Metaphysical Visions THE THEOSOPHICAL SOCIETY in AUSTRALIA 1919-1939 TRACEY BENSON A thesis submitted to fulfil the requirements for the award of Post Graduate Diploma Department of Art History The University of Queensland JULY 1996 Metaphysical Visions Acknowledgments Synopsis Introduction Chapter One Chapter Two Chapter Three Chapter 1 Historical Context of Theosophy Chapter 2 Theosophy over the Air Waves Chapter 3 Entranced - The importance of the Theosophical Society for Women Conclusion Select Bibliography Primary Sources Newspapers & periodicals Catalogues Books Secondary Sources Newspapers and periodicals Catalogues Books Appendix- images 0 2 4 5 8 8 9 11 11 32 32 49 49 67 69 69 69 69 69 70 70 70 70 73 1 Acknowledgments I appreciate the time and advice my supervisor, Nancy Underhill, gave me in overseeing the completion of this essay. She must also be thanked for sharing her immense knowledge of Australian art, particularly of the interwar period. I am indebted to Paul Parker for all his support and patience in the past year. His assistance and suggestions are greatly appreciated, as is the time and humour he gave in proofreading this thesis. Thank you to all the people from the Theosophical Society who gave me assistance and allowed me access to their libraries in Sydney and Brisbane; in particular Keith Fisher and the staff at the Sydney office who allowed me to photocopy their archived records to my heart’s content. I would especially like to thank Liesel Deutche from across the ether at the internet mailing list Theos-L (affectionately named), for her expansive knowledge of the Theosophical Society​ and her personal history as a European survivor of World War Two. I thank my parents for all the emotional support they have offered over the years. Their faith in me has kept me lucid and motivated. Last of all, I would like to thank all my extended family and friends for their various forms of support and encouragement. 2 For Lukas 3 Synopsis This paper examines the following aspects: 1. The hybrid culture of Sydney in the 1920’s. 2. The standard historical approach to this material and the potential repercussions of presenting such a limited field of vision. 3. The absence of a mention of the Theosophical Society’s significance as a cultural contributor to the development of modernism in Australia, despite it’s powerful influence at the time. Art historian Bernard Smith, stated that ‘a thorough account of the history of spiritualism, theosophy and anthroposophy in Australia as abroad is much more relevant to an understanding of modernism than say Einstein’s theories’. It is in art that traces of theosophical contribution to culture in the 1920s are most likely to be found. 1 1 Smith, B. ‘Wrestling with Modernism: McQueen’s “Black Swan of Trespass”’, ​Meanjin​ 38,4, 1979. p.523 4 Introduction It is my intention to contextualise the Theosophical Society in regard to the developing cultural identity of Australia during the interwar years. This discussion specifically concentrates on Sydney during the 1920’s for the following reasons; the 1920’s was considered the ‘heyday’ for the Theosophical Society​ in Australia, though this organisation has frequently been represented in art historical writing as either maintaining a position on the periphery, or its ideologies have been regarded as obscure influences upon Australian artists at that time. I am also particularly interested in the fact that this is an era in Australian history which is remembered for it’s rabid racism disguised as arch conservative nationalism, and in so doing also forgets the Theosophical Society’s position in its educational role as a non sexist and non racist organisation. In terms of patronage of the arts at this time Australia was still considered the country to ‘make’, a ‘frontier’ whose image was thought to be encapsulated in the landscapes of the Heidelberg school . This was considered high art and all art forms that deviated from this conception were to be approached with suspicion, as not only unworthy of the title ‘Art’, but a potential threat to the moral sanctity of this new ‘nation’. This matrix extended to governmental support and overseas exhibition opportunities for artists. For example, in 1923 a show went to London representing Australia’s focus in the field of visual art. The catalogue for the ​“Exhibition of Australian Art in London” demonstrated the resistance that many major figures in the art community had toward modernism. Only a small number of artists who could be considered modernist went to London and the works that were supposed to represent these artists were atypical of their 5 more renowned work. For example, Roy de Maistre’s ​“Still Life” (fig. 1) was quite a formal, classical composition, with resemblance to chiaroscuro technique. This painting has also been linked to the science that Max Meldrum extolled in his philosophy of art. The musically inspired paintings(fig. 2), for which he is better known by were not included in the 1923 exhibition. This is four years after de Maistre and Wakelin’s first joint exhibition in Sydney, where the above modernist works were first shown. However, Sydney Ure Smith, publisher of the 1923 exhibition catalogue, along with Home​ and ​Art in Australia​, was a supporter of modernism; ensuring some of his more favoured ‘modern’ artists such as Margaret Preston, Thea Proctor and Violet Teague were represented in the exhibition to London. Norman Lindsay was heavily promoted in this exhibition as he was considered to be Australia’s Rembrandt for his skills as an engraver and was promoted as such. It could be said that the cultural image being promoted in this exhibition was an image intentionally striving to define difference, one that presented the ‘unique’ character of Australia. Norman Lindsay, Violet Teague, Roy de Maistre and Roland Wakelin have all been loosely connected with the Theosophical Society and its associated philosophies, although Lindsay was involved in Spiritualism rather than Theosophy; a distinction which will be clarified as this essay unfolds. Many Australian artists who were influenced by the Theosophical Society’s ideological standpoints were also influenced by a constellation of European movements in the areas of visual arts, commercialism, 6 technology and philosophy. These issues were inherent in much of the material explored in the Theosophical Society’s​ publications, public lectures and radio broadcasts. In taking up these issues, I will avoid a linear historical approach that links philosophical concepts with a stylistic movement. It would appear straightforward to locate Australian exponents of abstract formalism in relation to well known European Theosophical identities such as Mondrian, Arp, Kandinsky and their ideological predecessors such as Gauguin, the Symbolists and northern European exponents of Romanticism. Yet, the best known Australian artist dealing specifically with Theosophical material, Christian Waller, was not working in the abstract formalist mode. Christian Waller’s, ​The Great Breath (1932)(fig. 3) lino prints series may be more readily identified as being of a Symbolist visual mode. For example, they might be compared to many of Toorop’s (fig. 4) works produced around the 1880’s - 1890’s. Her work also recalls Kandinsky’s lino prints(fig. 5) during his involvement with the ​Blaue Reiter group. To assume such a reductive lineage to European, denies the other subtle variables inherent in her work and the heterogenous philosophical sources located in Theosophy. However, her work does not form a praxis for this essay, as she was from Melbourne. Artists such as Christian Waller, Napier Waller, Violet Teague and Max Meldrum have significant links to Theosophy, but are ill placed as they all worked mainly in Melbourne, rather than the Australian nucleus of the Theosophical Society, Sydney, the locus of this discussion. 7 As most of the members of the Theosophical Society resided in the affluent middle class suburbs of Sydney’s North Shore, it is necessary to consider what ramifications the ideals vested in Theosophy had upon this environment, and what enabled them to make their propositions attractive to this sector of the community. Theosophy encouraged progressive thinking, and this is echoed in the diversity of responses figured by artists, writers scientists, inventors and urban planners of the era. This essay will be written in three chapters which are as follows: Chapter One This chapter will introduce the historical background of the Theosophical Society and its European foundations, investigating the panoply of mystic and religious influences inherent in its doctrines. To this end, I will address some of the assumptions which associate Theosophy with northern European factions of Romanticism, the Symbolist movement and also the northern European Renaissance traditions in art and music. By doing this I will analyse why such associations have encouraged many historians to overlook Theosophy’s heterogenous philosophies and to read the Theosophical Society’s societal demographic and idealism as right-wing dictums. I will locate Theosophy in relationship to its Australian cultural landscape at this time, and identify who the Australian Theosophists were and why Australia was chosen by the Theosophical Society​ as an important and necessary target for Theosophy. Chapter Two I will analyse the ensuing importance of radio station 2GB to the Theosophical Society in Australia, ascertaining what radio represented to them in both practical and philosophical 8 terms, especially in regard to relationships between the visual and the sonoral faculties, speech and music, identifying some visual artists who have worked with these considerations in mind. Radio, music and developments in technology and urbanisation are the foundations of this discussion. The Theosophical Society’s radio station 2GB was utilised as a conduit to express the Theosophical Society’s​ concerns to the public. Officially this radio station went to air for the first time in 1927, shortly before the Trades 2 Hall station 2KY. ​ The Australian Broadcasting Commission did not go to air until 1932, indicating 2GB’s comparatively early commitment to radio as a format to broadcast their views on social reconstruction. The ABC took many examples from 2GB by its commitment to informative and educational programs regarding women’s and children’s welfare, current affairs and educational children’s and adult’s programs. Classical music broadcasts have also been a staple throughout the entire history of the ABC. Chapter Three I will investigate the importance of Theosophy to women both nationally and internationally. To this end, I intend to discuss what Theosophy represented to them and what sort of women were involved in Australia at this time with a means to also ascertain how the above factors contributed to their notion of ‘Art’. During the 1920’s, the Theosophical Society attracted the largest percentage of educated women of all religious groupings in Australia. Essentially, this chapter of my essay will be grounded in issues pertaining to the prominence of women affiliated with and influenced by the Theosophical Society​. By taking stock of the relevance of the domestic sphere, radio and 2 Ibid. p.303 9 consumerism as registers of modernity in women’s lives at the time, Theosophy had the capacity to interest a wide audience, encouraging women to take an active positive role in society. 10 Chapter 1 Historical Context of Theosophy At the root of all is the Eternal One, whereof, as to its own nature, no words are adequate. From this, breathed out the Logos, the word, in threefold aspect, of which the Trinities in every religion are the exoteric representation. The first the Eternal Substance, root of all manifestation; the second, the substance unfolding its dual nature, Spirit and Matter, the two inseparable constituents of everything that exists; the third, the Divine Intelligence or active power of thought, the moulding energy which shapes the worlds, for in thought lies all power of protruding forms, and from thought all things come forth; the universe, in its infinite variety, is 3 but a Divine thought crystallised into form. The above statement was part of an article published in the Theosophical Society’s earliest regular Australian publication, ​Theosophy in Australasia​ (5 July 1895), which examines the doctrine of the Trinity and the differentiation between spirit and matter​. In real terms, this is best described as the quest for the unification of the body, mind and soul via a higher consciousness of self and of all things within the universe. Theosophy sought to unify mind, soul and body, by acknowledgment and subsequent care of same, with the desire of reaching a higher place in this or the next lifetime. This emphasis on concepts of reincarnation and circular time, (as opposed to the normative linear condition of Western, Christian culture - birth, life and death (heaven or hell), certainly position the Theosophical Society in line with other philosophical and scientific propositions considered in the 1920’s. This concept of a continuum is analogous with the philosophies of Nietzsche (1844-1900) and Bergson (1859-1941), for example, Nietzsche’s “eternal return” and Bergson’s theories of the metaphysical import 3 Besant, A “What Theosophy Teaches” in ​Theosophy in Australasia​. (July 5, 1895) p.3 11 4 of the creative nature of time ​. Einstein’s (1879-1955) theory of relativity and quantum physics also have strong alliances with Theosophical concepts, as these were held up by many as both scientific and spiritual ‘truths’. These concepts had great impact on discussions pertinent to the development of early modernism in Europe and later in Australia. The Theosophical Society’s​ founding president, Madame Helena Petrovna Blavatsky, opposed the materialist’s mechanistic position in favour of the vitalist approach that became popular after her death in 1891. It is understood that the majority of people attracted to Idealism, Vitalism and Theosophy essentially came from English Protestant backgrounds. Later in 1901, Annie Besant and Charles W. Leadbeader published Thought Forms​ (1901), a text considered by many in Australia, at the height of the Theosophical Society’s popularity, for its metaphysical and scientific explanations of the soul. Theosophy can not be considered as a religious doctrine, as it encourages the study of many religions as foundations for philosophical consideration and as a means of demonstrating respect for the prophets of all belief systems. If you are a Theosopher it is possible to also be Christian, Jewish, Buddhist, etc. Essentially, Theosophy does not attempt to indoctrinate because it seeks to unlock the secrets of humanity. The ideal of Theosophy is to represent a philosophical avenue that could potentially discuss any issue. As I stated in the Introduction, Theosophy has historically inhabited a space on the periphery. This can possibly be attributed to its emphasis on spirituality, which in many 4 Antliff, M. ​Inventing Bergson.​ (Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1993) p.4 12 circles marks it as a subject unworthy of academic consideration. It has also presented a problem for Australian art historians, as it stands outside the standard dialectic of urban/pastoral, international/national, modern/traditional, socialist/conservative, that appears so often in conceptions of the inter-war period. This is because all of these issues rest with a conception of style, which is used as a code for forming a position in these matters. For instance, Bernard Smith’s canonical text ​Place, Taste and Tradition​ (1945) published by Ure Smith Pty Ltd traces the development of Australian art in respect to the European movements. Though his book is comprehensive in its assessments of these issues, Smith seeks to conjoin philosophy and politics with style. Considering the overlapping of the arts community stylistically and philosophically, his position becomes unstable in the face of this divergent activity. It could be said that​ ​this text leads the reader to believe that the effects of urban culture as catalysts of modernity are only relevant in the politics inherent in the work of the social realists and Australian surrealists. As I stated in the Synopsis, Bernard Smith later admits that Theosophy could offer much in the study of modern art. As Ure Smith was the publisher of ​Place, Taste and Tradition​, it could be suggested that he would have had an opinion in the project of presenting an Australian 5 history of art. ​ Even though Ure Smith supported modernism, his magazines also glorified the genre of landscape painting as the premier form of fine art. Brian Kiernan pursues this dilemma in Australian literature of the time, stating that: 5 For a detailed analysis of Ure Smith, see Underhill, N. ​Making Australian Art: Sydney Ure Smith, patron and publisher. 13 It has frequently been observed, as something paradoxical, that Australia from the 1890s was one of the most highly urbanised countries, its literature appeared to be preoccupied 6 with the countryside. The inter-war period presents a situation of flux, a time when it was impossible to disentangle the tentacles surrounding cultural life, a time when nothing seems clearly defined. Theosophy did not seek an absolute ‘truth’, it is a heterogenous philosophical structure, developed from a constellation of religious and social philosophies. In turn, the people who were influenced by Theosophy had equally divergent interests invested in it’s philosophies. Like most forms of Idealism, Theosophy has been riddled with ambiguity, mostly of its own making. 7 Artists who were influenced by the ideals exemplified in Theosophy and Spiritualism, and whose work is poles apart visually and ideologically also present a paradoxical situation. For instance, Norman Lindsay and Roy de Maistre have nothing in common besides their importance to this era of Australian art history. Lindsay was obsessed by the concept of Australia being the new ‘Arcadia’ and he strongly resisted, in the true ‘Bohemian’ flagrancy of the times, the effects of a more egalitarian society. Lindsay was involved in Spiritualism (the Theosophical Society’s direct philosophical predecessor, along with Mesmerism), and attempted to contact his brother, a casualty of WWI. His work is best remembered in three groups: his illustrations in ​The Bulletin​ , the ‘erotic’ images I mentioned earlier and his children’s books. 6 7 Roe, J. ​Twentieth Century Sydney: Studies in urban and social history.​ (Sydney: Hale and Iremonger, 1980) p.148 Roe, J. ​Beyond Belief: Theosophy in Australia​ (Kensington NSW: University of New South Wales Press, 1986) p.xiv 14 Roy de Maistre is considered one of Australia’s earliest modernist painters, with the ‘colour music’ paintings that were presented in the 1919 ​‘Colour in Art’ exhibition with Roland Wakelin, at Gayfield Shaw’s New Art Salon, Sydney. The 1920’s for de Maistre was also an era for diversity in his visual arts practise, the key areas being: The Turramurra Wall Painters Union, ‘colourist’ paintings and interior design work for department stores. In many of the texts I have researched, de Maistre did not even rate a mention, even though his contribution to Australian art is considered significant today. Heather Johnson in ​Roy de Maistre: the Australian years​ states that: Another difficulty in assessing how much abstract work de Maistre and Wakelin did is the fact that although this work gained importance, in retrospect, as the first abstract work produced in Australia, it was not mentioned at all in contemporary articles or reviews. It was not even alluded to in art histories (such as William Moore’s The Story of Australian Art, or Bernard Smith’s Place, Taste and Tradition [Sydney, 1945] until de Maistre’s Rhythmic Composition in 8 Yellow Green Minor surfaced in 1959. Rhythmic Composition in Yellow Green Minor (fig. 6) was first exhibited at Barry Stern’s Museum of Modern Art (sic), Sydney, under the title ‘Frozen Music’ in 1959, lent by Mr T. Borthistle. 9 Mary Eagle, in ​Australian Modern Painting Between the Wars 1914-1939​ (1989) suggests that de Maistre’s colour paintings were possibly influenced by Annie Besant and C. W. Leadbeater’s books ​Thought Form’s​ (1901)​ and ​Man Visible and Invisible (1902). 8 Johnson, H. ​Roy de Maistre: the Australian Years.​ (Roseville NSW: Craftman House, 1988) p.35 9 Ibid. 15 Other major texts in Australian art history also appear to follow Smith’s example. For instance, Humphrey McQueen’s ​The Black Swan of Trespass​ (1979) though considered in its delivery, essentially polarises the political aspect as well. Richard Haese’s text Rebels and Precursors​ (1981) is a particularly good example of the tendency to oversimplify a situation of flux in Australia during the interwar period. His concentration is focused toward the political landscape of the time, particularly in Melbourne. This book could be surmised as seeking to pinpoint the divisions between Communist, Jew and Fascist (conservative) in the arts during this time. Though all of these texts are important in understanding the development of modernism in Australia, they all seek to ascertain what the dominant position was in terms of taste, politics and style, essentially polarising the situation. This essay does not seek to do that by any means. Its purpose is to highlight some of the congruent absences in accounts of this historical period, weaving unlikely threads together, rather than maintaining them as ideologically opposed. There have been a number of historians who have alluded to the importance of the Theosophical Society in Sydney in the 1920’s. Jill Roe’s text ​Beyond Belief: Theosophy in Australia​ (1986) (hereafter cited as Beyond Belief), outlines the significance that the Theosophical Society had on cultural life; and by doing so widens the gap between the accepted art historical position and the influence of the Theosophical Society. Roe states that: 16 From the 1890s to the 1920s, theosophy made the most of conditions specific to a 10 small, rich, remote and dependant society; and it had a momentum of its own. Mary Eagle recognises the significance of the Theosophical Society to people at the time, 11 particularly those traumatised by the casualties of WWI ​. She has also researched de Maistre’s ​‘Rhythmic Composition in Yellow Green Minor’, relating it to the ‘waves and swirling water of theosophist imagery’ and to Italian Futurist painting. 12 The Theosophical Society’s presence in Australia during the 1920s represents a comparatively privileged sector of society. Its members were predominantly women who might be labelled as bourgeois, mostly emanating from the upper crust suburbs of the North Shore in Sydney. These women were among the best educated in Australia at the time and their contribution as both art makers and connoisseurs can not be easily summed up in the standard art historical dialectic regarding the importance of art and artists during the interwar period. They were also the desired target for advertisers and publishers. Magazines such as ​Home,​ focused on the informed gentility and the purchasing power that these women had. As I will examine in Chapter Three, Theosophists supported many forms of art, not limiting this term to the high art genre of landscape painting. As Humphrey McQueen states: Support for Modernism in the 1920s was confined to a tiny minority in the Australian art world. Twice in twelve months, Art in Australia complained editorially of “the prejudice against the introduction of Modernism” which extended to Gallery Trustees and critics, as well as to the “ill mannered and vindictive- and frequently ignorant” press which condemned 10 Roe. J ​Beyond Belief: Theosophy in Australia.​ (Kensington NSW: University of New South Wales Press, 1986) p.xv 11 Eagle, M. ​Australian Modern Painting : Between the Wars 1914-1939. (​ Sydney, NSW: Bay Books, 1989) p. 50-51 12 Johnson, H. ​Roy de Maistre: the Australian Years.​ (Roseville NSW: Craftman House, 1988) p.37 17 “before even examining”. Public resistance to “the more modern art” was difficult to understand in light of the popularity of ultra modern fabric and furniture designs: “anything ‘modern’ can be appreciated except pictures. It was an attitude fuelled by influential reactionaries such as the critic for the Sydney Sun, for whom Modernism was “the cloak for bad drawing and 13 sloppy painting and false value”. Considering that modernism was acceptable mainly in terms of consumerism and advertising it is not surprising that the first major exhibition of modernist art in 1939 was greeted with this response to the work of Picasso, Braque, Gris and Leger in the Melbourne Herald exhibition. Melbourne artist W.S wrote: “frankly we are bored by this cubism, since its debased and commercialised manifestations confront at every street 14 corner.” ​ H ​ e then comments that: Nevertheless, it is notable that the one only controversial point in this exhibition is not an abstraction by Picasso nor a canvas by Matisse, but one solitary nightmare of Salvadore Dali 15 (L’Homme Fleur) (fig. 7). Here the crowd congregate, and controversy rages. In the same year Jean Moreton (one of the few artists whose work ever appeared in the Theosophical Society’s journals between 1915-39 (fig. 8)) broadcast a lecture on 2GB titled ‘Art and Evolution’. This was not a recycled argument regarding the commercial debasement inherent in modern art, but a three page summation of the history of art. This condensed chronology was in three parts. Section one outlined the emergence of realism from the 12th century to developments in landscape painting in the 1800s. The second section was essentially regarding colour as a form of objectification, as science, naming 13 McQueen, H ​The Black Swan of Trespass​. (Sydney: Alternative Printing Cooperative Limited, 1979) p.3 14 W. S. ‘Australia’s Most Important Exhibition’ ​Art in Australia.​ (November 15, 1939) p.17 15 Ibid 18 the Impressionists as artists whose work was the product of an analytical mind. The last section focuses on the Surrealists, and primitivism in music and art, propounding that: In all this modern art we see two trends, that which pushes forward with evolution, and the devolutionary, which is a retrogression to the primitive and negroid. We see the same tendency in Music--jazz also is a reversion to negroid visions. For in a period of change and transition from one order to another only the most evolved grasp the greater vision and go to the heights. The mediocre and insincere take this opportunity to produce the startlingly 16 spectacular--just to draw attention to themselves. She asks the readers to judge Surrealism for themselves, informing them that: Mr Salvadore Dali, an ardent exponent of Surrealism, recently delivered a lecture in London. He wore a diving suit. This symbolises the vertical descent into the depths of the 17 subconscious. Moreton appears to avoid taking a position on the work itself, and although she perceived the key developments in contemporary art as binary opposites, that which is ‘mediocre’ and ‘insincere’ is not identified. This ambiguous approach could be considered usual for Theosophical commentators right from its inception as an organisation. This brief article does not refer directly to the 1939 Melbourne Herald exhibition, but to the development of modern art generally, offering a timely alternative to W.S’s contention that everyone was bored of these developments. At this stage, it is necessary to provide some background to the Theosophical Society​ in order to put it into context with the prevailing socio/political conditions of Australia during the 1920’s. The Theosophical Society was founded in New York in 1875, by a 16 Moreton,J. ‘Art and Evolution’ ​Theosophy in Australia​ ( April-May, 1939) p.18 17 Ibid 19 group of sixteen people dissatisfied with Spiritualism. The most prominent members of this group, who sought to “redefine religion”, were Madame Helena Petrovna Blavatsky and her companion Henry Steel Olcott. These two are always acknowledged as the 18 co-founders of the Theosophical Society. ​ Blavatsky was the president of the Theosophical Society until her death in 1891. Blavatsky was initially influenced by Occultist and Gnostic philosophies, whose origins are located in Ancient Greece and Egypt. In order to reinforce the Theosophical Society’s philosophical impetus in relation to its claims of unlocking the secret, ancient origins of western culture, it is useful to examine the meaning of the organisation’s name. The word “Theosophy” was chosen from the Greek word ​theosophia, meaning wisdom about things divine. These ‘origins’ can be traced to western cultural notions of divinity and the pursuit of the metaphysical and logical ideals exemplified by the cultures of classical Greece and ancient Egypt. It’s founder Helena P. Blavatsky, had started with spiritualism, then turned her attention to the cabbala, hermeticism, Jakob Boehme, and European occultism: but in the end Indian religions became an increasingly important source of inspiration. This last trend became 19 even stronger under her successor Annie Besant. Blavatsky was a prolific writer during her association with the Theosophical Society, writing two of the most influential Theosophical texts. ​Isis Unveiled​ (1877)​ and ​The Secret Doctrine​ (1888),​ both pursued cosmological and spiritual ‘truths’ regarding the 18 19 Roe, J. ​Beyond Belief: Theosophy in Australia.​ (Kensington NSW: University of New South Wales Press, 1986) p.9 Ringbom, S. (Edited by Weisberger, E) ​The Spiritual in Art: Abstract painting 1890-1985​. (Los Angeles, California: Los Angeles Museum of Art, 1986) p.134 20 order of the universe and relied on gnosticism, European mysticism, the Kabala and eastern religions for the foundations of her argument. Before her attention was diverted to Indian religions, Blavatsky was particularly supportive of the ideas of early occultist Jakob Boehme (1575-1624), who wrote all but one of his works under an official ban imposed by the Lutheran church. His books were not published until the middle of the 20 seventeenth century, initially in Holland and soon thereafter in England. ​ This image by Boehme (fig. 9) has similar symbols and meanings to the logo of the Theosophical Society. The logo (fig. 10) is emblematic of their appropriations from heterogenous religious sources and representative of the paradoxical position they occupied during the interwar period. The Star of David and the Swastika feature on the symbolic logo, although these symbols are not interpreted by Theosophists in the standard Eurocentric understanding as signs representing Nazi and Jew. This hegemonic assumption permeated the first fifty years of Australian and European history in the 20​th​ century, so the use of these symbols would certainly place the Theosophical Society in a contentious position with historians. In actuality, for Theosophists, the Star of David represents the dual forces of spirit and matter and the conflict of oppositions held in balance. Composed of two overlapping triangles, making seven internal spaces, the star is understood by Theosophists to portray a multitude of occult meanings, reaching back to the Pythagoreans who interpreted the six pointed star as the symbol of creation. The Swastika is from Hinduism and represents 20 Ibid p.245 21 in, threefold religions, the third aspect: the Holy Ghost in Christianity and Shiva in 21 Hinduism. Blavatsky and Olcott found that Theosophy was poorly received in the US, better received in London, and most enthusiastically received in India. By 1882, the two founders had gathered enough support to create a proper headquarters in India. For £600 mainly proffered by rich Indians, they purchased Huddlestone’s Gardens, a spacious mansion on the banks of the Adyar river eight miles south of Madras, now deserted as its erstwhile occupants repaired by rail to summer at the hill station of Ootacamund. They renamed it Adyar. Set in twenty-eight acres of lush tropical estuarine land, the Adyar 22 compound has served as headquarters of the Theosophical Society ever since. Australia’s connections with the Theosophical Society began early. Professor John Smith (1821-1885), foundation professor of Chemistry and Experimental Studies at the University of Sydney met Blavatsky in Bombay in 1882 and was told by the “masters” to go and work for them in Australia. 23 The other key figures in the development of the Theosophical Society, particularly as it’s popularity grew in Australia were Annie Besant and Charles Leadbeater. Annie Besant’s involvement with the Theosophical Society began in 1889, when she met Blavatsky in London, quickly becoming Mme Blavatsky’s right hand woman. At this time Besant was 21 This information was located in a brochure published by the ​Theosophical Society of Australia 5/94, ‘The Emblem of the Theosophical Society’. These brochures on various Theosophical subjects are readily available from the Theosophical Society in every capital city. In Brisbane I have also seen them in the ‘Circle’ book shop, Albert Street. In Sydney a wide range of material is available from the Adyar book shop in Kent Street. These are quite comprehensive in many instances. 22 Roe, J. ​Beyond Belief: Theosophy in Australia​ (Kensington NSW: University of New South Wales Press, 1986) p.11 23 Ibid p.12 22 still involved with Trade Union, Socialist and School Board work. In the years preceding her fateful meeting with Blavatsky, she was a frequent speaker for the socialist cause, speaking publicly with William Morris on a number of occasions. Their ideological and political sympathies permeated the early 20th century fabric of the Theosophical Society’s yearning for social and cultural change. Later in this essay, I will examine the resultant effects of such philosophies upon Theosophists notions of art. Mme Blavatsky died in 1891, and although Olcott was still the president of the Theosophical Society, the reins were handed to Besant. Besant officially became the 2​nd 24 president of the Theosophical Society​ in 1907. ​ With Besant at the helm, it could be argued that the Theosophical Society moved out of the 19​th​ century category of pseudoscience and into the realm of active and positive social reconstruction through 25 Theosophical ideals. Besant first travelled to Australia in 1894, ​ three years after Olcott had spent several months lecturing in Australia. Besant stayed in Australia for five months, lecturing at a furious pace. She was generally well received by people and press alike with the ​Age,​ ​The Bulletin and ​The Sydney Morning Herald​ making comments such as “eloquent and energetic” and “A dignified dame”. Annie Besant was to make many more journeys to Australia championing the Theosophical cause. In the 1922 ​Home​ interview, she was treated like a celebrity, with the interviewer in amazement at her energy and good health for her 75 years(fig. 11). Annie Besant was admired by many people not necessarily involved with 24 Ibid p.163 25 West, G. ​Mrs Annie Besant​ (London: Howe, 1927) 23 Theosophy because of her commitment to social reform. In ​The Australian Theosophist (October 15, 1926) under the article title ‘Annie Besant - The greatest woman in the world’, a biographer (unnamed) centres on her commitment to social reconstruction.​ ​The writer pursues Besant’s involvement with Charles Bradlaugh, which was prior to her association with the Theosophical Society and the subsequent issues that resulted from her association with Bradlaugh which caused Besant’s name to be slandered. This was a result of her attacks on orthodox Christianity and her support of issues such as birth control as a means to alleviate the burden on the poor. By the time Besant became involved with the Theosophical Society she was revered in feminist circles, though her direct involvement with other feminists of her time was comparatively minimal. She did speak on occasion at women’s rights rallies, but was better known for her involvement with the trade union and socialism. She was renowned for her oratorical skills. For example, she presented such an eloquent and passionate argument for the right to have custody of her children in court after she separated from her husband, Rev. Frank Besant (an Anglican deacon), that the court system reconsidered the law of paternal custody. In Australia in the 1920’s, the Theosophical Society​ was discredited by the Protestant clergy, with accusations of blasphemy and deception being laid upon Besant and Leadbeater because of their belief of a coming ‘World Teacher’ in the form of a young Brahmin, Jiddu Krishnamurti. The events resulting from an eminent new world order 24 were located by Besant and Leadbeater as culminating in Australia, though Besant asks the rhetorical question: Would Australia reject the Christ, if the skin of the physical body should be other 26 than white? Around the time of Besant’s first Australian tour, lectures were frequently held at the Margaret Street headquarters in Sydney. Topics that were discussed were “Socialism and Theosophy” and “Theosophy in Common Life”. This is a good indication of the high level of discourse relating to contemporary issues. Commitment to such discussions persisted in the Theosophical Society up until its apex in the twenties, when Sydney lodge was reputedly not only the largest but also the richest Theosophical lodge in the 27 28 world. ​ In the 1920’s about one in three Australian theosophists lived in Sydney. With the urge to reconstruct society inherent in these discussions, it is no surprise that Theosophy in Australasia​ published articles relating to Bolshevism and the Proletariat. An article in ​Theosophy in Australasia,​ Jan 1​st​ 1920, titled “Art and the Proletariat”, speaks of the proletariat in a patronising tone and speaks from the position of the bourgeoisie. The writer fears of the proletariat rising up and taking, instead of forming Art that is “beautiful and elevating”. To make the artist work, “to the dictates of demagogues- compelled to turn out so much stuff to their order under compulsion, not perhaps the compulsion of the sword, but of the equally persuasive force of economic 26 Roe, J. ​Twentieth Century Sydney: Studies in urban and social history.​ (Sydney: Hale and Iremonger, 1980) p.98 27 Roe, J. ​Beyond Belief: Theosophy in Australia.​ ( Kensington, NSW: New South Wales University Press, 1986) p.262 28 Ibid p.261 25 29 pressure.” ​ Whilst the Theosophical Society supported the ideals presented by socialism, in particular the socialist beliefs extolled by Annie Besant from the U.K., there was a general sense of aberrance for the desolateness of those philosophies developing in Europe derived from Marxism. The peculiarly English model of socialism, based on Marxism that was popular to Theosophists was cleansed of its working class, oppressed image by the belief that beauty will lift humanity, and that beauty could be had by all. The foundations for such idealism can be found in the British Art’s and Crafts Movement, that was generated by such identities as Ruskin and William Morris. It could also be said that the Bloomsbury Group had similar aspirations- as S. P. Rosenbaum indicates in ​Victorian Bloomsbury​ (1987): Roger Fry, the chief source of Bloomsbury’s aesthetics, studied painting in Italy and France in the 1890s and knew such aesthetes as John Addington Symonds. The ideas of William Morris were also influential on his development, as the Omega Workshops disclose, and behind Morris is the complex influence of Ruskin, which impinges on Bloomsbury in a number of 30 places, the last being the Group’s enthusiasm for Proust. In short, Theosophists saw beauty in all its forms as the pathway to the ideal society. ‘Beauty’ was the element that could lift humanity towards perfection. This notion of art did not conform to a particular style or medium. That aspect is arbitrary, as art’s purpose was to uplift the soul of humanity. Such an attitude is in many ways reminiscent of Clive Bell’s statements in ​Art​ regarding significant form and aesthetic emotion, though he states that beauty is not the same as aesthetic emotion. This is also sympathetic to current freemasons’ objectives which also enjoyed revived public interest in the 1920’s. It is 29 30 ”Art and the Proletariat” in ​Theosophy in Australia​ January 1, 1920. p.408 Rosenbaum, S.P. ​Victorian Bloomsbury.​ (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1987) p.31-32 26 worthy to note that Besant was very interested in forming a new branch of the Freemasons, one that included women. Jill Roe states that: Co-Freemasonry (or co-masonry, as the theosophists usually called it) began in France in the 1880s. In 1882 a free-floating masonic lodge of ‘L’Ordre Maconnerie Mixte International, Le Droit Humain’ initiated a woman, and she in turn initiated other women. The cause was taken up by French feminists, and in 1893 an organisation called co-masonic open to both sexes was formed, La Grand Loge Symbolique Ecossaise de France, Le Droit Humain (Human Duty). Some Theosophical women in England joined the new co-masonic order, Miss Francesca Arundale being the first to do so. Besant joined in 1902 and rose to become a vice-president and Grand Commander of the order’s British jurisdiction. Partly, it appealed to her increasing love of ritual. Madame Blavatsky in Isis Unveiled had denounced modern freemasonry as degenerate: We say nought against Masonry as it should be, but denounce it as, thanks to the intriguing clergy both Catholic and Protestant, it now begins to be. Professedly the most absolute of democracies, it is practically the appanage of aristocracy, wealth and personal ambition. Professedly the teacher of true ethics, it is debased into a propaganda of anthropomorphic theology ... the time has come to remodel Masonry. Masonry remodelled to admit women ‘on exactly equal basis with men’ and to restore ancient ritual was, however, deemed consonant with modern theosophy; and Besant seizes the chance to 31 promote both causes. At this point I would like to suggest that one of the reasons the Theosophical Society​ in Australia had so much support during this time was because of its officially apolitical, humanitarian position. This is not to say that some of it’s members were not immersed in contemporary political issues that stood in opposition to the official line though; for example, Alison Broinowski makes the following statement regarding Prime Minister Deakin in ​The Yellow Lady​: Whiteness, Alfred Deakin pointed out just before an election in 1909, was Australia’s strongest link to the United States. In spite of their imperial adventures in North Asia and the Philippines, the Americans had shown with their own exclusion acts that they were more antagonistic to ‘the yellow race’ than the British. Deakin’s sense of kinship with those who feared 31 Roe, J. ​Beyond Belief: Theosophy in Australia.​ (Kensington NSW: University of New South Wales press, 1986) p.196 27 ‘the yellow peril to Caucasian civilisation, creed and politics’ apparently overrode his 32 Theosophical beliefs. The Theosophical Society contributed many writings on subjects relating to contemporary culture, modernism and social justice issues advocating an anti-racial and proto-feminist sensibility. There were numerous articles published in ​Theosophy in Australia​ regarding the condition of the worker and also the question of colour in relation to humanity. On the most part the writing was sympathetic to the cause. Although in my research I found quite a number of inconsistencies relating to the political standpoint of the Theosophical Society​. This is of course due to the input made by certain individuals ie. Prime Minister Deakin, rather than an official line set out by the Theosophical Society​. The articles that appear in the Theosophical Society’s​ journals seem in many ways to provide a forum of free speech for its members. If this is the case, it is no wonder that there does not seem to be an official line in regard to many of the contentious issues of the time, particularly politics and racism. Theosophy, unlike communism sought plurality in its discussions regarding the state of society. Australia had found itself swept along with the congruent tensions that were fermenting within the European political landscape. For instance, the anti-alien law was passed on April 24, 1920 and Australia’s nationalistic albeit fascist “New Guard” party solicited support from many in power at the time. Patriotism for both king and country was at an 32 Broinowski, A ​The Yellow Lady​ (Melbourne: Oxford University Press, 1992) p.8 28 all time high. The philosophies of the League of Nations was greatly appealing to the general population, although many disliked this concept because it gave the dark skinned nation of the British commonwealth, India, the right to govern itself. The Theosophical Society however, embraced these ideologies wholeheartedly. It is my contention that Theosophy was attractive for many factions of the peripheral ‘fringe culture’ or the counter culture in Australia at this time. This counter cultural sector of society could be described as ‘bohemian’​,​ ‘modern’ and rebellious, as they supported the philosophical wisdom of Asia in the face of the blatant fear and racism that proliferated during this time. This fascination with an ‘Asian’ or ‘exotic’ aesthetic is exemplified particularly in the visual arts sphere during this period. This aesthetic consideration though was generally constituted as an analogous representation of distance and unfamiliarity, rather than the reality of Asia’s close presence across the Timor Sea. It is not appropriate though, to describe Theosophists as ‘bohemian’, as this movement in Australia during the interwar years is a very masculine entity; characterised as such by 33 the ‘pub’ culture with which is it is associated. ​ As a general rule Theosophists do not drink, smoke or eat meat, so essentially they are not captivated by ‘bohemian’ hedonism. On a philosophical level however there are common links, these being mainly the ideologies taken on by Norman Lindsay from his son Jack ( who in later life, identified himself as a Marxist). Jack Lindsay had a classical education at the University of 33 Peter Kirkpatick gives a detailed synopsis of ‘bohemianism’ in Sydney in the 1920’s, in his text ‘The Sea Coast of Bohemia’. 29 Queensland, before moving to Kings Cross where he started to build a relationship with his previously neglectful father and offer support to his father’s ideologies. Artists such as Margaret Preston were influenced by the medium and style of Japanese woodcut(fig. 12) though sought to translate these elements into images of national pride. Also, an article printed in the August 1923 edition of ​Art and Australia​ by Hardy Wilson makes an architectural analogy between the roofs of the North Shore of Sydney and China, stating upon his startling revelation that: Seated on the headland, I threw aside paints and brushes, and became lost in meditation. “Could it be possible,” I said to myself, “that Geography, the greatmolder of Form, is already at 34 work on architecture in Australia” By combining a discussion of architecture and national identity, Wilson is able to tackle issues close to the heart of Theosophy. Architecture plays a key role in the modelling of a Theosophical new ‘world order’, and as I will discuss later, Theosopher Walter Burley Griffin’s design of Parliament house is a prime example of a manifestation of Theosophical ideals. This following section of an article published in ​Theosophy in Australia​ sums up many Theosophical concerns inherent at this time: The word Brotherhood denotes a common parentage- the children of the same parents, or, in its secondary meaning, persons who have a community of interests, the bond of similar aim and object, such as members of societies, unions, nations. 34 Wilson, H ​Art in Australia.​ “Oriental Australia”, August 1923 (Vol 3, no 5) 30 This bond it is that holds all artists and lovers of art, whatever their nationality. Together they worship that Aspect of God in Which He manifests as Beauty. For Art in its highest sense is the attempt to express Beauty in this material world; its mediums are various: literature, drama, poetry, painting, sculpture, architecture and music. These deal with colour, form, sound and psychology. This latter, the study of the soul of man, is a necessity for the artist who wishes to do great painting and sculpture, or to write great drama, literature and poetry. He must understand the passions, emotions, acts and thoughts of man before he can depict them in a work of art; to do this he must feel them actually or sympathetically, and this in spite of nation, caste or creed. Art, therefore, not only binds those who attempt to express Beauty in life, but by studying the soul of man, the moods and scenes of nature, all barriers of race and clime (sic) are broken down and the true Brotherhood of man revealed. Real Art has no nationality and as we each in our own way, clever or humble, try to bring this divine Beauty into our daily lives, we help to make the world harmonious, and therefore brotherly. Deane, M.E. “Brotherhood and Art” Theosophy in Australia. June 1, 1924. According to Jill Roe in ​Beyond Belief​, the Theosophical Society has earned a place in history as that of the first effective populariser of the Wisdom of the East, and for its role 35 in fostering Indian and other nationalisms. ​ It has also earned its place as being of primary importance, as a precursor for many contemporary Western polytheistic groups. The philosophies of the Theosophical Society also connect with many current trends attributed to what is collectively known as the ‘new age’ movement. In particular, theories regarding alternative health practices such as vegetarianism, colour therapy, music therapy and art therapy are directly correlated to ideas promoted by Theosophists and Anthroposophists such as Rudolf Steiner and Dr Maria Montessori. Montessori and Steiner successfully developed and applied Theosophical philosophies to the education of children. The issue of education was a fundamental subject in the Theosophical Society’s 2GB broadcasts in the 1920’s, the history and implications of which will be pursued in the following chapters. 35 Roe, J ​Beyond Belief: Theosophy in Australia.​ (Kensington NSW: University of New South Wales, 1986) p.1 31 32 Chapter 2 Theosophy over the Air Waves Experimenters in Australia as elsewhere had demonstrated by 1920 that sound waves could be converted into electrical impulses and sent through the air. On 13 August 1919, Ernest Fisk, a young Englishman who had come out in 1911 to represent the Marconi company and formed Amalgamated Wireless Australasia Ltd. (AWA) in 1913, illustrated a lecture in Sydney by transmitting from his office a few blocks away, playing the music of “God Save the King”. Two months later his audience in Melbourne’s Parliament House, temporary seat of the federal parliament, heard ‘Rule Britannia’ played from a gramophone twelve miles away and ‘Advance Australia Fair’ sung live from the same source. This was point to point wireless telephony rather than broadcasting, but that activity was imminent. The newspapers reported prominently England’s first broadcast concert, at which the singer was Dame Nellie Melba. When Fisk and others put on ‘wireless concerts’, excitement spread through performers and hearers. ‘I was absolutely crazy about this new medium’, Wilfrid Thomas would recall himself as a young singer taking to the air at every chance. Wireless was as remarkable as powered flight, and more mysterious. The very word expressed the amazement of a generation whose grandparents and parents had assimilated the earlier miracles of telegraph and telephone. How 36 could sound travel except through wires. Fisk’s relevance to Australian communications history is crucial at this time. His importance to the development of the magical ‘wireless’ in Australia is highlighted by the fact that he was also a Theosopher, having much involvement with the relatively early development of 2GB. It is not difficult to link the medium of radio to Theosophy, as the idea of displacing the mind from the body in an act of Cartesian dualism is very close to nirvana; and considering that the voice represents spirit, great investments were made towards its advancement financially and spiritually. This was also a new science, a new 36 Inglis, K ​This is the ABC 1932-1983​. (Melbourne VIC: Melbourne University Press, 1983) p.7 33 truth, a new cosmology, fracturing time and space. It is no wonder that people believed, like Norman Lindsay, that the dead could speak. In Blavatsky’s ​The Secret Doctrine​, a connection is made between the mind and speech. She quotes P. Christian, author of “The History of Magic”: To pronounce a word is to evoke a thought, and make it present: the magnetic potency of the human speech is the commencement of every manifestation of the Occult world. Later in the stanza she comments on a part of a Hindu text titled “Mahabharata” claiming the mind as superior to verbal languageHence the mind is distinguished by reason of its being immovable, and the 37 Goddess (Speech) by reason of her being movable. As the sound is manufactured through the body via various organs and then projected beyond the body, it is conceived as spirit. With this primary Theosophical text, some of the implications of radio as a means of Theosophising Australia take on a complexity which has not been adequately dealt with to date. Maurice Tuchman wrote a catalogue essay titled ‘Hidden Meanings in Abstract Art’ in The Spiritual in Art: Abstract Painting, 1890-1985​ (1986). He states that: Occult writers and artists are fascinated with synaesthesia, the overlap between 38 senses: for example, colours evoking musical tones or tastes suggesting colours. the He uses a table from ​Three Books of Occult Philosophy​ (1651) (fig. 13) by Henry Cornelius Agrippa titled ‘The Orphical Scale of the Number Twelve’ as an early example 37 38 Blavatsky, H.P. ​The Secret Doctrine.​ (London: The Theosophical Publishing Company, 1888 (1988)) p.95 Weisberger, E.(ed) ​The Spiritual in Art: Abstract Painting, 1890-1985​ (New York: Abbeyville Press, 1986) p. 27 34 39 of this phenomena. ​ This table links astrology with the planets, the calendar and parts of the body as universal meanings of the number twelve. A major text in the discussion of sound and music by Theosopher Fabre d’Olivet (1767 1825) was explicitly titled ​Music explained as science and art : and considered in its analogical relations to religious mysteries, ancient mythology and the history of the world.​ Unfortunately there was no exact date of the original publication and as this essay was only translated into English language in 1987, it is unlikely that many artists (except those who spoke French) would have read this text. The content of this essay, though, is relevant to discussions presented in the 1920s by Clive Bell and Jack Lindsay pertaining to the dual role of music as science and art. D’Olivet located himself firmly as a Pythagorean because he believed that music is formally correct, and in being so is right and spiritually pure, in alignment with the Pythagorean ideal of the cosmos. As this music is not necessarily kind to the ear the Pythagorean system was in d’Olivet’s opinion subverted by the ‘Harmonicists’, who believed their system was in line with nature. He speaks out about falseness of harmony, stating that music is more than merely an uplifting of the senses. When this book was written, it was the height of the Romantic era in which music played a major role. Significantly, the era of Romanticism is usually located in terms of a transcendent ‘sensory’ experience of the individual, in other words the evocation of the Sublime. Pythagoras on the other hand represented order, the logic of the rational mind. 39 Agrippa, H. ​Three Books of occult Philosophy​ (London: Gregory Moule, 1651) p.214 35 Even though d’Olivet’s text was unavailable, ​The golden verses of Pythagoras​ was translated into English by Nay`an Louise Redfield, published by G.P. Putman’s Sons (New York and London) in 1917. Hugh Honour in ​Romanticism​ points out the influence of Pythagoras and also Newton’s theory of ‘ocular harpsichords’, in which the notes of the octave are linked with colour spectrum. Pythagorean systems were not only popular in terms of a visual and musical philosophical impetus. His comparative theories regarding music and architecture, the role of music to architecture and also that of architecture to the systems of state was considered by many after the 1917 translation of The Golden Verses of Pythagoras​. Prominent architect Walter Burley Griffin was influenced by these and other Theosophical concepts and gave them practical application. He felt that music was the most successful of modern art-forms, because it kept pace with scientific progress: Music is, so far, the one great art that has been developed in modern times, because it has kept pace science (sic), as that has clarified the phenomena of sound, and with the mechanical 40 progress that has opened new avenues of musical expression​. Clive Bell in ​Art​ touched upon the issue of the dual role of music, drawing his analogy from traditions from classical Greece to the Renaissance. In 1922, Jack Lindsay 41 published an article titled ‘Musical Form and Imagery’ in ​ Art in Australia​, ​ in which compared musical form to visual imagery, their respective structural science and its powers over the emotions. The 1920’s marks an era when Jack Lindsay was profoundly influenced by the philosophies shared by his father, Norman. Essentially, these were 40 41 Roe, J. ​Beyond Belief: Theosophy in Australia.​ (Kensington NSW: New South Wales University Press, 1986) p.326 Lindsay, J. ‘Musical Form and Imagery’, ​Art in Australia.​ (Series 3, no. 3) 36 appropriated from Plato, Nietzsche and Bergson. In common with much philosophical and biological speculation in his day Lindsay (Norman) seems to have accepted that there was a “life force” (or ​elan vital, as Henri Bergson called it) inherent in all living things and which served to fundamentally differentiate them from the rest of the physical 42 universe. ​ Norman Lindsay may have supported many current philosophical ideals, but abhorred new forms of music. His daughter, Jane Lindsay remembers that: The fancy dress balls seemed to happen fairly often and Ma was always doing something about them. Pa did not go as he considered jazz poor music. Besides he couldn’t dance. Beethoven and Wagner were his musical taste, with a little Mozart here and there. He played 43 them on the gramophone and came up with his own interpretations of their works. Returning to the issue of architecture, in 1923 Claude Bradgon published the 2nd edition of ​The Beautiful Necessity: Seven Essays on Theosophy and Architecture​. In the preface of this text, the author reflects upon the daunting task of revising the original 1910 publication, he states that: The ideas in regard to time and space are those commonly current to the world until the advent of the Theory of Relativity. To a generation bought up on Einstein and Ouspensky they are bound to be ‘lower dimensional’. Merely to state this fact is to deal with it to the extent it needs to be dealt with. The integrity of my argument is not impaired by these new views. The one important influence that has operated to modify my opinions concerning the mathematical basis of the arts of space has been the discoveries of Mr. Jay Hambidge with regard to the practice of the Greeks in these matters, as exemplified in their temples and their ceramics, 44 and named by him Dynamic Symmetry. 42 43 44 Kirkpatrick, P. ​The Sea Coast of Bohemia.​ (St Lucia Qld: University of Queensland Press, 1992) p.63 Lindsay, J. ​Portrait of Pa. (​ Pymble NSW: Angus and Robinson, 1973) p.50 Bragdon, C. ​The Beautiful Necessity: Seven essays on Theosophy and Architecture.​ (London: George Routledge and Sons Ltd. 1923 2nd edition) p. 10 37 At this stage, it is imperative to discuss the philosophical impetus related to numeracy. The concept of one being transformed into three is in line with the doctrine of many religions. The Theosophical Society​ proceeds then to multiply the number to seven. The use of the number seven was embedded in European occultism, Eastern religions and early science; representing the number of the planet's, days of the week and also the number of musical notes in an octave. From that point the number increases to twelve, and so on. To expand, the relationship to music and mathematics also extends itself to language with each alphabetical letter possessing a sound or vibration that equates with a numerical value. These vibrations all correspond to the cosmology of the universe. Peter R. Proudfoot pursues the importance of these co-dependant forces in an essay about Walter Burley and Marion Mahony Griffin’s plan for Canberra (fig. 14), drawing attention to the ancient philosophies behind its ‘modern’ facade. He states that: Urban order is achieved through vista planning with architecture set in sweeping piazzas, and parkland penetrating the city centre, while the suburbs are organised on principles derived from Howard’s Garden Cities of Tomorrow. The initial plan, however, also has an overarching 45 geometry drawn from ancient traditions of planning that belie these later movements. He then comments: In the ancient world, the form of a city was often generated through direct 46 cosmological symbolism, conceptually placing the city at the centre of the cosmos. 45 Proudfoot, P. ‘The Secret Plan of Canberra’ ​Meanjin​. (Vol.53, 1994) p.111 46 Ibid 38 The reader may indeed ask, what does all this have to do with a survey of Australian art in the interwar period. Essentially, these issues are of considerable importance, because it is this fundamental cosmological ‘truth’, as perceived by the Theosophical Society​, that defines the influence of Theosophy on Australian cultural life at this time. These philosophical discussions were common currency in Australia at the time. During the Edwardian period Besant fostered cultural ambitions that sought to project Theosophists into the modern age: Theosophy gives back to the artist a world that for a long time he has lost ... new subjects ... new secrets ... in the allied art of sound music, the future lies along the line of theosophic thought and ideals [as with] that great master of mystic music Wagner ... [and] there is an artistic ideal in life other than the ideal of modern civilisation ... I look to The Theosophical Society ... with its ideal of art in life to change that in the civilisation of Europe which is growing merely 47 rich and ostentatious, instead of beautiful and refined​. Theosophists in Australia embraced Besant’s proposition: The pleasures of the piano and the song cycle crept over the Theosophical Society in the Edwardian period and music seems to have been the raison d’etre of Eastern Hill lodge Melbourne (1906-1910), where Mr Armes Beaumont and Miss Sinnotte sang. Sydney’s new Gnosis lodge, presided over by Miss E.B. Sheridan Moore, the local litterateur’s daughter, heard papers on Wagner and Colour Music; as mentioned earlier Gnosis lodge ran a Pythagorean Music 48 Society and a Ruskinian art circle. An artist whose influence to modernism in Australia is integral in this manner is Roy de Maistre, whose colour music works have often been linked to Theosophy and presented as an encapsulation of Theosophical concerns. As I stated earlier, it is thought that these works were developed from Besant’s and Leadbeater’s books ​Thought Forms a​ nd ​Man 47 Roe, J. ​Beyond Belief: Theosophy in Australia.​ (Kensington NSW: New South Wales University Press, 1986) p.190 48 Ibid p.191 39 Visible and Invisible​. They are essentially thought of as a scientific investigation into colour which he devised with Roland Wakelin and Adrian Verbrugghen ( son of New South Wales Conservatorium of Music director, Henri Verbrugghen). De Maistre trained in the viola and the violin at the New South Wales Conservatorium of Music, and in 49 painting at the Royal Society of Art School. ​His first investigations occurred after he was discharged from service allegedly with tuberculosis in 1916. During his convalescence he befriended the director of an ex servicemen's psychiatric hospital, the now abandoned Kenmore Asylum in Goulburn. At the time, part of the treatment for shell shocked patients was the use of differently coloured walls. De Maistre was horrified at the crudeness of existing techniques and successfully applied his musical training and decorated the wards in colour keys, rather than single colours. 50 Thought Forms​ (Figs. 15-17) is a revealing text in terms of the relationship of science to art and also to clairvoyance, which is seen as an unrecognised science. Interestingly it cites the powers of photography for eventually being able to capture ‘thought forms’ or auras. Much of the discussion revolves around clairvoyant sight; the visualisation of auras in particular. The aura is a field around the body that is charged with ‘astro-mental’ energy, emanating from the brain of the subject. In the last chapter entitled ‘Forms built by music’ this form of seeing is applied to the reverberations created by melody. Besant and Leadbeater use three examples of works by Mendelssohn, Gounod and Wagner (figs. 18-20)​ ​to demonstrate music as visual or spiritual form, making the statement: 49 50 McQueen, H ​The Black Swan of Trespass.​ (Sydney: Alternative Publishing Cooperative Limited, 1979) p.4 Ibid p.5 40 Many people are aware that sound is always associated with colour-that when, for example, a musical note is sounded, a flash of colour corresponding to it may be seen by those 51 whose finer senses are already to some extent developed. These composers were present in the earliest radio broadcasts by 2GB. On the opening night 23 August 1926, ‘meant speeches from Arundale, but also W. Arundel Orchard, director of the Conservatorium, the station manages, Bennett, engineer E.G.Beard and Arthur Burton, and, best of all, the blessing of NSW Minister of Education Tom Mutch, who hoped this new station would help rather than hinder the work of his department. This was interspersed with music from Mendelssohn (‘Songs without Words’ to begin), Mozart, Wagner, Schubert, Boccherini (sic) and Haydn, and a string quartet to close.’ 52 In light of Mary Eagle’s suggestion of the influence of ​Thought Forms​ on Roy de Maistre, it is significant that his name appears nowhere in Roe’s account of the influence of the Theosophical Society​. This, I believe, is another significant absence, an oversight on Roe’s behalf, one that perhaps overlooks the pinnacle importance of radio, technology and music to the ideals that presented themselves to Theosophists in the 1920s . The advertising of the early 1920s for radios, gramophones, pianolas, etc. emphasise the magical element of these music machines.(fig. 21) In the 1910s and early 1920s, radio was variously celebrated as a means to unite nations, to speak to the dead and to cure 53 cancer. ​ What was created as an instrument to aid the process of war was also seen as the potential tool for world peace. Military research and development has contributed a 51 52 53 Besant, A and Leadbeater, C. ​Thought Forms.​ (London: The Theosophical Publishing House, 1901) p.75 Roe, J. ​Beyond Belief: Theosophy in Australia.​ (Kensington NSW: New South Wales University Press, 1986) p.303 Eagle, M ​Australian Modern Painting: Between the Wars.​ (Kensington NSW: Bay Books, 1989) p.16 41 myriad of technological devices to civilian society, including radar, sophisticated aircraft and digital computers. 54 The military began radio broadcasts in 1923, the same year that Theosopher Mr van Gelder installed a powerful transmitter at The Manor, Mosman (a Theosophical retreat) and started to broadcast classical music, and eventually Theosophical talks. It is worth mentioning that Van Gelder is now revered by many contemporary Theosophists as a 55 ‘master’ for his knowledge and talent as a guru and psychic. During the late 19​th​ and early 20​th​ centuries, Australia was at the forefront of communication technology. Theosophy had a highly influential role in this process, both through its comparatively early association with radio and through the symbolic relationship of science, mysticism and communications technology. Other technologies such as photography and film imported from the USA, England and France were treated as vehicles for visualising the miraculous and the magical. The early films ​L’Armoire des Freres Davenport (1902) and ​A Trip to the Moon (1905), by Georges Melies are excellent examples of the combination of developments in technology and its interpretation as a device capable of divining magic.​ ​Professor John Smith, who as I stated earlier was one of the first Australian members of the Theosophical Society, was also a pioneer photographer of early urban Sydney. His images of ​Margaret Street, The University of Sydney, Woolloomooloo Bay and Drummoyne House(figs. ) are dated between 1859 and the 1870’s. He was one of the earliest users of the wet-plate collodion 54 Potts, J. ​Radio in Australia.​ (Kensington NSW: New South Wales University Press, 1989) p.12 55 Conversation with Liesel Deutche. 42 56 process. ​ These photographs, considered in terms of their stark tonal flatness, are strangely uncanny when considered in relation to the earliest modernist paintings of urban Sydney. To many nowadays, these early photographs are only considered in terms of their documentary value as either examples of early photography at its inventive and experimental stage, or, as illustrative images of mid 19th century Sydney. There is no evidence to suggest in texts regarding these photographs that Smith also had Theosophical alliances. This is unfortunate as many pioneers of sound and vision technology were also interested in Spiritualism and Theosophy. At this stage it is necessary to make a distinction between Spiritualism and Theosophy that developed into an internal struggle under the Theosophical Society’s banner of unity. This manifestation in the Theosophical Society is curious, as the Theosophical Society developed out of a dissatisfaction with Spiritualism. This perhaps happened as a result of the many Spiritualists already in Australia who supported the introduction of Theosophy. In the Theosophical Society’s​ journals of the 1920’s there appears to be a motive to submerge Spiritualism, as it was considered bad for publicity (fig. 26). J.W.P. Bean published an article in ​Theosophy in Australia​ (December 15, 1920) titled ‘Spiritualism and Theosophy: a plea for cooperation’ which presented many issues regarding the eroding alliance between Spiritualism and Theosophy. Much of his article centres on the array of conflicting interpretations of Blavatsky’s philosophies that have led to misunderstandings on both sides. Bean states that: Her “mission” as she conceived it, was first to support Spiritualism in its struggle against crass Western materialism. She had to vindicate the reality of Spiritualistic phenomena, 56 Russell, E. ​Victorian and Edwardian Sydney from old photographs.​ (Sydney NSW: John Ferguson, 1975) p. 43 but at the same time (with many reserves and limitations since the then world was very little ready to accept Occultism except in fragmentary hints) she had to substitute as explanation the 57 teachings of Theosophy- the Spiritual Science of the East. The early use of photography and early sound and light technologies during seances had tarnished the reputation of Spiritualism. When Besant and Leadbeater broached photography in ​Thought Forms​ (1901), they clearly stated that it would not be long until photography could capture the aura of a person. In other words, photography would yield itself to the Theosophical ‘truth’ eventually, proving their claims legitimately. The role of the medium ( a person able to see auras, etc.) is of enormous significance as Spiritualist conduit to the cosmos, a concept that operates on multifarious levels. Mediums were usually women and great emphasis is made on their ability to sense the invisible, the indistinguishable. Jill Roe points out that the artist to Theosophists literally plays out the role of medium, with their subsequent work judged on its ability to illuminate the soul with its beauty and purity. Artistic effort would be judged by how 58 effectively it reached into the unseen spiritual world. ​ This concept can also be traced to the desires of artists from the romantic era, in their efforts to annunciate the Sublime. Given the rapid response to the ‘infotech’ age, one can only suggest that considerable interest in developing telecommunications technologies is generated from Australia. Australians have a history of grappling with these time-space linking devices for a number of obvious reasons; to be connected with the remainder of the western world 57 Bean, J.W.P ‘Spiritualism and Theosophy: a plea for co-operation’ ​Theosophy in Australia.​ (December 15, 1920) p.274 58 Roe, J. ​Beyond Belief: Theosophy in Australia. ​(Kensington NSW: University of New South Wales press) p.316 44 whilst simultaneously closing the gaps and distances within the geographical circumference to make intimate the notion of ‘nation’. The first overland telegraph line, 59 built by South Australia’s Postmaster-General Sir Charles Todd completed in 1872, began Australia’s pursuit of immediacy in communication response as a means to recognise itself as a nation, tied to the mother country while fervently striving for an autonomous identity. It is interesting to note that the conservatives who championed the pastoral landscape as high art and who were strongly resisting prevalent developments associated with modernity such as industrialisation, did not snub their noses at communication technology, however. Of course the military held a major interest in the technology schema, the earliest radio signals in Australia were produced by the military. The standard historical analogy of the military at this time has them located firmly in the conservative camp, though there are many interesting examples that provide a deviation from this assumption. For instance, military war correspondent and historian C.E.W. Bean has generally been located in the conservative camp, though apparently his family were supportive of younger brother and Theosophist J.W.P Bean who became general 60 secretary of the Theosophical Society in 1919. ​ J.W.P Bean sought to zealously reconstruct society, speaking and writing about the eradication of V.D, clean housing for returned servicemen and women, child welfare and education reform. 59 60 Inglis, K ​This is the ABC 1932-1983.​ (Melbourne VIC: Melbourne University Press, 1983) p.7 Roe, J ​Beyond Belief: Theosophy in Australia.​ (Kensington NSW: University of New South Wales Press, 1986) p.218 45 Returning to the issue of technology; the pastoralists saw that their distance would reduce, with the implementation of the telegraph and radio, linking Australia together. Unfortunately for the xenophobic amongst them, this mystical and divine speaking devise had also reduced the distance between Australia and the rest of the world, inevitably forcing an acknowledgment of our global neighbours. In our contemporary republican debate, the bones of the early twentieth century are still laid bare. Such questions as to whether we should maintain a system of reliance upon the Commonwealth; linking us to Europe and our colonial history, or to stand on our own as a nation, interacting with our geographical neighbours in the Asia Pacific still have the capacity to incite rage in some political and ideological sectors of the community. In terms of an official position regarding nationalism versus internationalism, the Theosophical Society was strongly advocated as fiercely international in its beliefs, though as Roe points out its agenda rested on a concept of nation. Theosophists, as I have previously stated, were advocates of the League of Nations (fig. 27), and Theosophists role in the colonisation process, may have been seen as strengthening nativist elites. The rise of Theosophy in Australia coincided almost exactly with the decline of Empire and the rise of modern concepts of nationhood, and its heyday encompassed the construction of a nation as distinct from an imperial culture. 61 61 Ibid p.xiii 46 The Theosophical Order of Service was strong and active, working with the League of Nations Union, Animal Welfare Group, Braille work for the Blind Institution, Racial 62 Hygiene Society, Cremation Society and many women’s and children’s organisations. 2GB was officially launched on 23 August 1926 as a ‘B’ class station, that is, financed by 63 advertising. ​ ‘A’ class stations received most of their revenue from listeners’ licence 64 fees. ​ The medium of radio was well suited to the intentions of Theosophical Society, primarily as a means of self promotion and secondly what it represented; the invisible mystical voice and the passive effect of noise and how it is representative of infinity, the sonic reverberations transmitting over the ether. The education of children was a primary concern in 2GB’s earliest days, alternating with classical music broadcasts. As 2GB engaged more listeners they began programs directed at women. These programs were sometimes published in their periodical and usually had egalitarian albeit idealised aspirations regarding the condition of humanity. The popularity of the Theosophical Society’s radio station 2GB at this time must have contributed to mainstream cultural thinking in regard to topics associated with the Theosophical Society. 2GB had a reputation between the wars as a cultural adviser and supporter of classical music, discussion groups, etc. Nearly all lectures were broadcast. 62 The Theosophical Society in Australia: Seventy-fifth Anniversary Commemoration. ​(Sydney: The Theosophical Society in Australia, 1970) p.23 63 Roe, J. ​Beyond Belief: Theosophy in Australia​ (Kensington NSW: University of New South Wales Press, 1986) p.297 64 Potts, J ​Radio in Australia​ (Kensington NSW: University of New South Wales Press, 1989) p.18 65 65 The Theosophical Society in Australia: Seventy-fifth Anniversary Commemoration. ​(Sydney: The Theosophical Society in Australia, 1970) p.23 47 The use of a medium such as radio sets up an interesting crossover from Theosophy’s concern with a visual aesthetic symbolising transcendence, to an invention which expanded the public’s awareness of the Theosophical Society’s philosophical and latent political standpoint directed at the domestic sphere of society. The Theosophists were none too shy about making grandiose statements about art being the cure for all the world’s ills. C. Jinarajadasa wrote an article in 1931 titled “The Artist’s solution to the world problem”. In this piece he propounds the theory that art is equal in rank to religion, science or philosophy. In explaining this theory he hypothetically uses a rainbow as an example, stating that the scientific explanation is the effect due to the refraction of light, as it is broken up by prisms made by falling raindrops. He then goes on to say that the second explanation is that the rainbow is Art, because of its’ exquisite beauty. “The two truths do not contradict; nor do they 66 supplement each other, for they move on two different planes.” ​ This statement could be held up as a reference to a distinct discourse relating to contemporary ideologies, by presenting the rainbow as both subject and object, and the visual prerogative of a value system based on aesthetics. The rainbow could also be seen as an octave, the colours creating a symphony of visual responses, both scientific and aesthetic, similar to that of music. This is not a new concept for Theosophy or for art history as I have already demonstrated in earlier examples. As John Potts states in R ​ adio in Australia​, sound represents infinity and though the implementation of language sound is controlled, ordered. The medium of radio, he also 66 Jinarajadasa, C “The Artists Solution to the world Problem” in ​The Australian Theosophist​ p.40 48 establishes, is a means of controlling sound and space, possibly the population. He goes on to discuss this in terms of Hitler’s and the Nazi’s use of loudspeakers and radio to broadcast their propaganda. SS Radio wardens were employed to ensure that the people were listening. They saw this as a means of developing power, though Potts concedes that this power of communication does not have to be dictatorial. With 2GB in mind, there was certainly a motive for suggesting social reform to the community. There were earlier attempts in 1922 by Fisk and ​A.W.A. with the federal government to limit broadcasting to only one frequency via a sealed set wireless system. This short lived and unpopular scheme was disbanded nine months later, after radio dealers convinced the Post Master 67 General’s Department to replace it. One has to wonder what investments the Theosophical Society made toward Fisk’s proposition, given that 1922 was also the height of the Theosophical Society’s popularity (fig. 28). Radio was certainly seen to be the consummate medium for Theosophists to espouse their ideals of a new world order, one in which women and children played a crucial role. 67 Potts, J ​Radio in Australia​ (Kensington NSW: University of New South Wales Press, 1989) p.16 49 Chapter 3 Entranced - The importance of the Theosophical Society for Women This chapter will provide a discussion of the attraction that the Theosophical Society held for women in Australia, particularly in Sydney and the consequent specificities of this attraction in terms of cultural production, taste, technology, fashion and art. Women artists who have been associated with Theosophy are Christian Waller, Violet Teague, Grace Crowley, Ethel Carrick Fox, Elenora Lange and Florence Fuller. Other artists who could be seen as having Theosophical sympathies are Ethel Anderson, Margel Hinder, Vida Lahey and Daphne Mayo. These artists were working in a variety of styles and media, some more readily recognisable as pertaining to modernism than others. But this is not surprising, considering that a recurrent theme in this study is the inconsistencies which arise from the standard histories regarding art practise at this time. There appears to be no definite connection between style, ideology and politics, making the argument of a dualistic dilemma of the era in regard to international influences and obsessions with national identity almost redundant, although always hovering in the background. This was certainly not the role of art in the community to Theosophists; art transcended all material things, conceived as a luminescent manifestation of the soul. As ‘beauty’ is the only definitive feature of a Theosophical interpretation of art, it is possible to see ‘art’ in all things, not only paintings, sculptures, music and architecture, but also in craft, industry and humanity. 50 The effects of WWI on Australian women must have been profound considering that it was their responsibility to keep the home fires burning, literally: The First World War did not provide an opportunity for Australian women to step beyond their traditional roles. Unlike the situation in Great Britain, there was no wide-scale mobilisation of the civilian population which would have enabled large numbers of women to undertake occupations or engage in activities previously barred to their sex. Instead, the Great War - as it came ironically to be called - had the effect of cementing and consolidating the notion that women’s main social function was to bear children and to influence those around 68 them into dutiful civic submission​. In technological terms, they potentially stood to benefit incommensurably, though the salve of modern machinery in the home designed to ‘make their life easier’, was not always satisfactory. Radio would not only represent the leisure in the modern lifestyle, it was vital for women’s connections with the outside world. Women were not just the passive receivers once radio began broadcasting, they had found a voice and expressed their needs for community reform. Health, education, housing and equal pay were central issues discussed on women’s airtime and it is no accident that this agenda mirrors the aims of the Theosophical Society. 2GB’s programs specifically for women were broadcast every weekday morning and regularly in the afternoon, at least three times a week. The weekend program was largely oriented toward children. As I mentioned earlier, radio played an important role in fostering the ideals presented by the Theosophical Society regarding the advancement of women as a means to ‘evolve’ society. This however, was not the only medium used to articulate these concepts, this commitment to women’s issues reached back to the earliest literature produced by the 68 Summers, A. ​Damned Whores and God’s Police.​ (Ringwood, Vic: Penguin Books, 1975) p.380 51 Theosophical Society. From Blavatsky’s inception of a new world resurrected from the old, there is an attempted reclamation of the feminine divine. Through the recognition of divine beauty through study, paying attention to health and hygiene, spiritually, physically and mentally, women would reach their prime. This was seen as being of optimum importance to the development of the human species towards perfection. In this pinnacle state, woman’s obligation to the community is that of ‘Divine Motherhood’. The Theosophical Society offered women a clearly defined sexuality, a role that paradoxically gave women freedom over their bodies despite its initial Victorian predilection. Theosophists saw motherhood as divine because it was begat of the mother, as the act of sexual intercourse must be with her ‘sympathy’. Jill Roe states: Blavatsky’s new theosophy provided a radical religious premise from which to argue the advancement, even the supremacy, of women. The best examples of Theosophy as feminist resource come from the writings of two influential Edwardian Englishwomen, from the prolific but now largely forgotten Frances Swiney and from Charlotte Depard, best remembered as president of the Women’s Freedom League, the democratic breakaway from the Pankhursts’ Women’s Social and Political Union. Swiney developed links between theosophy, feminism and biological theory. Both illustrate the interplay of radical and religious thought, and both saw in 69 theosophy an instrument for the advancement of women. These notions were not exclusive to the development of the Theosophical Society, they are suggested in many ideological positions taken up at the time; with equally as many ‘ideal’ outcomes for the state of society and the role of woman. The role of mother was important to the government also, to both populate and strengthen the shattered nation after the casualties of World War One. For the Theosophical Society, many of these proto-feminist concepts were handed down from its estranged parent - Spiritualism. Tom 69 Roe, J. ​Beyond Belief : Theosophy in Australia.​ (Kensington NSW: New South Wales University Press, 1986) p.173 52 Gunning points out, in an excellent article regarding early photography and Spiritualism, that: The Spiritualist movement related its revelations to modern changes in technology and science, such as electricity, telegraphy, and new discoveries in chemistry and biology, showing the sort of pseudoscience and spirituality that Robert Darnton found surrounding mesmerism in pre-revolutionary France. Although this was primarily a means of endowing their new revelations with the growing authority of recent inventions, there are also indications that the mentality of Spiritualists and devotees of new technology had something in common. Thomas Watson, the assistant to Alexander Graham Bell in the invention of the telephone, had an interest in seances and explores the possibility that the new apparatus would be an aid in spiritual discoveries. Likewise, electrical engineers delighted in creating simulacra of Spiritualists manifestations through scientific means, such as the demonstration of the power of electricity given by the Edison Company in Boston in 1887 during which “[b]ells rung, drumbeat, noises natural and unnatural were heard, a cabinet revolved and flashed fire, and a row of departed skulls came into view, and varied colored lights flashed from their eyes.” In addition, this modernity manifested itself in the political positions taken by early spiritualists which were perhaps the most radical of any group in pre-Civil War United States. Spiritualists as a rule supported abolitionism and temperance reforms, experimented with founding communistic communities, and championed a host of women’s rights issues, including dress and marriage reforms, as well as suffrage. In fact, the Spiritual support of women’s sexual rights in marriage 70 led to a frequent accusation of license and “free love”. If this accusation of license and ‘free love’ was laid upon spiritualists, it is no wonder that Theosophists wanted to distance themselves from this notoriety. As I stated earlier, in Theosophy there appears to be a philosophical split between the mind and the body, with spirit or intelligence being considered higher than the urges of the body and the senses. Although the Theosophical Society was progressive in its views toward the advancement of women, it was essentially prudish about the expressions of sexuality. Frances Swiney in ​The Cosmic Procession(1906)​ stated that: Now the first step ... will be taken when man, taught of woman, fully comprehends the vital importance of conserving the feminine creative energy within himself for self development. 70 Patrice, P (ed). ​Fugitive images : from photography to video.​ (Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin, 1995) p.46 53 Its expenditure ... is for birth alone, and then only when the mother’s desire is sympathetic. The spirit and power of Elohim, the divine mother, will at last turn the hearts of the fathers to the 71 children. Regardless of the apparent rejection of sexual intercourse for its own sake, the point is clear; the decision to procreate ultimately rested with the woman’s consent. This is quite an intriguing proposition, when considered in context with the woman’s role as articulated by the state in Australia. Anne Summers in ​Damned Whores and God’s Police (1975) , sees the term of Damned Whore representing the depraved morals of prostitutes or ‘loose women’, and God’s Police being women’s role as custodian of the community’s morality. Summers concedes that: The idea of wives as sexually active, and moreover, sexually interested creatures, was abhorrent to the God’s Police stereotype as articulated by Caroline Chisholm. Even more so was the notion of single women ‘losing their virtue’ since virtuous wives were seen to be the foundation of ‘the family’ and of the nation. And if women were to curtail their fertility to the extent that they were having only three or four children, instead of the huge families of the mid72 nineteenth century, then, prophesied many, the race itself was in danger of extinction. However, the Theosophical Society’s​ tenet was to encourage quality rather than quantity. Swiney’s text, ​The Bar of Isis; or the Law of the Mother​ (1907) is said to have contained pathological ideas about the dangers of poisoned sperm, and the right of woman to protect herself against unfit males, spacing sexual encounters to leave pregnancy and lactation times clear. 71 72 73 73 Roe, J. ​Beyond Belief : Theosophy in Australia.​ (Kensington NSW: New South Wales University Press, 1986) p.175 Summers, A. ​Damned Whores and God’s Police.​ (Ringwood, Vic: Penguin Books, 1975) p.322 Roe, J. ​Beyond Belief : Theosophy in Australia.​ (Kensington NSW: New South Wales University Press, 1986) p.173 54 When Besant was involved with Bradlaugh they were both arrested for distributing a pamphlet outlining ways to control reproduction. This 1877 publication was a reprint (with a foreword from Besant and Bradlaugh) of the banned book ​Fruits of Philosophy (1832) by Massachusetts physician, Dr. Charles Knowlton. They deliberately invited arrest by sending a copy to the London police. The trial lasted five days and went through several hearings and adjournments. The hearings took place at Guildhall. The press reported large crowds assembled daily to witness the proceedings. Some contemporary witnesses estimated that more than 20 000 persons assembled 74 outside the court. The sympathy of the public was obviously with the defendants. A spiritual concept that encouraged women to exercise power over their own bodies, must have been highly appealing to many women who rejected the expectations that still persisted from the Victorian age. This was not the only way that women were activated by Theosophy and Spiritualism; as is suggested by the following statement from Alex Owen’s text ​The Darkened Room : If, during a seance, a woman became the principal actor, the instigator and director of the proceedings, it was because she was thought to possess not only genuine spiritual power but also the right to exercise it. Spiritualism validated the female authoritative voice and permitted women an active professional 75 and spiritual role largely denied them elsewhere. As I mentioned earlier, Blavatsky’s successor Annie Besant, who was president during the interwar period, had a background as a socialist, feminist and activist, thus providing 74 75 Chandrasekhar, S. ​A Dirty Filthy Book​ (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1981) p. 38 Owen, A. ​The Darkened Room : Women, Power and Spiritualism in Late Victorian England.​ (London: Virago Press, 1989) p.6 55 an element of practical credibility to the Theosophical Society’s objectives regarding social reconstruction. Besant’s skills are indicative of the type of contribution that Theosophy has made to the developing modern culture, as she made concrete these ideas into the doctrine of Theosophy by her considerable reputation, rather than her direct actions. She is best known for her skills as an orator, speaking publicly numerous times when she visited Australia​.​ Besant remained virtually silent though in regard to women’s rights after her commitment to the Theosophical Society in 1889, giving only two lectures on the topic during her long association with the Theosophical Society​. One was on the education of Indian girls (1904), following success with boys at the Central Hindu College, Benares; the other a special London lecture delivered in June 1914 in aid of old friends at a frightening moment in the British suffrage campaign, where she capably defended a just cause while deploring a scandalous situation. 76 Besant was also one of the early champions of women’s liberation in India. She was among those who inspired the founding of the Women’s Indian Association in Madras 77 and was its first president. ​Perhaps Besant didn’t have to speak about the advancement of women, as her image was conceivably interpreted by many as an embodiment of the ideals she espoused. The mere fact that she was interviewed in​ Home,​ indicates that she was virtually considered a celebrity, a potential role model for the readers of this self consciously ‘modern’ magazine. Roe affirms this speculation regarding Besant: Male reporters preferred to think of her as ‘a woman of the truest type’, leaving the paradox of a good woman who purveyed outlandish ideas up in the air; but most women journalists took her seriously, and many more women revered the name of Annie Besant. Her 76 77 Roe, J. ​Beyond Belief : Theosophy in Australia.​ (Kensington NSW: New South Wales University Press, 1986) p.169 Chandrasekhar, S. ​A Dirty Filthy Book​ (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1981) p.34 56 fight for birth control in the 1870s and its terrible personal aftermath (she lost her two children), her success in organising the Bryant & May match-girls in 1888, and her battle with the London 78 School Board to provide meals for poor children, had made Annie Besant a heroine. It is not surprising that many women artists at the time were more inclined toward an approach that could articulate the proliferation of changes going on in their lives. However, their historical contribution to the visual arts is a curiosity still unresolved, as their work is either seen as at the forefront of the modernist movement in Australia or is negated as only being design and not high art. In terms of commodity value in Australia at that time, artists such as Streeton, Roberts, Hilder and the Lindsay’s held pride of place in terms of media and governmental funded gallery support, thus maintaining the ongoing obsession to define the culture of Australia via the icon of the pastoral landscape. The definitive value of art produced during this time has not changed a great deal to this day, in terms of its worth as a commodity. As Stephanie Holt recognises in her article ‘Woman about Town’ (​Art and Australia​, Summer 1995, p.232-242),​ ​there was a lesser value placed upon modernist urban landscapes produced during the 1920’s. This was an identity of country, or rather city that disrupted traditions of public and private space. Women’s entrance to the department store as independent women made many men feel displaced and nervous. For women, modernity offered new freedoms of movement and social participation beyond home, family and local community. For men, these changes could produce alienation and confusion. Popular imagery contrasts the bitter, almost redundant, men of the modern city with 79 the ‘New Woman’ - sexual, independent, who strides its streets with confidence. 78 Roe, J. ​Beyond Belief : Theosophy in Australia.​ (Kensington NSW: New South Wales University Press, 1986) p.180-81 79 Holt, S ‘Woman about Town’ ​(Art and Australia, Vol 33, no 2, Summer 1995)​ p.235 57 Holt defines the development of the urban and the suburban landscape as a realm of the ‘feminine’, seeing it as the necessary ‘other’ to the ‘masculine’ pastoral ideal that represented high art to critics of the time. It is worthy to note that a number of the women artists with either confirmed or suspected links to Theosophy, had worked or studied with de Maistre. A notable woman who was also a student at the New South Wales State Conservatorium around the same time as de Maistre, was Dorothy Helmrich (born Hellmrich). A singer and founder of the Arts 80 Council of Australia, ​ she enjoyed a carefree childhood and was educated at Mosman Academy and High School. Of mixed German and Celtic stock, Helmrich was raised an Anglican. Around 1908 she espoused theosophy as “a philosophical basis for living .... 81 for which I am extremely grateful”. Another woman who had alliances with de Maistre was Ethel Anderson, the founder of the Turramurra Wall Painters Union. De Maistre, along with Wakelin and Cossington Smith gave freely of their time to the Turramurra Wall Painter’s Union, though de Maistre’s association with the group seems to have been that of an adviser- he is reported as the ‘chief lieutenant’ on one of their earlier projects (but there is no evidence of his 82 painting a mural other than that in the children’s chapel.) ​(fig. 29) Mrs Anderson reportedly paid for the hire of the Macquarie Galleries for his 1928 exhibition - hence de 83 Maistre’s feeling of indebtedness to her. ​ Anderson returned to Australia in 1924, after 80 Radi, H (ed) ​200 Australian Women​ (Broadway NSW: Women’s Redress Press, 1988) p.167 81 Ibid. 82 Johnson, H. ​Roy de Maistre : The Australian Years 1894 - 1930.​ (Roseville NSW: Craftman House, 1988) p.90 83 Ibid. 58 twenty years as a British Army officer’s wife, first in India then in England. She immersed herself in Sydney’s art world, painting, visiting art galleries and exhibitions, 84 and gradually selecting those artists whose work she most admired. In 1932, Ethel Anderson published an article in​ ​The Australian Quarterly​, titled ‘Modern 85 Art as a Cure for Bolshevism’. ​As the title suggests, this article reads as a polemical manifesto on the role of art. Art was seen as a part of human intelligence and intuition that society must aspire in order to progress. Anderson sees Bolshevism as an evolutionary descent to the form of an animal: It is on these two counts that the real danger of Bolshevism rests; by a mechanical denial of the force called “God” ; by stripping woman of her ancient magic, her distance, a Bolshevik robs his soul of all its spiritual adventures. That higher self of his, which, going above him, like a pillar of cloud, led him out of Brute into man, will guide him no longer. He will run down the gamut, from human beings into in-human-being. And, within twenty generations, he, with his 86 shaggy female, will be back on four legs. Though aspects of this article do have similarities to Theosophy, there are some statements that are questionable in this regard. Ultimately, I believe that a Saviour will be born to Russia. In the meantime the present religion of Russia is unlikely to mean more to the Western world than the religion of China does, 87 or than the warped creeds of India and Persia, and Arabia mean to us. 84 Speer, A. ‘Ethel Anderson and the Turramurra Wall Painters Union’ ​Art and Australia (​ Vol. 33, no 1, Spring 1995) p. 88 85 Anderson, E. ‘Modern Art as a Cure for Bolshevism” ​The Australian Quarterly’​ (September 14, 1932) 86 Ibid 87 Ibid 59 By this time, interest in Theosophy had waned significantly, although there was still a strong commitment to the advancement of civilisation. The education of children and the targeting of female listeners wasn’t a concern only for 2GB, in later years this was a role that the ABC took seriously. As I stated in the introduction, Theosophy tended to attract educated women, so it would make sense that education was a high priority. Jill Roe states that: It has been estimated from Victorian census evidence in 1911 that theosophical women were the best-educated women of all religious groupings in Australia at that time, and better educated than theosophical men. The ratio of graduates to non-graduates among theosophical men 88 stood at 1:8, second only to professed atheists, but the ratio was 1:7. To now turn the discussion toward the influence of Theosophy upon female artists, it is worth noting that around the same time as Theosophy started to attract interest, women artists started to demand that their work be taken seriously. The Society of Women Painters evolved around the 1890’s when a number of women began exhibiting with the Art Society of New South Wales. As most of their work was rejected by the Art Society’s exhibition committee, these artists began establishing support groups, meeting once a 89 month to plan half yearly exhibitions. ​ Theosophist Violet Teague exhibited with Ethel Stephens, Alice Norton, Emily Meston and Bernice Edwell in the Society of Women Painters, Sydney exhibition in 1908. She, along with Walter Burley Griffin, contributed several articles to ​Advance! Australia​, a political monthly which was published from 88 89 Roe, J ​Beyond Belief: Theosophy in Australia .​ (Kensington NSW: University of New South Wales Press, 1986) p.185 Dever, N (ed). ​Wallflowers and Witches​ (Brisbane QLD: University of Queensland Press, 1994) p.3 60 90 1926-1929, ‘supplementing 2GB’s position and programming.’ ​There was nothing modest about ​Advance! Australia​, subtitled ​A Monthly Magazine of Australian Citizenship and Ideals in Religion, Education, Literature, Science, Art, Music, Social 91 Life, Politics, Etc. Violet Teague was renowned as a portrait painter, although information about her other work is scarce. She was mentioned in ​Australian Women Artists​ by Caroline Ambrus (1992), however she did not make an appearance in Janine Burke’s Australian Women Artists 1840-1940 (1980). This seems strange considering that she was associated with Vida Lahey and Ethel Carrick Fox, who were both included in Burke’s text. She has been credited with being the first artist to use colour woodcuts in the Japanese manner in Australia. This took the form of a hand printed book, ​Nightfall in the Ti-tree which she produced in 1905 with Geraldine Rede. In 1920, her ‘Boy with Palette’ (portrait of Theo Scharf, q.v as a youthful prodigy) (fig. 30) was hung at the Paris Salon (where it won her a silver medal) and the following year at the R.A.(Royal Academy), London. She also decorated several churches in Victoria and made an altar piece for the cathedral of the 92 Artic, Aklavik, N.W. Canada. Teague and Vida Lahey were pupils of Ethel Carrick Fox during the mid 1920s. Carrick Fox, was also a Theosophist and stayed at The Manor, Mosman upon her return to Australia in 1912. She was a frequent visitor over the years. It was during this stay that 90 Roe, J ​Beyond Belief: Theosophy in Australia​ (Kensington NSW: University of New South Wales Press, 1986) p. 305 91 Ibid. 92 McCulloch, A. ​Encyclopedia of Australian Art.​ (Hawthorn VIC: Hutchinson Group, 1984) p. 1182 61 she is thought to have conceived the idea for the painting which is generally 93 acknowledged as her major work, ​Manly Beach Summer is Here. (fig. 31) She frequently painted mothers and children, and as Elin Howe states in ‘Ethel Carrick Fox: the Cheat or the Cheated?’ ​(Wallflowers and Witches),​ that ​Manly Beach Summer is Here is a departure from her earlier work from France, which idealised the role of motherhood. The way mothers are represented in this image bears a closer resemblance to the nanny figures of her French paintings than to the way she has previously depicted mothers. Their 94 clothes, unlike their French counterparts, are ‘sensible’, almost dowdy. Again, via the imagery inherent in Carrick Fox’s work, we are confronted with the role of motherhood. It is unknown whether Carrick Fox remained childless intentionally, though it is notable that this subject matter figured highly in her body of work, and one has to wonder what role Theosophy played in this regard, if at all. The role of motherhood is regarded as pertinent to a child’s physical, mental and spiritual development. The health, education and well being of children is crucial to populate the ‘young’ nation of Australia. Education was a key concern to government in the 1920s. Most of the artists outlined in this essay have made some kind of contribution or statement for or about children; Norman Lindsay’s ​The Magic Pudding​ is still a favourite with many children. De Maistre’s only contribution as an artist to the Turramurra Wall Painters Union, was in the children’s chapel of St. James. Eleonore Lange stated in ​‘The Function of Art in Human Society’ (Art in Australia, May 15, 1936​) that: 93 Dever, N (ed). ​Wallflowers and Witches​ (Brisbane QLD: University of Queensland Press, 1994) p.108 94 Ibid. p.109 62 Two other important problems of the beginning of art activity I was able to draw in the infant. One is the sequence of development of fundamental laws of composition, the other the simultaneous appearance of the use of line, colour and form, proving each of the three to be an 95 element of Art creation, of equal importance and independent nature of development. In Geoffrey Batchen’s’ essay on Eleonore Lange, published in​ Wallflowers and Witches​, he regards why Lange was virtually ignored in Australian art history, suggesting that it may not have been as a consequence of her gender, in light of Margaret Prestons’ relative success at the same time. He concedes that Preston’s work had a strong nationalistic bias, whereas Lange’s work was the opposite, remaining fiercely international in her 96 perspective. ​ Lange did not really have ties with Ure Smith and his circle, so it is understandable that Preston received more attention, as she was one of Ure Smith’s favourites. Eleonore Lange had two articles printed in ​Art in Australia​. One titled “A correspondent writes” in 1941, which responds to an article by De Hartog regarding colour theory and science. The other previously mentioned article was published in May 1936, and was titled “The Function of Art in Human Society”. This article discusses a number of things; aesthetics, the need for a spiritual existence adopting a Newtonian scientific standpoint regarding the function of light and colour in the eye. Lange is better known for her slide lectures in the late 1930’s at the Crowley-Fizelle school in Sydney where she expounded her grand theories of art, than her work as an artist (fig. 32). Lange also wrote the foreword to ​Exhibition 1 (1939), an exhibition often referred to in discussions regarding 95 96 Lange, E. ‘The Function of Art in Human Society’ (Art in Australia, May 15, 1936) p.48 Dever, N (ed). ​Wallflowers and Witches​ (Brisbane QLD: University of Queensland Press, 1994) p.58 63 early Australian abstract art. ​Dynamic Symmetry​ was accepted by Lange and others such as the Hinders as a way of life, a cosmological ‘truth’: Frank Hinder, for example, had between 1927 and 1929 received his grounding in the principles of Dynamic Symmetry from Howard Giles and Emil Bisttram in New York. Gile’s father had been head of the spiritualist Swedenborg Church, while the younger Bisttram incorporated various theosophical beliefs and motifs into his art during the 1920s and 1930s, 97 eventually (in 1938) founding the Transcendental Painting Group. Upon studying the journals published by the Theosophical Society, it is noteworthy that none of the articles were written by any of the above mentioned Australian artists, except Teague and Burley Griffin, who as I stated earlier, had a number of articles published in the monthly publication​ Advance! Australia​. Many were written by C. Jinarajadasa, who was a frequent Theosophical visitor to 98 Australia ​. Some of his articles were titled “Artists and Theosophists”(July 1926),” The Artist’s solution to the World Problem”(May 1931) and “The Nation’s Arts and Crafts” (1937-1938). Another regular contributor was M.E. Deane who was the Honorary Secretary for the Theosophical Society Art group around 1925. Deane, in a 1924 article titled ‘Brotherhood and Art’ discussed the need to appreciate beauty from the domestic 99 sphere, and quoted William Morris, once a co-worker with Annie Besant ​, in regard to daily life, “It is not possible to disassociate art from morality, politics and religion”. 97 Ibid. p.56 98 Roe, J ​Beyond Belief: Theosophy in Australia​ (Kensington NSW: University of New South Wales Press, 1986) p. 197. Jinarajadasa was recruited by Leadbeater in Ceylon. 99 Ibid. p.320 64 Many Theosophists were inspired by the British arts and crafts movements that dated back to John Ruskin. Roe states that: In June 1923, Marie McLennan, Theodora St John, Elenor Ashworth and Hugh Noall formed a Fellowship of the Arts and Crafts at Mosman. In 1929 a fellowship was also formed in Perth, dissociated from theosophy but, it claimed, inspired by theosophists. The theme appeared in Advance! Australia , when Margaret Joske of Melbourne addressed the artists of Australia on the loss of craft functions and the need for good design, in this case on biscuit tins: ‘the hoardings 100 and shops are the galleries and museums for the people. To look at this from the position of modernism in Australia at this time, to discuss the need for beauty in daily life and in the home, is compatible with the type of consumer modernism that Sydney Ure Smith’s ​Home​ magazine sought to promote as a vehicle for modernist ideas. Again, Margaret Preston was also concerned with the beauty of the home and her art reflected these ideas. This seems to affirm McQueen’s comment regarding the comparative popularity of modernist furniture when considered against modernist painting. In the feminine domestic sphere it was accepted that technology was apparently making women’s lives easier and that the modern home represented the affluence of the individual. This perhaps would not have been a problem for the majority of women Theosophists in Sydney, seeing the popularity of the Theosophical Society for women on the North Shore. The North Shore was a major target area for Ure Smith’s publications because of its middle class affluence, with many of its residents gracing the society pages of ​Home.​ Interior design became a new field of art and a new career option for women. 100 Ibid 65 As Peter McNeil states in ‘Decorating the Home’ (​Art in Australia,​ Volume 33, No 2, Summer 1995): Artists were central to a redefinition of Australian interior decoration. Their involvement in promoting modern design was a subject featured in both Art in Australia and The Home, which consistently promoted the younger generation of Sydney artists. Thea Proctor, Hera Roberts, Adrian Feint and Roy de Maistre moved easily between roles as fine artist, commercial 101 artist, illustrator, decorator and furniture-designer in the inter-war years. He goes on to say: Opportunities for training as an interior decorator in Australia were extremely limited in the interwar period. The Arts and Crafts societies and Thea Proctor’s design classes appear to have been the only source of training available to those interested in ‘design’, which indicates the 102 central role that artists played in the development of the profession. Mc Neil may be overstating, but it could be said that the 1920s was the ‘feminine’ decade if urbanity, modernity, commerce and growing career opportunities for women are defined as its tenets. The historical relationship with Theosophy and its apparent anti-materialist discourse seems at first ill matched with these concepts. Followers of Theosophy though, by its focus on arts and crafts, the ‘Ideal Beauty’ of the domestic space and largely Anglo-middle class genealogy, is now posited central to crucial developments in Australian modernity. The department store and the city had become public space for not just women but all of the community, another concern for Theosophical socialist/reconstructivist aspirations. By believing that department stores 101 McNeil, P. ‘Decorating the Home’ ​Art and Australia.​ (Volume 33, No 2, Summer 1995) p.221 102 Ibid. p.226 66 were the galleries of the people they accepted industry and commercialism, embracing the same materialism they so vehemently rejected. Theosophy of this era provides a rich source even for its apparent lack of resources, for scholars redressing the obscurity of modernity and feminists. These two groups must be defined as separate because the inclusion of de Maistre, Burley Griffin and Lindsay certainly destabilise assumed stylistic or gender relationships. It can also be said that women did predominate the 1920s, carving an ever widening niche for themselves in Australian art history and deservedly so for their massive contribution to this age. 67 Conclusion During the course of researching for this essay, I have sought to avoid a simple binary response to the material that presented itself. Again and again, we are brought back to this notion that there was a simple split between the traditional and the modern, national and international, Fascist and Jew. The role that the Theosophical Society played effectively blurs all of these contentions. They are not be easily written into the equation, which in essence is why they have been located on the margin to date. It is my hope that this essay may disrupt popular assumptions regarding this era, by presenting cognitive themes inherent in the Theosophical Society’s philosophical infrastructure. For such a comparatively secular organisation, it made an mammoth contribution to an equally secular and divergent group. Inventors, artists, politicians, architects, musicians and writers are heavily sprinkled through what was an otherwise majority middle class movement in its Australian incarnation. This marginalisation or absence is congruently associated with distinctions of gender and the pursuit of safe stylistic conformities inherent in the vocation of art history writing. The popularity of Theosophy for women indicates their independence from the popular image that the mainstream press suggested of country and race. The Theosophical Society officially did not support the White Australia policy but because of their fervent support of nationalism, they have sometimes been misrepresented as being in support of the government's racial control. 68 The 1920’s is an era fraught with cultural and political contradictions, making the assessment of this time a difficult task. Even though the Theosophical Society is generally linked to modernist aspirations, this is not always the case, as it also had appeal to conservative factions of the community. The artists influenced display a divergent response to Theosophy, both stylistically and conceptually, further emphasising the wide ranging and heterogeneous sources inherent in its philosophies. Its disseminations can be found in many aspects of contemporary culture, the ‘new age’ movement and cyberculture in particular. In our terms, the Theosophical Society could also be called ‘politically correct’ in its ideals for a society where everyone is equal and diversity is encouraged as a process of healing humanity as a whole. 69 Select Bibliography Primary Sources Newspapers & periodicals Art in Australia Art and Australia The Bulletin (Sydney) Home Theosophy in Australasia Theosophy in Australia The Australian Theosophist The Australian Quarterly Notes and News Catalogues Exhibition of Australian Art in London, Sydney NSW: Arthur McQuitty for the Prop. of Art in Australia, 1923. Books Bell, Clive. ​Art.​ London: Chatto & Windus, 1923 Bell, Clive. ​Civilisation. ​ London: Penguin, 1928 Besant , Annie & Leadbeater, Charles. ​Thought Forms.​ London: The Theosophical publishing house, 1901. Besant, Annie. ​Australian Lectures 1908.​ Sydney: George Robertson & Coy. Prop. Ltd. 1908 Besant, Annie. ​An Autobiography.​ London: T. 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(ed) ​The Spiritual in Art: Abstract Painting 1890-1985​. Los Angeles California: Los Angeles Museum of Art, 1986 Willis, Anne. ​Illusions of Identity: The Art of Nation​. Sydney NSW: Hale and Iremonger, 1993 Williams, John F. ​Quarantined Culture: Australian Reactions to Modernism 1913-1939​. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995 Young, Julian. ​Nietzsche’s Philosophy of Art​. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992 Appendix- images 1​.​ De Maistre, R. ​Still Life, 1922, oil on pulpboard, 30.5 x 32.4cm. Art Gallery of New South Wales 2. De Maistre, R. ​Boat Sheds, Berry’s Bay, 1919 oil on board, 38x23cm. Private collection 74 3. Waller, C. ​The Star in the East, c.1933, linocut 17.1 x 13.1 cm. National Gallery of Australia 4. Toorop 5. Kandinsky, V. 6. De Maisre, R. ​Rhythmic Composition in Yellow Green Minor, 1919, oil on paperboard 86.3 x 116.2 cm. Art Gallery of New South Wales 7. Dali, Salvador. ​L’Homme Fleur 8. Moreton, J. ​A Fire Deva, details unknown, published in ​Notes and News​ (January 1936) 9. Boehme, J 10. The emblem for the Theosophical society was designed by Blavatsky. 11. Fletcher, J. ​Dr. Annie Besant, published in ​Home​ (June 1, 1922) p.7 12. Preston, M ​Still Life 13.​ ​Agrippa, H.C. ​The Orphical Scale of the Number Twelve ​Three Books of Occult Philosophy.​ (London: Gregory Moule, 1651) p.214, Henry E Huntington Library and Art Gallery, San Marino, California 14. Aerial View of Canberra from the south, showing parlimentary triangle. ​Art Monthly (May 10, 1988) p.1 15. Besant, A and Leadbeater, C. ​Sudden Fright ​Thought Forms​ (London: The Theosophical Publishing House, 1901) p.55 16. Besant, A. and Leadbeater, C. ​Sympathy and Love for all Thought Forms​ (London: The Theosophical Publishing House, 1901) p. 66 17. Besant, A. and Leadbeater, C. ​At a Funeral Thought Forms​ (London: The Theosophical Publishing House, 1901) p. 62 18. Besant, A. and Leadbeater, C. ​Music of Mendelssohn Thought Forms​ (London: The Theosophical Publishing House, 1901) p. 78 19. Besant, A. and Leadbeater, C. ​Music of Gounod Thought Forms​ (London: The Theosophical Publishing House, 1901) p. 80 75 20. Besant, A. and Leadbeater, C. ​Music of Gounod Thought Forms​ (London: The Theosophical Publishing House, 1901) p. 80 21. Cover of ​Wireless Weekly​ (March 2, 1928) 22. ​Wooloomooloo Bay in the 1860s taken by Professor John Smith, located in: Russell, E. ​Victorian and Edwardian Sydney from old photographs​. Sydney: John Ferguson, 1975 23. ​The University of Sydney taken by Professor John Smith, located in: Russell, E. Victorian and Edwardian Sydney from old photographs​. Sydney: John Ferguson, 1975 24. ​Drummoyne House taken by Professor John Smith, located in: Russell, E. ​Victorian and Edwardian Sydney from old photographs​. Sydney: John Ferguson, 1975 25. ​Macquarrie Street taken by Professor John Smith, located in: Russell, E. ​Victorian and Edwardian Sydney from old photographs​. Sydney: John Ferguson, 1975 26. Image from ‘What is the Publicity Department Doing in Sydney?’ ​Theosophy in Australia​ (April 1, 1920) 27. Leason, P. ​Her seat on the League ​The Bulletin​ c.1925 28. Theosophical Society membership graph 1900-95, courtesy of the Theosophical society’s Sydney office. 29. The entrance to The Children’s Chapel, St Jame’s Church, Sydney. On the left side of the entrance, St John the Baptist by Bethia Anderson; on the right side, a blue winged Angel of Mercy, accompanied by a sulphur crested cockatoo, painted by Gwen Ramsay. 30. Teague, V. ​Boy with Palette 31. Fox, Ethel. ​Manly Beach Summer is Here, 1913, oil on canvas 101.8 x 81.4 cm. Manly Art Gallery and Museum. 32. Lange, E. 76