wnmm Chapter 6 Ancient North Arabian Inscriptions, Rock Drawings, and Tribal Brands (wasms) from the Sammah/ Ayl ('El) Region, Southern Jordan by Hani Hayajneh^ INTRODUCTION ANA INSCRIPTIONS In addition to the archaeologicalfinds and remains, the Sammdh/'Ayl {'Ely survey yielded epigraphical material, rock art drawings, and tribal brands (wasms). An attempt will be made to decipher the Ancient North Arabian (hereafter ANA) graf fiti and comment on them philologically in their Semitic context. An endeavor will be made to give a description of the rock art and the tribal sym bols or brands (wasms) by illustrating them with reference to their possible counterparts known from the Arabian realm. The materials provided by the survey contain photos of modern Arabic inscriptions that cover approximately the last four decades; they contain personal names, genealogies, and modern rock drawings. This particular part of the material will not be considered for study within the framework of the present article. Site 287 — Stone with an ANA Inscription (fig. 6.1) The breakage, which divided the stone into two parts, caused the loss of several letters that we attempted to restore in our transcription of the text below. The text runs in a helical direction, starts from the upper left side of the stone, and ends in its center. The letters' shapes, especially the forms of g and d, suggest classifying the text under the rubric of the so-called Hismaic (= Thamudic E) epigraphical group of ANA (see Macdonald 2000; 2004; Macdonald and King 1999).^ It is to be noted that the shape of the graphical sign for deviates from other known forms attested in other ANA texts. The shape of h appears here as a curve with a line in the middle (cf. King 1990'').' The form d is a rounded back with three arms and appears as a bent form tail at the end in d-'l and dbh. The letter y in the words kmy and 'sy'h has an ellip- 6. ANCIENT NORTH ARABIAN INSCRIPTIONS. ROCK DRAWINGS. AND TRIBAL BRANDS (WASMS) tical circle, i.e., they are stretching to either side. HYN: This name was vocalized as Hayydn or The lower part of the letter s in nsb is partially Hayyun (see Kampffmeyer 1900:638).^ It is derived eroded but some traces ofthe fork can be seen. The from the common Semitic root hyw, "live" (see grapheme h is similar to its counterparts in other Hayajneh 1998:127). It occurs often in the major words in the inscription, except in the word qbll, ity of the ANA epigraphical groups (see HIn, p. where the upper part appears as a semi-angular 211), Nabataean (Macdonald 1999:277), and other form. Therefore, reading it as nsr, nyb, or nyr is far Semitic onomastic traditions (cf. Hayajneh 1998: from possible. The letter h in hrs is written in the 127; Roche 2011: 218). typical shape, i.e.,a straight line with a curved one inscribed across. The graphical sign for n in dbn is 'QDT/ 'WDT: -'QDT: This variant is derived from the root incised here as a thick dot. An elongated scratch in the left fragment of the stone went through the 'qdy cf. Arabic 'aqada "tied, knot; complicated; tied circle in the eighth letter. Due to this case, both firmly" (Lane, p 2104), Sabaic qd "?score, large readings, as q and w, are possible. Suggested read number,"mgd "fixed,determined ?" (SD,18), Geez ings are 'wdt or 'qdt. As we have a curve closed by 'aqada, Tigre 'aqda "tie, bind" (CDG, p. 67). The a line from the bottom (i.e., in an elliptical form), personal name 'qdtis attested in Safaitic, e.g. KRS 1881m 2539. Cf. also Arabic 'Aqld (CIK, p. 190) and it is difficult to read the affected character as b. 'Uqayda (CIK, p. 572) as personal names, and the tribal name al-'Aqidfrom Yemen (Lis^, p. 3033). Transcription -'WDT: This onomastic variant is attested in IHYN bn / 'QDT / 'WDT d'l KMY w nsb w dbh w ANA (HIn, p. 447). It is derived from the root W, HI w hrs [7 ']^y'h db'nfh LT w DS'R [s'l]m w qbll /(?) h LT(?) rw[h (?) wg]nmt cf. Sabaic'd C 541/23 [M] "retire, return to (acc) Translation a placel" (SD, p. 22), Arabic 'ada "to return," and the nominal form 'awda "return" (see Lane, pp. 2188-89). As onomastic parallels, cf. the Arabic personal name 'Awada (CIK, p. 206). Examples of Note: The text can be roughly translated as follows, other names built from the root 'wd are Safaitic but we have to consider that the verb, hll, as shown 'd'l and 'wd'l as theophoric names (Hazim 1986: 83, 95), Minaic 'dt as a feminine name (al-Said 1995: 135), and the Nabataean diminutive anthroponym 'wydw (Macdonald 1999: 281).® below,is loaded with meaning such that it is hard to come up with a succinct definition. ByHYN son of 'QDT / 'WDT of the tribe KMY and he erected (a stone) and sacrificed and (thereby) KMY: It is preceded here by the expression d'l lawfully returned to a profane condition and as an indication of tribal affiliation (= Arabic 'at watched over / grieved on his companions, the "family"). To the best of my knowledge, this name raiders / the raided, and Oh LT and DS^R (grant) is not attested as a tribal name in the ANA epig peace, and (I ask you) the acceptance of (the offer raphy. As an anthroponym, however, it occurs in ing) and Oh LT (grant) relief and booty. Hismaic inscriptions (KfA 132, KJC 575,TIJ 60, TIJ 417^ and see HIn, p. 505,) and Safaitic (Ababneh 2005: 371, no. 1059). It is related to the root kmy, PhilologicalCommentary cf. Arabic kamd "conceal,put in a breast-plate and I: The text begins with the traditional lam auctoris, helmet" (King 1990). or the introductory particle indicating the person who was the subject of the inscription, similar nsb: The verb nsb, which appears here as a verbal to the so-called lamedh inscriptionis in Biblical form of suffix conjugation, is translated in the Hebrew (see Macdonald 2006: 294 and nn. 97, 98, Safaitic inscriptions with the meaning "to erect (a and 99).^ It is followed by the author's name, HYN, stone)" (cf. KRS 929; I 'n'm bn hn w 'hd w nsb f h ds'r s'lm "). It occurs as a nominal form preand his patronymic name, 'QDT / 'WDT. THE SHAMMAKH TO AYL ARCHAEOLOGICAL SURVEY, SOUTHERN JORDAN {2010-2012) fixed by the particle h which functions either as Excursus — The sequence of the verbal chain, a definite article or a demonstrative pronoun, e.g. n$b, dbb, and hll in the present inscription and h-nsb "erected (stone)" (KRS 3073). The root nsb is productive in other Semitic languages with the basic meaning "erect" cf. Arabic nasaba "raise, erect, set up," Akkadian nasabu "put up, situate" (AHw, p. 755), Sabaic nsb "set up, place a monu ment" nsb "image ofperson; memorial stone" (SD, P- 99)> Ugaritic nsb "to erect; to put, fix" (DUL, p. 646), and Hebrew nasab {niph.) "take ones stand, stand," (hiph) "station, set; set up, erect; cause to stand erect; fix, establish" (KBL, pp. 674-75).'° their semantic domain: From the available context, no firm clue can be gleaned regarding the nature and purpose of the erected object meant by the verb nsb "erect;" i.e., whether the erection or setting up of an object (e.g., a stone, as the evidence h-nsb "erected [stone] might indicate) has, in this context, cultic or ritual connotations. In the Islamic tradition there are variants ofplural forms nusub and an^db attested in the Qur'an, cf. Q 5:3 "what has been slaughtered on the nusub" is listed among types root d/zbh is known with its basic meaning "to of meat that are prohibited. Commentators have slaughter."" It occurs in ANA very often and was no consensus regarding the meaning of nu^ub, translated as "sacrifice (an animal)" (s. Grimme including idols or altars of an idol (see Hawting 1929:140; Muller 1980: 68; Macdonald 1992; 421); 2002: 482). Islamic exegetes, like at-Tabari (n.d.), e.g., KRS 256 I ms'k bn nsr bn znl wdbhfh s^'hqm say that nusub are awtdn, not asndm, and it is s'lm "ByMS'Kson of NSR son of ZN'L and made a collection of ansdb gathered in a place, upon sacrifice and so O S^'hqm [grant] security." In this which polytheists give sacrifice (Tabari, vol. 9, p. context, I would also draw attention to an analo 508f) and he cites different opinions that unani gous text read by Jamme (though with the word mously agreed that nusub are "stones" on which nsr) (JaS looa): / bgl bn dy bn Is'ms' w n^r w dbh. sacrifices were given.'-* Whether the story of col If modified to nsb, the translation "By BGL son lecting stones as nusub is to be understood in the context of cairns, where the majority of the ANA of LS^MS'" and "he erected and sacrificed" can be inscriptions in Jordan are usually found, is a ques suggested. tion which needs a systematic investigation. This hll: The expression Ml, which occurs often in the might indicatethat the pilingup of stonesto create ANAtexts, was understood as "encamp." In Safaitic, a cairn could be interpreted in the religious ritual it stands as a verb without specifying the place and cultic context.'' However, more investigation, where the encampment happened, e.g., / 'bd bn especially archaeological, might enlighten our per tm w Ml (KRS 134), or it is followed by h-dr, e.g. spectiveon the purpose of the dispersed cairns in Ml hdr "he encamped [in] this place" (KRS 201; the deserts of North Arabia. Later on, Islam has dbh: "make a sacrifice." The common Semitic see also Muller 1980: 80 and Macdonald 1992:421). forbidden (see Qur'an 5:3) to make a sacrifice on In the ANA-Tayamanite texts, the verb Ml is usu ally followed by the preposition b- "in, at" and a locative, usually Ddn'- In the Semitic languages more broadly, however, other meanings for forms derived from the root Ml are known, cf.for example, Ugaritic"desacralize, 'free"'(DUL, p. 359), Hebrew hMal "profane, defile, pollute," (niph) "pollute, defile oneself," (hiph) "begin (as one of the mean ings)," (pi) "defile, pollute" etc. (Dommershausen 1977: 972),'' Arabic hallala "allow, permit," haldl "lawful,allowed, permitted," the opposite of hardrn "unlawful, forbidden, permitted" (Lowry 2003: stone altars typically used for dedication to an idol i72fT; Wiederhold 2004: 282). (did al-nusub "at/on the nusub) (Firestone 2004: 517). In the Hebrew Bible,putting down the object or situating it in a certain place should not neces sarilymean uprightly, i.e., it could mean the setting up of a massebah, a monument, a sign spot, but it could mean heaping up a cairn (as in 2 Sam 18,17: nunN-ba vbv nxn "and raised over him a very great heap of stones") or fixing a border (as in Dtn 32,8: u^]2V ay "He set the borders of the peoples").'® The erected object in our text could be a cult stone. Such stones, on which the blood of a sacrifice is sprinkled, are well-known among the Semites.'^ 6, ANCIENT NORTH ARABIAN INSCRIPTIONS, ROCK DRAWINGS, ANDTRIBAL BRANDS (WASMS) with the meaning "wascold and hungry," e.g. KRS 301 'bn bn nlhh-dmy w-hrsfh slm 'Ih dmtrw«»h dbh"give sacrifice" corresponds dramatically with the story of slaughtering animals as sacrifice'® or "Theefhgy isby 'bn son of 'nlh and he wascoldand an offering in the Pre-Islamic tradition outlined hungry and so Sim god of effigies [grant] relief in the Qur'an, which has been later forbidden in from adversity and uncertainty." The verb is used Islam. In our text, we have the act of "erecting, set here for "descriptionsof the author's state, or acts ting up," followed by the act of "slaughtering (as a which were not complete, at the time of writing" The context of the word nsb followed by the word sacrifice?)." However, if it is used in such a context, (Macdonald 2004: 527). it is most probably to be understood within the 7 'sy'h: Preposition 7 "on" followed by the word the third positionmight suggest that it is rather to 'sy'h "his companions" (e.g. KRS 1342 and R 701, ritual domain. The occurrence of the verb hll in be taken in the ritual context, i.e., not as "encamp." nr. 5) which is built as a broken plural form (= cf. Arabic sayyaa-hu "he The form hll can indicate, in the present 'afal) from the root sent, or sent on, him; he made him, or it, to follow" sequence of words, the exit from the ritual state to enter a profane one;i.e., it canbe compared with (Lane, p.1632), say (sing.), 'aya (pi.) "follower and tahallul, the Islamic Hagg, which refers to dissolu a friend, or a comrade, or an assistant" (Lane, p. tion from or ending the state of Hhdm by virtue 1632), plural "any people, or party, whose affair, of which all restrictions of return lawful, as who accomplished this stateis not anymorein the state of 'ihrdm (Lowry 2003: 172). Other mean ing of words derived from the root denote what is, becomes, or is declared permissible, lawful, or free from legal obligation (Wiederhold 2004: 283). The profane state is expressed by the phrase 'ida or case, is one, who follow one another's opin ion" (Lane, p. 1633). The pronominal suffix of the third person singular -h refers to the authorofthe inscription, HYN. db'n: Itisprobably an adjective ofthe latterbroken plural form 'sy'h "his companions," and derived halaltum in Q 5:2 where it is asserted that hunt fromthewidely attested root in Semitic d/sb' "fight, ing is permissible for those who returned to the wage a war; raid"(SD, p. 40;CDG, p. 544; DNWSI, profane state (Wiederhold 2004: 283). Moreover, p. 955; AHw, p. 1071; KBL, p. 934). The present the most common means for indicating lawfulness form has morphological and syntactic parallels in in the Qur'an is to use the causative verb ahalla other Safaitic texts, e.g., hrbn "companions who "to make lawful," usuallywith God as subject. The had been plundered" as originally translated in intransitive verb halla "to be lawful" occasionally KRS 24:1 s-mt bn s'krn bn s'mt w wgm 7 'hw-h w appears in the negative, to indicate that some 'sy'h hrbn ... "By s'mf son of s'krn and he grieved thing is not lawful (Lowry 2003:172). In addition, for his brothers and his companions who had been the word tahlil can mean the "slaughtering of an plundered..." andhrbn"[who were] fighting" KRS animal for food" (Meri 2004: 486), which could 11611 ms'k bn ... w wgd 'tr 's'y'h hrbn s'nt qtl mn't be connected to our inscription by the verb dbh. I .... "By Ms'kson .... and he found the inscription believe that the meaning"to encamp" for hllisless of his friends [who were] fightingin the year Mnt probable here. Ifit ismeantbythe author, it should was killed ...." It can be morphologically explained have been placed in the first position, following the either asan active participle, e.g. ddbi'in (cf. Arabic erection of (a stone) and the giving of a sacrifice. fd'il from) "raiders, fighters" or as a passive par ticiple, i.e. dabi'tn (cf. Arabic/a7/ form) "(who fought, raided." In the above quoted texts, were) hr$: This is most probably the form of a suffix con jugation, which is widely attested in the Safaitic the word hrbn was translated in both ways, "(who inscriptions in similar contexts (cf. Safiaitic LP were) fighting" in KRS 1161 and "who had been 318, ISB 168, WH 634). Its etymology is disputed.'^ plundered." However, the contextofthe inscriptions allows the meaningto "lookout (for); keepwatch."'" In other fHLT. "and O Ldt..." This structure begins with occasions, the word is understood as an adjective the conjunction/("and") followed bythe vocative THE SHAMMAKH TO AYLARCHAEOLOGICAL SURVEY, SOUTHERN JORDAN (2010-2012) particle h- ("O!") (Macdonald 2004:519), together rwh is attested in ANA very often, especially in with the name of the Arabian Goddess Lt (= AUdt the Safaitic inscriptions (e.g., see KRS 119) in the meaning "relief; release." Cf. Arabic rawiha "to in the Arabic tradition)," which occurs veryoften in the Safaitic inscriptions; e.g. KRS 1,18,24. rest," rdha and istardha "rest" (Lane I/3,1177-83); Hebrew rcewah "release" (Est 4,14) and r^wdhdh DS^R: Thisdivine name is traditionally considered "relief" (Ex 8,11, Klgl 3,56), etc. (Kronholm 1993: as the head of the Nabataeanpantheon in the form 382fF.). dwsr'. In the Safaitic and Thamudic E/Hismaic inscriptions it occurs in other forms, including dfr and ds^ry (see Macdonald 1993; 344-45, especially [w gn]mt: "and booty" is known in the ANA inscriptions. Translated as "booty"gnm, sab. gnm "to take a booty" (SD, p. 54) and Arabicganima "to beyond and its cult continued without interrup prey on" (Lisan XII, 445). tion into the Roman period (see Kropp 2011:178 for discussion). The name Du-s-Sard was known in Site3 — Stone with an ANA Inscription (fig. 6.2) n. 266)." It is known in the Nabataean realm and the Arabic tradition aswell. Ithasbeenadopted by Banu al-Harit bin Yaskur bin Mubassir of the Azd. A poet from the Ghatarlf, the name under which The leg of the graphical sign for / is visible on the right curved edge of the stone; its upper hook is the Amir bin Mubassir were known, referred to it bent and directed to the leftside formingwith the in a poetical verse: vertical shaft an acute angular shape. The letter for ris written horizontally; reading it as b is lessprob able. The faces of the letters d and k are against the writing direction. 'idan la-halalnd md duna Du-s-Sard wa sa^a l-'idd min-nd hamisun dramramu "We would descend upon the region surround ing Du-s-Sard, and our mighty army would then Transcription smite the foe" (quoted in Sayuti 1999: 70). iDRKbnM'Z s'lm: the restoration of this word as [sl]m is based on the occurrence of the same expression in Translation another inscription from the Maan/Udruh area: I qrb w dkrt It 'dnt w wtrfhlt s'lm wqbll"By'qrb; and By DRK son of M'Z may Lt remember 'dnt and Mr, and O Lt [grant] security and acceptance (King 1990). Philological Commentary qblU This cluster of letters was understood as a nominal form in the meaning "acceptance, wel come" (Muller 1980: 71) from the root qbl, cf. Arabic qabila "accept, welcome." Muller (1980) explains that the last radical goes back to the preposition /, which became part of the verb or verbal noun, respectively; for instance, in modern East Aramaic the verbal yahabel "to give" is com posed of the verbyahab and /-. Cf.e.g., KRS 29and 1352 in which the word was translated as "[grant] benevolence."^^ DRK: The root from which this name is derived is drk, cf., Sabaic hdrk "pursue; catch, catch up with" (SD, p. 36), Aramaic drk "tread upon, step upon," Geez daraka "to be rough, hard" (CDG, p. 142), and Arabic dirdk "the making one part, or portion; to follow another uninterruptedly," 'adraka "he, or it, attained, reached, overtook, or came up with, him, or it" (Lane, p. 873). The name is attested in the same writing in Safaitic (WH 80) and cf. Drkt in Safaitic (WH 2303 [HIn, p. 239I, KRS 2114), the name Ibn Mudrika (Istiqaq, p. 30) and Mudrik (Lisan, p. 1366) in the Arabic tradition. rw[h]\ As remarked above, the restoration of miss ing letters of the current word and the next one is not conclusive and thus questionable. The word M'Z: The name is attested in the same writing in the ANA anthroponomy (HIn, p. 554). Two ety- y-.-.i- Fig. 6.2 Photo and drawing of Site3, stone with an ANA inscription. mological possibilities can be presented here; it Site65 —Stonewith an ANA Inscription (fig. 6.3) is derived from the root m'z, cf., maiza "become Thetextispeckedon single stonefromleftto right, i.e.,taking the lam auctorisas a starting point. The letter forms, especially the graphical for g, gives a clue that it belongs to the Hismaic/Thamudic E cf. the Arabic masculine name Maiz (Lisan, 4232). group. It shouldbe notedalsothat the line running The second etymological option is a derivation in the middle of the letter h has been extended to from the common Semitic root zz "to be strong" form a tail. The reading of the eighth and ninth (see Wagner1989). In this case, the name could be signs is not conclusive, i.e., both signs canbe read built morphologically from the IVth form a'azza as nn or nl, and less probably as sV. Therefore, I would suggest the following readings of the signs as an active participle tnu'izz {muf'il form). hard; became abundant in goats; his or its, goats became abundant, or numerous" cf. maiz "goats" (Lane,p. 2724) and ma"dz "the owner of abundance of goats" (Lisan, p. 4232).As an onomastic variant, C THESHAMMAKH TO AYL ARCHAEOLOGICAL SURVEY, SOUTHERN JORDAN (2010-2012) " k - f y - ' • ;• Fig. 6.3 Photoand drawing of Site 65, stone with an ANA inscription. after bn "son of:" gilt, gnnt, or gnlt. Reading the Philological Commentary ninth sign as I is quite possible if we consider the small stroke, which is visible as an attachment to GHF: The name is derived from the root ghf, cf., the right side of the leg, as part of the letter. One may not excludethe possibility, however, that this mark is Just a scratch on the stone: Arabicgahafa "to gather,take out" (see Lane, 383), Transcription Sheri "to take everything," Geez "to take away, remove, carry off" (see Blazek2012:14). The name can be vocalized as Gahhdfor Gdhif, cf., the per sonal names al-Gahhaf(Istiq^, p.308) and Gahif (CIK, p. 255) in the Arabic tradition. I GHF bn GLLT/GNNT/ GNLT GLLT / GNNT / GNLT: Translation By GHF son of GLLT/ GNNT / GNLT - GLLT: the name could be interpreted as a oneword name from the rootgll, cf.Arabicgalla "to be great, lofty, exalted, loftiness, glory" (see Lane, p. 6. ANCIENT NORTH ARABIAN INSCRIPTIONS, ROCK DRAWINGS, ANDTRIBAL BRANDS (WASMS) derivation from the root gnn "protect" (see Miiller 1963: 308; Hayajneh 1998: 230), cf. the Safaitic theophoric name GN'L, where the first element could be traced back to the root gnn (see Hazim 1986:25).For names derived from the same root, cf. the Arabic personal names Ganniin and Ganrtdny and Magnun (Hayajneh 1998: 230). - GNLT: If we consider this variant as a theophoric name composed of GN plus Lt, and by taking into account that the first element is related to the root gnn, which we dis cussed above, the name could be understood as a nominal sentence, "Protection ofLdt" or "Protected (by) Ldt" The first element in the latter option should be taken as a nominal form (cf. Arabicfa'l or fa'U). Site 63 — Stone with an ANA Inscription (fig. 6.4) n ^ j / / /• In addition to the weathering factors from which the surface of the stone has suffered, the patina and pecking techniques suggest thatwehave twogroups r' of signs where the graffiti is superimposed by a wasm. The ription. dark graphical signs are rem Fig. 6.4 Photo and drawing of Site 63, stone with an ANA inscription. nants of an ANAgraffito, while 436). The same writing of the name is attested in the signs on the right side overlaypart of the text Safaitic (HIn, p. 165; C 3539, WH 3026). The name and thus do not allow for a proper reading. If we GLL (without -f) is attested in Safaitic (see KRS read from the beginning of the lowerline, the fol 510 and Ababneh, 303, no. 741) and cf. the Arabic lowing clusterof letterscan be identified. variant Galila (CIKII, 256). The second option, by dividing the clusterof lettersinto GL and LT, takes Transcription it as a theophoric name, where Lt is known as a goddess in the Arabian religious realm; i.e., GL+LT 2) bn ht.... "Lthas exalted," "Lt is Lofty" or " Glory of - GNNT:The second reading variant as GNNT, which occurs in Safaitic (KRS 2631), permits the THE SHAMMAKH TO AYL ARCHAEOLOGICAL SURVEY, SOUTHERNJORDAN (2010-2012) Translation 2) son ofHT... 1) By'H(?)... The remaining signs are a composite of tribal brands (wasms). The second and third sign are similar to the one recoded by Field (1952: fig. 28, no. 345). Site53 —Stonewith an ANA Inscription (fig. 6.5) At first glance, the ductus of the letters might indi cate that weare dealing with a Nabataean graffiti, i.e., b, I (or «),/and b (or k). However, this cannot b be ascertained with certainty. Considering the present cluster of signs as a Wasm is far from probable. UNIDENTIFIABLE INSCRIPTIONS / WASMS Fig. 6.5 Photo and drawing of Site53, stone with an ANA inscription. Site 64 (fig. 6.6) Thesigns incised are not easyto identify. A reading from left to right &sb ... b, sis not ascertainable. Site 66 (fig. 6.7) Two signs are incised on this rock. It is difficult to decide whether we are dealing here with letters or a wasm. Site 65 (fig. 6.8) Two signs are incised on this rock. It is difficult to a.ic decide whether we are dealing here with letters 'S'' o r a wasm. ROCK DRAWINGS AND TRIBAL BRANDS (WASMS) Rock art studies in Jordan arestill in theirinfancy; rock art has received little scholarly attention^' and generally occupied a marginal position inarchaeo- logical investigations. Future research would no doubt make progress in understanding different I V / i / / / aspects of these remains, i.e., addressing issues of behavioral significance, including° how and what ° T umdentifable inscription/tribal brands (wasmsj. 6. ANCIENT NORTH ARABIAN INSCRIPTIONS. ROCK DRAWINGS. AND TRIBALBRANDS (WASMS) '' ' y ,-k- ••' rc Fig. 6.7 Photo and drawing of Site 66, stone with an unidentifiableinscriptionMasm. the drawings communicate, and why the art was produced (Brandt and Carder 1987: 197-98). In Jordan, researchers need to provide a broad frame work for classification based on style, patination, and overcutting, as Anati provided for some parts Fig. 6.8 Photo and drawing ofSite 65, stone with an unidentifiable inscription/v/asm. landscape location, association with other motifs, and other types of archaeological evidence may (2001a) stated, most rock art is found on exposed outcrops without cleai4y associatedarchaeological reveal the different meanings and authorships deposits, although some prehistoric carvings on through time." The majority of the rock drawings of the loose stones have been found in stratified contexts (Betts 2001a: 96). Stylistic classification of the art, present corpus comprise zoomorphic and anthro based on content, technique, and superimposi- pomorphic figures that are very well-known and tion, might help where no absolute date is known found throughout other parts of the Arabian (Betts 2001a; 97).A comprehensive study will allow Peninsula and the Levant. We also find, however, us to trace the stylistic changes, superimposition, other unidentified rock art manifestations among and manufacturing techniques. Tliis would help this collection. The style of some drawings is com to establish developmental phases for several spe posed ofstick forms with varying degreesof detail. cific designs (van Tilburg and Lee1987) and, as a Thepatina and techniques suggest that theybelong result, present some arguments regarding relative to the same period. No superimposition is evident chronology. Atthe same time, we haveto consider in the rock drawings under investigation. Dating that one motifthat occurs in different places might this rock art collection is not possible for several have multiple authorship, or that one motif can be reasons, e.g., there are no available datedmaterials the result of different events. Therefore, as Russell or comparative studies through which a relative (2012: 25) states, "Careful consideration of the pos chronology canbe established. The manufacturing sible context of production, relative chronology, techniques are decisive for establishing a relative of the Arabian Peninsula.^^ In addition, as Betts THE SHAMMAKH TO AYL ARCHAEOLOGICAL SURVEY, SOUTHERN JORDAN (2010-2012) date,e.g., incision, pecking, and subsequentabrad ing to produce a deep, smooth groove, intaglion depicted showing the affiliation of the deceased (Khan 2007:152). The question arises, therefore, (below the surface of the rock), or bas-relief (van Tilburg and Lee1987). In addition, no accompany ing inscriptions from which we might glean some whether the marks left on rocks and stones func hints regarding the chronological framework of the drawings are incised on the rock surfaces. From the rock art material, it appears that the rock surfaces were chosen deliberately. These particular rocks were chosen by the various art ists because they have flat and smooth surfaces, tioned in the same way as the branding of camels. Leaving them on such surfaces would mean that herders who accompanied their herds wanted to perpetuate their presence in a certain area, or it could indicate that a certain area, where the although one of them (Site 54, fig. 6.9) suffered from fractures and natural damage. Die surface wasm was encountered, lay under the protection or patronage of a certain tribe.^' The presence of such symbolsdoes not necessarily implyterritorial demarcation, as the concept of precise territorial delimitation expressed by boundaries is relatively of another one (Site 187, fig. 6.ioa-c), however, is recent (Wilkinson 1983), because the social unit flat and smooth and thus ideal for carving. The depending onjus sanguinis wasoperationalamong the social tribal units in Arabia, rather than jus soli?^ They might, however, give us hints into tra ditional concepts of territory (or Hima ?"), which remained dominant among the Bedouin until the mid-20th century. It is premature to answer the question whether these signs represent the Bedouin's tendency towards a territorial thinking, i.e., as is the case among some nomadic groups in drawings on it are clear, though some figures could not be identified. The third (Site 234, fig. 6.16) is covered by layers of dirt and soil that prevent a thorough description of the engraved details. Tribal brands (wtisms) constitute a large por tion of the present collection. They are formed of simple lines, curves, circles, and angles^^, i.e., geo metric forms and non-representational motifs.^® In the Arabian realm, wasms were originally symbols that nomads branded on their camels, the Western Sahara, where wasms are left as an indication of the territorial diffusion and spread which served to indicate, as some researchers of the tribe (Hart 1998).^-' have argued, the camels' ownership by a tribe or tribal affiliate (Khan 2007: 152; Abdul Nayeem 2000: 343-44). They are known from antiquity^' and each Arabian tribe is identified by its special Russell (2012: 5-6) reports that Turkana pastoralists in Kenya, who live near wasm-like engravings, mark their livestock (and sometimes their own skin) with marks that bear a similarity to brand, and, hence, each member of the tribe uses the rock art. Thereasonsgivenfor using the marks include warding offof illnessand misfortune, deco rating a favoriteanimal, signaling warrior prowess, appeasing the spirits of the dead, and showing clan belonging. Among the Cushites, camel herd ers brand their animals as signs of ownership, not tribal belonging, and the same concept applies to the camel-herding Rendille pastoralists of Kenya. They have a practice of sharing camels, or what is called a "camel trust system" (Russell 2012; 20). These examples show that the tradition of wasms in the Arabian realm likely has deeper dimen sions than we often think; i.e.,such symbols might refer to a deeper structure, system, or conven tion, which was transmitted trans-generationally among the Bedouin. Documenting geographi cally (e.g., through GPS) specific wasms and conducting ethnographic study among Bedouin the same symbol as a sign of tribal affiliation. In addition, sub-tribes could add signs to the original brand to evidence their affiliation to the main tribe. The brands were then depicted on specific parts of the camel, and each tribe would adhere to the symbol itself, as well as its location on the camel's body (Khan 2007: 152). Thus, each tribe or subtribe could be identified through its specificbrand. They were depicted, as Dickson noted (1951: 419; see also Khan 2007:152), on private property (e.g., camel loads) but never placed on banners or flags of war. Gradually, the wasm became a land of per petuation mark that Bedouin used to mark stones and rocks in the desert, as well as the walls of wells, buildings, and ruins.^° Theywere also used to mark camping sites, objects, textiles, and tents (Khan 2007:153). On gravestones, wasms are sometimes 1 6. ANCIENT NORTH ARABIAN INSCRIPTIONS. ROCK DRAWINGS, AND TRIBAL BRANDS iWASMS) elders, who might still have a traditional knowl- Today, wasms are not used and no longer function iin their original contexts, although they can still be encountered indifferent situations, i.e., as symbols i depicted on Bedouin weavings (Hilden 1991)-^^ to a better understanding of the wasms used by < As regards the history ofresearch into Arabian Bedouins. Asystematic study ofthe wasms would provide researchers with information on the dif wasms, one may mention the studies ofConder edge of the significance of such symbols, would yield fruitful conclusions that, in turn, would lead fusion of the Arabian tribes and their movements. '(1883) and Field (1952). An important source in Furthermore, a comprehensive approach in study which agreat corpus of wasms was gathered is the ing the shapes and forms of wasms would provide one by Khan (2000; 2007; 2010), who documents information on their origins and diffusion; it is wasms from different parts of Saudi Arabia. Difficulties facing the study of wasms in the remarkable, for example, that certain graphic signs present collection are numerous. It is sometimes orelements are repeatedly encountered indifferent parts ofArabia. Indeed, our present corpus shows difficult to distinguish between awasm and arock some similarities with other Arabian wasms. In drawing, orbetween older and more recent wasms. his study. Field recorded thousands of wasms that Ifwe take the patina as abasis, our decision could showed many similarities but nonetheless could be subjective. Even the shape cannot help in this beidentified as distinct patterns. This suggests that case, as some forms ofwasms seem to have been the signs themselves were established and became usedfrom ancient times through more recent peri apart of awasm according to acertain system of ods. We doknow, however, that the wasms tend to registration, which is hitherto unknown. Rather be laterthan the carved inscriptions, as the patina ofthe Tvasms is brighter, while the patina of the likely constructed/designed according to certain inscriptions is often darker and superimposition set principles. Ifwe assume that every tribe or sub- has taken place.'" Another problem arises when than being a random development, a wasm was tribehasitsownwasm, onwhatbasis thenwas the wasm formed? In otherwords, who decided on the studying a cluster of wasms on the surface of a single rock or stone; in many cases it is impos withfullawareness that the wasm should be differ on the stone because of the juxtaposition of the wasms are similar to modern national flags; each branded on camels are fairly easy to distinguish graphical form ofthe wasm and its components,, sible to determine exactly how many wasms are entthan other tribal symbols? Inthis sense, tribal wflsms and their components. Bycontrast, wasms country must have a uniquely identifiable shape, and understand, since even when the same wasm color, etc. thatcomes to represent thecountry and was used by widely separated tribes or sub-tribes, its values. The same principle, I believe, applies to confusion could be avoided by placing the brand ona different part ofthe camel's body (Field 1952: Arabian wasms. Finally, future studies should be conducted 2). In the case of carving on stone, however, such to test whether some wasms may originate from character shapes found among the ancient Semitic a distinction is impossible. Also problematic is the lack ofa ground line that can help determine scripts,^^ especially from the Arabian script family. the proper direction and orientation of a wasm Such "borrowing" may have come about not only carved into stone or rock; thisaspect, in particular, because Bedouin saw the ancient inscriptions left hinders useful comparison with other known or on stones, but also because they understood the published wasms. Finally, we are not yet able to cultural background ofmysterious marks that rep - assign wasms to particular North Arabian tribes, resented older stages ofthe history ofthe ArabianI largely because most of those people who might tribes. A systematic analytical (not only descrip - know and understand the tribal affiliation of a tive) study ofthe entire corpus ofwasms in JordanL given wasm are gone, and such information, which and/or North Arabia in comparison with otherr has not been transmitted to younger generations,'® areas of the Middle East isessential. Such a study/ is rapidly disappearing.'^ The photos published here as well as the tracwould have to consider elder Bedouin who mightt ;. ings ofthe drawings are provided according to the stillhave traditionalknowledge aboutthesewasms. THE SHAMMAKH TO AYL ARCHAEOLOGICAL SURVEY. SOUTHERN JORDAN (2010-2012) original orientation of the photograph. Therefore, In the middle of the rock there is a drawing the description of the signs, i.e., in terms of direc (see detail) that can be interpreted as a scorpion. tion (vertical, horizontal, upside down, reversed Its two pedipalps are stretched where the chelas etc.), is based on the photos provided. (clawof the pedipalp) are engraved in the form of a circle. Other arbitrary and unidentifiable draw CORPUS OF ROCK ART DRAWINGS AND TRIBAL BRANDS (WASMS) Site54 (fig. 6.9) ings to the left side of this figure are probably not related. From his collection of Negev rock draw ings, Anati (1999:31) published drawings showing a composite of poisonous creatures, among them a scorpion. Therockismostly covered withdrawings. However, On the upper left part of the rock, a shaft with as mentioned above, the fractures and weathering two circles drawn along either side is visible. This factors havecausedlossto majorparts ofthe draw could be interpreted as a wasm and is a design ings and brands. Among the drawings, there are a known in other areas of Arabia (see, e.g., Abdul number of wasms, as well as other characters that Nayeem 2000:176, fig. 339; Ziolkowski 2007: 227, are not identifiable. fig. 14),''° including the United Arab Emirates. Fig. 6.9 ~y. Photo and drawing of Site54. Thesection in the circle is enlarged in detail below. trr iCP r [umnii!i>!ww.w'iHw«.t4h 6, ANCIENT NORTH ARABIAN INSCRIPTIONS, ROCK DRAWINGS, AND TRIBAL BRANDS (WASMS) 519 Other geometric forms and curved-shapes are means that the entire set of drawingswas possibly executed byoneperson. Afew oftheanimal draw dispersed on the rock surface. On the extreme right side of the panel we encounter a cross-shaped figure. For the cross in ings have all four legs shown as pairs of spindly lines. The findings can be described as follows: 1) Fully pecked human figures with sized penises. Arabian rockdrawings, seeAnati (1972.: 53' fig-18). Cf. Abdul Nayeem (2000: 296). For a parallel Other geometric forms and curves are dispersed drawing from Saudi Arabia, see Khan (2007: on the rock. 329,fig. 316). 2) Ibex or gazelle engraved in a stick style and Site187(fig. 6.10a-c) backline with four legs and tail raised. This representation is widely attested throughout Parti (fig. 6.10a) Arabia (cf. Anati 1999: 2-3). The panel displays several drawings thatappear to 3) Camel with a rider who bears some sort of raised weapon, possibly a sword or dagger. have thesame degree ofpatina andoutline, which IT,,vi'• 'i . s'X v'--' .-'r' f ir-fy Fig. 6.10A Photoand drawingofPart 1 ofSite187. • :t K" THE SHAMMAKH TO AYL ARCHAEOLOGICAL SURVEY, SOUTHERN JORDAN (2010-2012) 4) In front of the camel mentioned above, there is another riding animal, possibly equine, with a rider who is extending a spear. The animal's tail is not raised. 5) Behind the camel can be seen another riding animal. Hie rider bears some kind of elongated tool, possibly a sword; the camel is drawn in the opposite direction as the camel mentioned 6) A human figure with a long left hand,"" possi bly bearing a weapon,is discernible, although its facial features are unclear. 7) A camel,most probablya she-camel,shown with a rider grasping a rope connected to its neck. 8) Another anthropomorphic figure is drawn in stick style. The inscriber used the head and spine as the vertical axis, with two bisecting horizontal lines, the upper representing the above. ^ :v >. •• - • - . V/fr• 'A .V ^ ^ r 3r» ' . 0- A rr' y 3^ Fig. 6.10B Photo and drawing of Part 2 of Site187. 2 .. -• •- T 6. ANCIENT NORTH ARABIAN INSCRIPTIONS, ROCK DRAWINGS. AND TRIBAL BRANDS (WASMS) 9 figures upraised arms, and the lower showing the hips and legs. A complex of wasmsis seen on the extreme left side of the photo. The internal one is compa rable to a wastncomponent known from Saudi Arabia (Abdul Nayeem 2000:176, fig. 231). 10) Several other undefined animals. Part 2 (fig. 6.10b) This face is covered with drawings of zoomorphic and anthropomorphic figures: A human figure touching with his right hand an animal that seems to be a goat (or perhaps dog!). In his left hand is shown either the con tinuation of his arm or some sort of elongated tool. The second group represents a camel vdth a rider positioned on the hump. The camel's head is depicted as a circle. In front of the camel, another animal (most probably a donkey) with a slightly raised, elongated tail and pronounced ears, is ridden by a person (with largely pecked head) holding a rope in *^1 THE SHAMMAKH TO AYL ARCHAEOLOGICAL SURVEY, SOUTHERN JORDAN (2010-2012) his hand. The animal and its rider are facing V-shape. The lower tips of the V are curved to the interior. It could represent a pen or trap. the last in this "row," can be seen on the left. 7 & 8) Two inverted V-shapes are seen above Both animals are directed to the right. A fully two serpentine shafts, which form two par pecked drawingwith five fingers is also visible. allel sets of the same shape. To their right is Drawings of hands appear widelythroughout another heavilypecked serpentine shape with the Near East (see Anati 1974: 195, fig. 316; an incomplete podded circle attached to its Abdul Nayeem2000:192, fig. 264; Khan 2007: upper tip. 222-23, 334> fig- 320; Lancaster and Lancaster 9) An unidentifiable animal is seen in the lower 2011). part of the panel. Another animal with jutting ears and a hori 10) Dispersed Wasms. zontally raised tail (possiblya goat). Animalwith a fat tail that could be interpreted Part 3 (fig. 6.10c) as a sheep. Possibly the upper part of a fat human figure In the lower part of the photo, zoomorphic depicted in fully pecked gravure. figuresdrawn in stick style can be identified. Another animal drawn in stick style. Its head On the left side of the photo, it is possible to is shown inside the opening of an inverted register several tribal wasms. Tlie upper left part of the photo bears a modern Arabic inscription. the camel. Another similarly drawn animal, 3) 4) 5) 6) Site 54 (fig. 6.11) W/ V.":V M This drawing is composed of sev eral geometric shapes that are pecked in scales or leaf shapes. If the photo is viewed horizontally, these shapes appear to constitute a form that could represent an ostrich or some sort of bird, although this interpretation remains uncertain. It should be noted that rock draw ings of ostriches are well-known in the Arabian realm (see Abdul Nayeem 2000: 203, fig. 291). Less probable is the interpretation of this motif as pens."*' A similar rock drawing technique is encountered in Saudi Arabia from the region of Tayma/Ghar al-Hammam (fig. 6.12; see Abdul Nayeem 2000: 101), and also from Yemen (fig. 6.13; see Abdul Nayeem 2000: 492, fig. 80, Fig. 6.11 Photo and drawing of Site54. no. i9t; further cf. Field 1952: fig. 35, no. 992). In addition, the Aylto Ras an-Naqab survey recorded a similar drawing technique (see site 378-E, Macdonald 2012: 457, fig. 6.48). ^wm 6. ANCIENT NORTH ARABIAN INSCRIPTIONS, ROCK DRAWINGS. AND TRIBAL BRANDS (VVASMS) Site 251 (fig. 6.14) Four parallel lines incised on a stone surface that may have been polished or smoothed. Random Square 105 (fig. 6.15) Probably a rock drawing of a tree (?). The pos sibility that the carving is a wasm should not be excluded. Parallel examples are unknown to me. Fig.6.12 Drawing of rockart comparable to Site54from Saudi Arabia. Reproduced by Hani Hayajneh (see Abdul Nayeem 2000:101). Fig. 6.13 Drawing of rockart comparable to Site 54 from Yemen. Reproduced byHani Hayajneh (see Abdul Nayeem 2000:492, fig. 80, no. i9t). Site 234 (fig. 6.16) This rock sutfers from layers of accumulated dirt and soil that prevent a full description of the engraveddetails. A few drawings of various signs that could be interpreted as wasms are visible on its lower part; e.g., the inverted T-shape form (1), which is known as a wasm (or a component of a wasm) in Arabia (see, e.g., Hilden 1991: 3).'*' A loaded camel can be seen on the extreme left side mmmim of the panel (2). Some modern love/romantic motifs are visible in the middle of the rock (3). Site 227 (fig. 6.17) There are some Wasms on the upper left side (1), as well as a loaded camel (2). The E-like sign (3) is found as either a single Wasm or a component of one in some areas of Arabia, e.g. by the al-Ajami sub-tribe in Kuwait (see Hilden 1991:4; and Abdul Nayeem 2000: 359., no. s)."*"* Under the camel are some additional Wasms (4). Fig. 6.14 Photo and drawing of Site251. Fig. 6.15 Drawing of rock art drawing within Random Square 105. THE SHAMMAKH TO AYL ARCHAEOLOGICAL SURVEY,SOUTHERN JORDAN (2010-2012) ^ <y "1 '^yc Fig. 6.16 Photo and drawings ofSite234. 6. ANCIENT NORTH ARABIAN INSCRIPTIONS, ROCK DRAWINGS, AND TRIBAL BRANDS (IVASMS) ✓ ^4 Fig. 6.17A Photo ofSite227, Rock art drawings, Arabicnames, and-wasms THE SHAMMAKH TO AYL ARCHAEOLOGICAL SURVEY, SOUTHERN JORDAN (2010-2012) On the left side of the rock are wasms (5) in addition to some Arabic names (6). However, the patination suggests that the wastns and names were not incised at the same time. The three- sided quadrangle from which a short stroke is sloping downwards Hr from the left side (7) is known in Saudi Arabia (see Abdul Nayeem 2000:358, no. 96). The lower part bears a variety of unidentifiable rock drawings, old wasms, and modern Arabic personal names. 1 4" Site237, Part l(fig. 6.18) Tlie five juxtaposed signs on the lower part of the rock (1) can be interpreted as wasm{s). However, m the contrast and disproportion / ate nature of the patina leaves no doubt that we are dealinghere with ' .V 1 f more than one wasm. For the shape a/ r of. Field (1952: fig. 24, no. 47). Superimpositions of modern graf fiti prevent a detailed description of the drawings that occur in the middle of the rock face (2). Traces of (old ?) wasms, however, can be Site 237, Part 2 (fig. 6.19) Dispersed wasms and unidenti- ^ jffjJV fiabie drawings can be seen on the rock. The following can be identified: 1) A rock drawing of an animal, possibly an ibex, is carved in Fig. 6.17B IDrawing ofSite 227, rock art. Arabic names and v/zsms. fig. stick style. 2) The vertical shaft with an attached circle from the left side, cf. Abdul Nayeem (2000:359, no. 9). 3) The wavy sign below the latter, cf. Abdul Nayeem (2000; 359, no. 70). 4) The Wasm inan A-shape inalying form atthe extreme left ofthe photo, see possible parallels for a similar vertical shape in Field (1952: fig35, no. 1017, fig- 28, no. 396) and Abdul Nayeem (2000: 358, no. 96). * P \r Fig. 6.18 P/iofo «nii drawing ofpart ofSite 237. wasms and modern graffiti. Y THE SHAMMAKH TO AYLARCHAEOLOGICAL SURVEY,SOUTHERN JORDAN (2010-2012) Site 232 (fig. 6.20a-b) Parti (fig. 6.20a) Several old and new wasms are seen. The patina suggests a degree of disparity among the different shapes of wasms found on this rock: 1) The first, visible at the extreme right of the photo, looks like a portion of a swastika and is akin to a wasm recorded by Abdul Nayeem (2000:359, no. 69). Therest of the signs on the same row are known as parts of wasms from Arabia. 2) The V-shaped sign was already discussed. My',- U- 4^- 6. ANCIENT NORTH ARABIAN INSCRIPTIONS, ROCK DRAWINGS, AND TRIBAL BRANDS (WASMS) 3) The curved shaft near the bottom is similar to ones recorded byKhan (2000:77), Field {1952: fig. 24, no. 31) and others. It appears in differ entpositions, i.e., flat (?), horizontal, vertical, etc. 4) The three vertical strokes can be compared with examples recorded by Khan (2000: 53) and Abdul Nayeem (2000: 358, no.8). / Modern Arabic inscriptions are visible. This isan example oftheothervisible, though unidentifiable, shapes found on the rock. THESHAMMAKH TO AYL ARCHAEOLOGICAL SURVEY. SOUTHERN JORDAN (2010-2012) Part 2 (figs. 6.20b) Two visible signs can be recorded. It is difficult to knowwhether they representletters or a wasm. Random Square 105 (fig. 6.21) is seenhorizontally on the upper part of the draw ing (see Abdul Nayeem 2000: 66, fig. 37-39, for a possible parallel). The second is composed of two signs that have the same degree of contrast. For the first sign of the second wasm, which appears on theright side ofthedrawing, cf. Abdul Nayeem (2000:358, no. 23), andfor the next signcf. Abdul I think that we are dealing here with two wasms, Nayeem (2000: 359, fig. 24). as the patina and pecking technique suggest that they don't belong to the sameperiod. The firstone Site 1 (fig. 6.22) Here weprobablyhave three engraved wasms clus tered together. The first appears on the upperpart of the drawing; for the right sign, cf. Khan (2000: 78) andConder (1883:178). Forthe next sign on the same level as the latter, cf. Khan (2000: 55g). Hie middle clusterof signs is likely the second wasm; it is depicted on the left side of the stone. The third one appears beneath the latter. Fig. 6.21 Drawing of v/asms within Random Square 105. V\,r Fig. 6.20B Photo and drawing ofpart ofSite 232, symbols or Fig. 6.22 Drawing ofSite1,wasms. 6. ANCIENT NORTH ARABIAN INSCRIPTIONS, ROCK DRAWINGS. ANDTRIBAL BRANDS (WASMS) ^ Site16 (fig. 6.23) E ^ ^ ^ l^is is a complex wasm, which is composed ofdif- ferent signs. As we are dealing with awasm depicted on stone, rather than acamel brand, it is difficult to determine the correct orientation ofthe signs. ^ Site 65, Parti (fig. 6.24) ^ Most probably this wasm is composed offour signs. ® The single sign on the upper part ofthe photo is com- ^ A: ^ parable to one that was recorded by Conder (1883: 178). For the first sign from the right of the photo in the lower line, cf. Khan (2000:55-56), where the fork is attachedto the shaftat its top (cf. alsoAbdul Nayeem 2000:358, no.31). Theremainingsignsare attested as components of Arabian wasms. Site 65, Part 2 (fig. 6.25) Four signs were fully pecked, while two other charactersvisible on the leftside of the photo were lightlypecked, representinga shaftwithcurved end Fig. 6.23 Photoand drawingofSite16, wasm. \ (cf. Khan2000:74) and a mirror-inverted C-shape (cf. Field 1952: fig. 28, no. 338). This mightsuggest that we are dealing with two or three wasms. M '") I THE SHAMMAKH TO AYLARCHAEOLOGICAL SURVEY, SOUTHERN JORDAN (2010-2012) Site 65, Part 3 (fig. 6.26) Site 67 (fig. 6.27) This shape, which looks like a flat-lying A-shape, The first sign at the upper left is composed of two can be compared with similar shapes from Arabia semi-equal joined quadrate shapes. Beneath, on (Field 1952: fig. 28, no. 396; Abdul Nayeem 2000: the right side, a semi-radiated circle is recognized. 358, no. 96). On its leftand right sides,two clustersofstrokes in different directions can be seen. On the middle of the upper and lower sides of the circle, two vertical • •='. • 1' strokes are visible. This single form could be com pared with one recordedby Field(1952: fig. 35, no. 982). Thenext symbol below is a reclining E-shape sign that typically appears in a different direction in the Arabian Wasm tradition (cf. Khan 2000:57). The final part of the representation, beneath the last one, could be a part of the Wasm or a drawing ofa humanfigure withitshands upraised; the body is represented as a vertical line ended by a threeforked shape. Similar figures are widely attested throughout Arabia, cf. Abdul Nayeem (2000: 359, no. 25) and Ziolkowski (2007: figs. 35, 53, p. 230) from Wadi Dafta in the UAE. Site 141 (figs. 6.28) Fig. 6.26 Photo and drawing ofpart of Site 65, wasm. i. The three parallel strokes on the lower right side of the photo are part of a wasmknown in the Arabian tradition, cf. Khan (2000; 53) and Conder (1883: 1- Fig. 6.27 Photo and drawing of Site 67, signs and wasms. ^ 1 6. ANCIENT NORTH ARABIAN INSCRIPTIONS, ROCK DRAWINGS, AND TRIBAL BRANDS (WASMS) 178). Hie rest of the signs are lightly pecked and obscured, and therefore appear blurred, which hinders the recognition of their borders/edges. Site 194, Part 1 (fig. 6.29) Four to five characters are discernible here. The first one is on the upper part of the photo: an inclining shaft attached at the bottom to a circle. This sign is widely attested in the Arabian wasm tradition (cf., e.g., Field1952: fig. 29,no. 482,fig. 30, no. 526).Beneath this character is a lightly pecked, unclosed oval. Below this, there is a sign in the form of a quadrangle topped by a vaulted shape. A stroke is attached to the top of its arch. Similar shapes, but without an arch, are known in Arabia T\/ wm l-m (cf. Field 1952: fig. 35, nos. 967 and 1035). Another crutch-shaped shaft is visible to the right of the latter sign (cf. Conder 1883: 278^^ and Khan 2000: 77).The last sign visibleat the bottom right corner of the photo is known in Arabia, but in a different position (cf., e.g., Khan 2000: 49, 61-63). Site 194, Part 2 (fig. 6.30) The right sign is widelyknown as a component of a Wasm. The second component on the left takes the shape of a quadrangle with two dots inside. The upper line of the quadrangle is indented from the left side. Wasms (or portions of Wasms) in the shape of quadrangles are known in the Arabian tradition, cf. e.g. Field (1952, fig. 24, no. 54; fig. 32, nos. 702,741) and Khan (2000:74). A similar Whsm, Fig. 6.28 Photo and drawing of Site141, signs and wasm. accompanying some Taymanite inscriptions, was documented by Eskoubi (1999: 417, 418, 426). '1 </•. Fig. 6.29 Photo and drawing of part of Site 194, signs and • »• ^6 Fig. 6.30 Photo and drawingofpart ofSite194, wasms. THE SHAMMAKH TO AYL ARCHAEOLOGICAL SURVEY, SOUTHERNJORDAN (2010-2012) Site 194, Part 3 (fig. 6.31) Site 226 (fig 6.33) Two rocks bear a cluster of Wasms and/or rock Twosigns appear to constitute a single wasm. The drawings. Theright one isin a zigzag shape, which lower one is known as part of Arabian wasms (cf., couldbe interpreted as a serpentine figure known e.g., Abdul Nayeem 2000: 359, no. 64), while the in different parts of Arabia. The rock visible on upper one is similar to a wasm recorded by Khan the leftsideof the photo bearsan acuteangle form (2000:77). followed by a dot, a shaft with a circle attached to the bottom, as well as another shaft, which is not entirely visible in the photo. The first form is already known in Arabia as a single wasm or component of a wastn. A third wasm, composed of two signs,is visible on a third rock seen near the sr..i bottom ofthephoto; these components are widely knotvn in the Arabian realm. Site 218 (fig 6.32) ?-7: A similar wasm, but with one shaft and an angle, is known as the wasm of the Al-Ajami tribe in Kuwait (Hilden 1991: 4). wasms with obtuse and acute angles are a major component of several Arabian wasms (see,e.g,. Khan 2000:43-44)'*^ and are well-represented in the present collection. Itr Fig. 6.32 Photoand drawingofSite218, wasm. _• i'/ -i.»> T , Fig. 6.31 Photo and drawing of part of Site 194, rock art drawingsand!or wasms. Fig. 6.33 Photo and drawing of Site 226, wasm. 'm -i 6. ANCIENT NORTH ARABIAN INSCRIPTIONS. ROCK DRAWINGS, AND TRIBAL BRANDS (WASMS) Site252 (fig. 6.34) The half-shaped quadrangle on the top left side of the photo (i.e., E-form) is known in different ^USk'- •" v-'-^^ positions among the wasms ofthe Arabian tradi tion (see Khan 2000: 45. 6iff). The three vertical shafts on the left part of the photo are also wellknown in Arabia (see, e.g., Khan 2000: 47 and 53; Conder 1838; 178).^^ They are surrounded by a right-angle shape that has a long left side forked atits lower extremity. This shape can be compared with a wasm from Jordan (Field 1952: fig. 33, no. 791, and probably with fig. 24, no. 67). The rest ofthe signs are spread in different places on the stone. It is impossible to group the signs into one UJ or more wasms. Is^' m ••^1^ Site269, Parti (fig. 6.35) 9 <0^ The number of wasms depicted here cannot be discerned, as we have nine characters that can be dividedinto different wasms. Theshapes are known in different wasms from Arabia. For the flat-lying T-shaped character, which looks flat-lying in the photo, see comparable ones in Khan (2000:78-79) and Conder (1838; 187). For the crutched shaft, cf. Fig. 6.34 Photo and drawing ofSite 252, signs and wasms. Field (1952: fig. 28, no. 355) and Khan (2000:74). Site269, Part 2 (fig. 6.36) One Tvasm is visible here as a right angle with a stroke; this appears beneath the characters infig. 6.35 THE SHAMMAKH TO AYLARCHAEOLOGICAL SURVEY,SOUTHERN JORDAN (2010-2012) Site 269, Part 3 (fig. 6.37) This wasm is composed of a right angle followed by a shaft, a shafted circle (e.g., Khan 2000:31,12; Abdul Nayeem 2000; 459,no. 64), and a half-ellip tical circle. Site 292 (fig 6.38) Due to the patination and deep incisions, one may postulate that this wasm (?) is an older one. It takes the shape of an unclosed rectangle (with two acute angles). A slanting stroke is attached to the left shaft of the rectangle. Other signs on the upper and lower sides of the photo can be interpreted as wasms also. Site 301 (fig 6.39) The horizontal-lying T-shape seen in the photo is known in Arabia both as a single wasm or as a component of a compound wasm (see Khan 2000: 18, 72; Conder 1838:178). The C-shape is known with a T-shape in a wasm from central Saudi Fig. 6.38 Photo and drawing of Site292,wasms. W > ' ' 'i/' F . • j» • iSjkc? ^1 ^ PTi Ad Or''' aua Fig. 6.37 '• Photo and drawing ofpart of Site 269, wasm. V M 51 h- Fig. 6.39 Photo and drawing of Site301, wasms. 6. ANCIENT NORTH ARABIAN INSCRIPTIONS, ROCK DRAWINGS, AND TRIBALBRANDS (WASMS) Arabia (Khan 2000:72). For the vertical shaft, see J I r ^ Site 303 (fig. 6AO) ♦ )f9 >-' • Site 269, Part 3. ^ h •" f Forthe Wasm on the upperleftsideofthe photo,cf. Abdul Nayeem (2000: 358, no. 25). For the acute•- > ' angle shape on the right side, cf. Site 269, Part 1, "V from the present collection. The lowest wasm is ? composed of two signs, a shaft and a crutched m shaft. Similar shapes are attested and discussed elsewhere in the present collection. ' Site 128 (fig 6A1) The rock bears a modern Arabic inscription and r Fig. 6.40 Photo and drawing ofSite303, wasms. a portion of an anthropomorphic figure at its bottom. It can be interpreted as a wasm (cf. Field 1952: fig. 31, no. 659; Ziolkowski 2007: 61, fig. 101. Site 200 (fig, 6.42) It is difficultto concludewhether the signs incised on the rock are part of an inscription, a wasm, or a rock drawing. THI- SHAMMAKH TO AYL ARCHAEOLOGICAL SURVEY. SOUTHERN JORDAN (2010-2012) NOTES This paper, among other research activities, ^vas composed during my stay as an Alexander von inscriptions documented from Tayma region can actually be sub-classified into several epigraphical types. Paleographical studies should take place to Humboldt Fellow at the Philipps University of Marburg, Germany, from ist June to 30th August explainparts of the puzzle. SeeMuUer 1982 for more 2013. I am indebted to Dr. Glenn Corbett for his valuable remarks on an earlyversionof this article. details. 4 This is the pronunciation of the toponym by the For the Thamudic E/Hismaic material extracted from the late Geraldine Kings dissertation (1990), inhabitants of the region. we refer to the version published recently through Some of the labels given to the epigraphic groups theOriental Institute oftheOxford University proj areculturally baseless, i.e., from a linguistic pointof ect under thewebsite http://krc.orient.ox.ac.uk/aalc/ view the classification has no morphological foun images/stories/early_north_arabian_hismaic.pdf dation, which is considered as the proper way for 5 In theThamudic E/Hismaic inscriptions treated by linguistic affiliation. Sofar, no properlinguistic clas G. King (1990), there are two forms of the letter h, sification of the ANA inscriptions can be taken as conclusive due tothe ambiguity of thephonological and morphological systems that were functioning the three sides of a rectangle, or curve with a line in north Arabia in the first millennium bc and the first centuries ad. This refers to the consonantal angles tothespine. The second form isthree prongs nature of the available texts, which are composed the outer arms angled towards it and facing in the running through the middle, extended to form a tail. The arms are sometimes inscribed at obtuse and a straight tail, formed from a central line with in a monotype style.In the southern parts of Arabia, direction of the text. the linguistic situation in the same time frame, as 6 On the basisof some bilingualNabataean-Thamudic gleaned from ASA languages, is rather better and E/Hismaic graffiti, the presence of Idm auctoris in clearer; texts are rich and variable in terms of con the ANA texts and its absence in the Nabataean tents and inferable in terms of style, morphology, versions leave no doubt that it functions in such contexts to introduce the text, rather than to indi syntax, and lexicon. Therefore, recent studies on the morphological systems of Ancient South Arabian revealed considerable results regarding itslinguistic affiliation. The same scale in terms of morphologi cal richness cannot be used for both branches, and any contribution on ASA can doubtlessly yield better and more optimal results. In addition, the four languages or dialects are well-established and identified byfourdistinctive cultural, political, and historical realms, called Saba, Qataban, MaTn and Hadramawt, which means that the cultural histori calscene isclearer andbased onsolid archaeological and textual evidence. Therefore, weshould bevery careful in judging the linguistic affiliation of ANA and wait until we have more data. In addition, the phonetic value of certain graphicalsigns in some ANA epigraphical groups—especially Thamudic B, C, and Taymanite—remains unclear, while other signs still remain undeciphered. Further research, for example, should be conducted on the paleogra phy of the ANA inscriptions from Tayma, i.e., the cate possessiveness (see Hayajneh 2009; 216). 7 See Hayajneh 1998; 127, and 21-23 for the suffix -n attached to Arabian personal names. 8 For a detailed study of the root 'wd and its verbal, nominal, and onomoastic derivatives, see Miiller 1962: 82. 9 Sigla werecited from King 1990. 10 See Thompson 1972 and Pinker 2005 for more explanation on the semantics of the root and its derivatives, especially the biblical evidence. 11 For an overview on the sacrificialvocabulary in Semiticlanguages, especially the word dbh, see del Olmo Lete 1995. 12 It is Dedan of the Old Testament (Gen 10:7; Gen 25:3, see Sima 2000). A locative Qdr (possibly the historical Qedar?) is now attested in this position in an ANA-Taymanite inscription (see Hayajneh, forthcoming). 13 See KBL, p. 306 for more explanation on the seman tic field of the root and its derivatives. Mfppi 6. ANCIENT NORTH ARABIAN INSCRIPTIONS. ROCK DRAWINGS, ANDTRIBAL BRANDS {WASMS) 14 The sacrificed animal receives its scarcity in rela tion to divinity by the use of its blood for unction of the central pole of the tent or of an erect stone (Fahd 2001: 404). Citing Uzi Avner in his studies regarding standing stones and stelae in the Negev the third radical, where it is reflected in the script. However, such discourse should be taken with cau tion. Semitic languages have preservedexamples on these forms; see Rubin (2008: 127-29) who postu lates that such forms are based on patterns with a Nabataean, Byzantine, and Early Islamic standing geminated third radical (e.g., qatall, qatulf) or can be explained as analogical to nouns or adjectives stones are the last examples in a several-millennia- with such patterns. and Sinai, Avni (2007: 128) summarizes that the long tradition of desert cultic practices and they 24 SeeHazim1986:24 under G/7 in text LP1105 forthe explanation of the first element. represent different types of gods. They are known as well in southern Jordan (mainly around Petra), 25 Fora detailedand comprehensive surveyofrock art in the Middle East, i.e., history of research, prob northern Arabia,and the Sinai.Worshippingin the lems,and subjects, see Betts 2001b. form ofstanding stones continued among thedesert nomads during the Byzantine and Early Islamic 26 E.g., Anati 1968; 1972; 1974. Several attempts were made, however not enough for understanding the periods. Avni (2007) tried to understand this tra context. Cf. Khan 2000; 2007;2010;Abdul Nayeem dition ofstandingstones found in the encampments 2000 for rock art studies in Arabian Peninsula, in of the Negev nomads through the description of particular SaudiArabia. Ibn Sa'ad (eight centuryad) on the construction of these small shrines: When some part of the tribe, 27 See Neumann-Denzau and Denzau 2010:13. while encamping in a certain new place, does not 28 Abdul Nayeem (2000: 343) believes that there are two brand types: the primitive marks which were havean idol, one man goes and looksfor fourstones depicted on theanimals asbody marks ofidentifica which he erects —three are used for the pot while tion and had various designs or irregular geometric he chooses the nicest stone for the idol, which he forms and the second one took a form of a symbol then worships. If,later on, he finds a nicerone, he which resembled the alphabets of the Arabian replaces it; at the next stop he takes another in its stead.= 15 In thelight ofthebiblical tradition, massebah iscon nectedto highplaces (see Barrick 1975)16 For more details, see Reindl 1986; 555-57- 17 In the religious beliefs and cultic domain of the Semites, standing stone worship was well-estab lished. See Stockton (1970: 58f; 1974-75- 19) anti Mettinger 2004for more elaboration. scripts. 29 Abdul Nayeem (2000: 343) claims that theycanbe traced back to the Neolithic period in Arabia. 30 That the brand may have been tattooed on a wife (Field 1952: iv) isa statement thatshouldbeverified. 31 It might becompared to thecommunity-based pro tection system, known among the Arabs as Himd; see Serhal et al. 2011. 32 Talking about Southeast Arabia, Wilkinson (1983) points outthat "private ownership was anessential starting point of nomadic territorialism and that faithful who united with him/her in flesh and spirit, there is very much a jus soli involved in theirsoci bysharing theflesh ofthesacrifice (Fahd 2001:404). 18 Sacrifice of animals in the ANE means the construct of a dynamic bond between the divinity and the http://krcfm.orient.ox.ac.uk/fmi/iwp/cgi?-db ety. It also emphasizes one of the essential features of land exploitation by the nomads, that of nodal development. So the basic pattern of tribal rights has developed aroundthe exploitation of the water =AALC_BDRS&-loadframes. resources of an area. Since the wells have different 19 For discussions of this word, see Miliki960:79 and Jamme 1972:18, n. 17. 20 See Miiller 1980:71and King(i990 21 See Hofner 1965: 105; Krone 1992; and Christides 2003 for discussion on this goddess. 22 SeeMacdonald2000:48 for the writingvariant dfr in Safaitic. 23 One may argue that we are dealing with a nomi nal form, which demonstrates the germination of seasonal potential they give access to a particular grazing resource." 33 See Serhal et al. 2011. 34 In his study of the Rgaybat tribal group in Western Sahara, Hart (1998: 29-30) demonstrates that they weredividedinto twoparts, thoseof the Sarq(ofthe THE SHAMMAKH TOAYL ARCHAEOLOGICAL SURVEY, SOUTHERN JORDAN (2010-2012) East, the interior) andthe Rgaybat al-Gawasim; each one was given a camel brand, where the brand of the Rgaybat as-Sahil istheArabic letter kaf, placed either theprocesses andpractices thatproduce rock artwe mayseenew things. Often the similarity of motifs canbemisleading. We need tograsp thecontext and reasons for theirproduction, motifbymotifandsite on the neck or just behind the head of the animal, according to the tribal section to which its owner by site" (Russell 2012: 25). belongs. For this reason, the coastal territorial unit 39 HenryField (1952) was assisted byBedouin sheikhs or grouping isalso referred to astheRgaybat al-Kaf, while thebrand oftheRgaybat a§-§arg istheletter qafor, aslocally pronounced, gaf, forwhich reason the eastern or interior territorial unit or grouping isalsocalled the Rgaybat al-Qaf. 35 Conder (1883:180) opined that the 'Adwan and Bani Sahr marks are letters born of the south Semitic who listed or drew on the ground the tribal marks used in their time; the sheiks knew the tribal affili ation of each wasm (see Field 1952: iv and XX), as well as the right direction/orientation ofeach sign or component of the wasm. For the sheikhs, wastns were a kindof convention to which every member of the tribe should adhere. alphabet, while the wasms of the 'Agdrtna and 40 This wasm, according to Hilden 1991: 3, isused by other old Balqa tribes are nearer to the Nabataean theSaud family and in modern days isdepicted on and Thamudic scripts. The Balqd tribes are prob Bedouin textiles produced in Saudi Arabia. ably of the old Nabataean stock, but the dominant tribes —Bani Sahr and 'Adwan —immigrated from Arabia somethree centuries ago. These statements are arbitrary and cannot be verified without further comprehensive study. 36 Hilden (1991) tried to prove that the wasm is a 41 On the meaning of hand representations in the Arabianrock drawings, see Achrati2003. 42 Rock drawings of pens are known from Arabia: Ziolkowski 1998:37, fig. 47; Khan 2007:311, fig. 325; see also Lancaster and Lancaster 2011: 178, fig. 14 and comments on p. 179). complex oflanguage andthatitsrelationship to the 43 In Kuwait, this shape is known to belong to the identityof weaving is elusive. Al-Ajami sub-tribe and is used today as a part of 37 The use of superimposition of motifs is a common methodof relative dating. It allows generalizations Bedouinembroidery (Hilden1991:3). 44 They branded the symbol on the left side of the to be made regarding the order of appearance of camel thigh, while Al-Murra, a sub-tribe, used it differing motifs and techniques. However, the on the left jowl (see Hilden 1991:4). major problem with the use of superimposition is 45 Conder (1883: 187) reports that it belongs to the the lack of conclusions that may be drawn regard Ajarma tribe in Hisbdn. ing the duration of the intervening period of time 46 A shaft with an upside down acute angle is known (Ziolkowski 1998: 64). under thenameAl-Mas'ab in theregion ofHa'il and 38 Moreover, we have to be verycautious in drawing Tayma (Khan 2000: 43-44). conclusions regarding the identification of the eth nicity of those who carved wasms and other rock art motifs, as "some types of rock art are easy to repli cate or are simply universal. Bylooking carefully at 47 One vertical shaft is 'Adwan (Diab sub-tribe), two belong to 'Adwan (Nimr sub-tribe) and three to Abbad. 6. ANCIENT NORTH ARABIAN INSCRIPTIONS, ROCK DRAWINGS, AND TRIBAL BRANDS (U'ASMS) SIGLA, SIGNS, AND ABBREVIATIONS [ ] enclose letters which are restored. KJC () in the transliterations enclose different pos sible readings of the same sign. loadframes) () in the translations enclose names or words containing one or more doubtful letters. DUL northeastern Jordan in 1990. See King GMH. The BasaltDesert Rescue Survey and Some Preliminary Remarks on the Safaitic Inscriptions and Rock Drawings. PSAS 20 (1990) 55-78. (See also http://krcfm.orient. ox.ac.uk/fmi/iwp/cgi?-db=AALC_ Leslau 1991 Caskel 1966 Del Olmo Lete and Sanmartin 2003 Istiqaq Hoftijzerand Jongeling 1995 Harding 1971 Oxtoby 1968 Ibn Durayd al-Azdi 1991 JaS Jamme 1971 DNWSI HIn ISB Safaiticinscriptions recorded by the Basalt Desert Rescue Survey in Ancient North Arabian Paris CIK KRS von Soden 1965-1981 Safaitic inscriptions in Corpus Inscriptionum Semiticarum, Pars V. COG Inscriptions from Wadi Judayyid Site C (http://krcfm.orient.ox.ac.uk/fmi/ iwp/cgi?-db=AALC„BDRS&- Koehler andBaumgartner 1967-1990 King 1990 Geraldine M. King 1990, URL; KBL BDRS&-loadframes, accessed June 2013.) Lane 1863-93 Abu al-Fadl Gamal al-Din Muhammad Ibn Mukarram ibn Manzur al-lfrlql al-Misri, Lisan al-'Arab (Beirut: Dar Sadir, 1990) Littmann 1943). http;//krc.orient.ox.ac.uk/aalc/ images/stories/early_north_arabian_ Quran hismaic.pdf) Beeston et al. 1982 Inscriptions from Wadi JudayyidSite A (http://krcfm.orient.ox.ac.uk/fmi/ iwp/cgi?-db=AALC_BDRS&- Harding and Littmann 1952 RV. Winnett and G. L. Harding, loadframes) Corbett 2010 Inscriptionsfrom Fifty Safaitic Cairns. Near and Middle East Series 9. Toronto: University of Toronto (1978). THE SHAMMAKH TO AYL ARCHAEOLOGICAL SURVEY, SOUTHERN JORDAN (2010-2012) By Burton MacDonald, Geoffrey A. Clark, Larry G. Herr, D. Scott Quaintance, Hani Hayajneh, and Jurg Eggler AMERICAN SCHOOLS OF ORIENTAL RESEARCH • BOSTON, MA THE SHAMMAKH TO AYL ARCHAEOLOGICAL SURVEY, SOUTHERN JORDAN (2010-2012) [ AMERICAN SCHOOLS OF ORIENTAL RESEARCH ARCHEOLOGICAL REPORTS Hanan Charaf, Editor Number 24 The Shammakh to Ayl Archaeological Survey, Southern Jordan (2010-2012) The Shammakh to Ayl Archaeological Survey, Southern Jordan (2010-2012) Burton MacDonald, Geoffrey A, Clark, Larry G. Herr, D. Scott Quaintance, Hani Hayajneh, and Jiirg Eggler The American Schools of Oriental Research © 2016 ISBN 978-0-89757-093-0 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: MacDonald, Burton, 1939- author. | Clark, Geoffrey A., co-author. | Herr, Larry G., co-author. Title;The Shammakh to Ayl Archaeological Survey, Southern Jordan (2010-2012) / by Burton MacDonald, Geoffrey A. Clark, Larry G. Herr, D. Scott Quaintance, Hani Hayajneh, and Jurg Eggler. Description: Boston, MA : American Schools of Oriental Research, [2016] [ Series: American Schools of Oriental Research archeological reports; number 24 | Includes bibliographical references and index. Identifiers: LCCN 2016016440 | ISBN 9780897570930 (acid-free paper) Subjects: LCSH: Jordan--Antiquities. | Excavations (Archaeology)--Jordan. | Shammakh to Ayl Archaeological Survey, Southern Jordan. | Archaeological surveying—Jordan. | Land settlement patterns—Jordan—History. | Social archaeology—Jordan. Classification: LCC DS153.3 .M3266 2016 | DDC 939.4/8"dc23 LC record availableat https://lccn.loc.gov/2016016440 Printed in the United States of America on acid-free paper. Contents List of Illustrations List of Tables and Appendices List ofLithic Drawings Acknowledgements Abbreviations and Symbob Archaeological Periods and Dates Chapter 1 Introduction (Burton MacDonald) Chapter 2 Random Square Descriptions (Burton MacDonald, Larry G. Herr, D. Scott Quaintance, and Geoffrey A. Clark) Chapter 3 Site Descriptions — 1-366 (Burton MacDonald, Larry G. Herr, D. Scott Quaintance, and Geoffrey A. Clark) Chapter 4 The Old Stone Age in the SAAS Area (Geoffrey A. Clark) Chapter 5 Settlement Patterns Developed on the Basis OF THE Ceramics Collected (Burton MacDonald) Chapter 6 Ancient North Arabian Inscriptions, Rock Drawings and Tribal Brands (wasms) from the Sammah/Ayl ('El) Region, Southern Jordan (Hani Hayajneh) Chapter 7 Seal Impression on an Iron I Jar Rim (Jiirg Eggler) Chapter 8 Summary and Conclusions (Burton MacDonald) Appendices References Contributors Indices