and only supportive care is indicated in affected patients.

Wound infection

Wound infections are the second-most common type of human infection associated with Aeromonas.[5] They are associated with penetrating wounds or abrasions that place the wound in contact with fresh water or soil.[5]

Medicinal leeches

Aeromonas species are endosymbionts of Hirudo medicinalis, a species of leech that is FDA-approved for use in vascular surgery such as skin grafts and flaps.[6][7] Aeromonas aides leeches in digesting blood meals.[8] H. medicinalis used after surgery has led to Aeromonas infections, most commonly with A. veronii.[6] This can present as a local cellulitis, though can progress to subcutaneous abscess and sepsis.[6]

Respiratory infection

Aeromonas species have also been associated with pneumonia after near-drowning events, especially in fresh water.[9] Most commonly this has been reported with A. hydrophila, though the ability of clinical laboratories to correctly identify species of Aeromonas has been limited.[9] Aeromonas pneumonia due to episodes of near-drowning are frequently complicated by bacteremia and death.[9]

Antimicrobial therapy

Aeromonas species are resistant to penicillins, most cephalosporins, and erythromycin. Ciprofloxacin is consistently active against their strains in the U.S. and Europe, but resistant cases have been reported in Asia.

Etymology

The name Aeromonas derives from:
Greek aer, aeros (ἀήρ, ἀέρος), air, gas; and -monas|monas (μονάς), unit, monad; gas(-producing) monad.[10]

Members of the genus Aeromonas can be referred to as aeromonads (viz. trivialisation of names).

References

  1. ^ a b c d e Parte, A. C. "Aeromonas". LPSN.
  2. ^ Graf J (editor). (2015). Aeromonas. Caister Academic Press. ISBN 978-1-908230-56-0. {{cite book}}: |author= has generic name (help)
  3. ^ Martinez-Murcia AJ, Benlloch S, Collins MD (July 1992). "Phylogenetic interrelationships of members of the genera Aeromonas and Plesiomonas as determined by 16S ribosomal DNA sequencing: lack of congruence with results of DNA-DNA hybridizations". International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology. 42 (3): 412–21. doi:10.1099/00207713-42-3-412. PMID 1380289.
  4. ^ Minnaganti, Venkat R.; Patel, Pankaj J.; Iancu, Dan; Schoch, Paul E.; Cunha, Burke A. (2000). "Necrotizing fasciitis caused by Aeromonas hydrophila". Heart & Lung: The Journal of Acute and Critical Care. 29 (4): 306–308. doi:10.1067/mhl.2000.106723. ISSN 0147-9563. PMID 10900069.
  5. ^ a b Parker, Jennifer L.; Shaw, Jonathan G. (2011). "Aeromonas spp. clinical microbiology and disease". Journal of Infection. 62 (2): 109–118. doi:10.1016/j.jinf.2010.12.003. PMID 21163298.
  6. ^ a b c Whitaker, Iain S.; Kamya, Cyril; Azzopardi, Ernest A.; Graf, Joerg; Kon, Moshe; Lineaweaver, William C. (1 November 2009). "Preventing infective complications following leech therapy: Is practice keeping pace with current research?" (PDF). Microsurgery. 29 (8): 619–625. doi:10.1002/micr.20666. ISSN 1098-2752. PMID 19399888.
  7. ^ "FDA approves leeches as medical devices". msnbc.com. Retrieved 28 January 2016.
  8. ^ "Aeromonas-Hirudo medicinalis symbiosis". sp.uconn.edu. Retrieved 28 January 2016.
  9. ^ a b c Ender, Peter T.; Dolan, Matthew J. (1 October 1997). "Pneumonia Associated with Near-Drowning". Clinical Infectious Diseases. 25 (4): 896–907. doi:10.1086/515532. ISSN 1058-4838. PMID 9356805.
  10. ^ Aeromonas in LPSN; Parte, Aidan C.; Sardà Carbasse, Joaquim; Meier-Kolthoff, Jan P.; Reimer, Lorenz C.; Göker, Markus (1 November 2020). "List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature (LPSN) moves to the DSMZ". International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology. 70 (11): 5607–5612. doi:10.1099/ijsem.0.004332.

Further reading

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