The Quincunx Book

The cooperation between the European Union and the United Nations in the context of peacemaking and peacekeeping has been vital at all times. The UN peacekeeping efforts recognize the help from member countries and other regional and the example of the EU as organization best suits the needs of the UN. On the European side, it is important to develop the functionality of CFSP (Common Foreign and Security Policy) and CSDP (Common Security and Defence Policy) that has led the EU to resume its association with the United Nations. Both the UN and EU are considered legitimate bodies and major peacekeeping organizations of international repute to resolve global issues. The cooperation of these two organizations has led them to be regarded as authentic institutions. Yet the process of cooperation within both sides has gone in an extremely inhibited environment. Both the UN and the EU have showed a determination to go ahead in strengthening their relationship and cooperation even though they have significant structural and theoretical differences in the organizations’ own plans, strategies, working, community measures and the limitation in the span of their collaboration in the peacekeeping, peacemaking and peace-operations. Peacekeeping is more important for the UN than the EU because UN is purely a democratic and political institution whereas the first priority of EU is for establishing the European Community was to gain economic power. The UN strategy is stimulated by an open plan for all people of the world while the European approach is a combination of regional interest and political dialogue to control destabilizing situations. In this context both organizations have attained a considerable amount of cooperation and coordination in terms of growing information of relevant functioning and actions, institutionalized structure of collaboration and practical partnership. Most of times the EU plays its role as a civilian power but in some areas it helped the UN with armed forces.

Günümüzde "Peygamber Enok'un Kitabı" adıyla yayınlanan kitap ilk olarak 1773 yılında James Bruce tarafından Habeşistan'da (şimdiki Etiopya) bir mağarada bulunmuştu. Enok ismi İbranice olup Hanok ismiyle aynıdır. Bu nedenle "Hanok'un Kitabı" diye de tanınmıştır. Bu kitabın iki farklı nüshası vardır. Biri Rusya'da bir manastırda bulunmuş ve Slav dilinde muhafaza edilmiştir. Bunun adı "Hanok Sırlar Kitabı"dır. İkinci kitap ise James Bruce'un bulduğu "Harok'un Kitabı"dır. Hanok İbranice bir kelimedir ve Kitabı Mukaddes'de (Tanah) geçmektedir. Fakat Kitabı Mukaddes'te bu kitaptan bahsedilmemektedir. Biliyoruz ki MS 90 civarında hangi dini metinlerin Kitabı Mukaddes'de yer alacağı belirlenmişti. Ancak içlerinde "Enok'un Kitabı" yoktur. Enok’un Kitabı’nın ne zaman yazıldığı kesin olarak belli değildir. Ancak kitapta anlatılanlara göre Nuh tufanından daha önce yazıldığı anlaşılmaktadır. Bu durumda bu kitap niçin kaybolmuş veya terk edilmiştir? Bunun cevabı belirsizdir. Fakat şu kadarı tahmin edilebilir ki, Yahudi Ruhban otoritelerin hoşlanmadıkları birçok hususun bu kitapta yer alması bu kitabın dışlanmasına neden olmuş olabilir. Kitaptaki çeşitli atıflar o zamanki dini çevreleri rahatsız ettiğinden, daha sonraları 1. Konstantin tarafından da saptırıcı (apokrif) olduğu düşünülerek kutsal metinler külliyatından çıkarılmış ve kaybettirilmiştir. Birinci İznik Konsili’nde de (325) Tevrat’tan tamamen çıkarılmıştır. Enok’un kitabı üzerine yapılan araştırmalar sonucu, onun sadece bir kişi tarafından yazılmadığı ve ilerleyen yıllarda farklı kişilerin kitaba ilaveler yaptığı anlaşılmaktadır. Kitabın orijinal dilinin Aramice olduğu düşünülmektedir.

The Quincunx Book Dr. Uday Dokras B.Sc., B.A. (Managerial Economics), LL.B., Nagpur University, India Certificat'e en Droit, Queen’s University. Ontario, Canada, Ph.D. Stockholm University, Sweden, Management and Efficacy Consultant, India PART I The Quincunx of Bakong Chapter 1 The Bakong - the Earliest surviving quincunx Introduction: . History of Cambodia Historians have generally divided the fascinating history of Cambodia into four main phases, namely: Pre-Angkorian Period the 1 st Century A.D. - 802 A.D. Angkorian Period 802 A.D. - 1432 A.D. Post-Angkorian Period 1432 A.D. - 1864 A.D. Modern Period 1859 A.D. - Present. The point of reference to this division is the ‘Angkorian Period’ which is considered as the zenith of Khmer civilization Top of Form Timeline of Angkor Wat • 802 C.E. - Jayavarman II is crowned, rules until 850, founds kingdom of Angkor. • 877 - Indravarman I becomes king, orders construction of Preah Ko and Bakhong temples. • 889 - Yashovarman I is crowned, rules until 900, completes Lolei, Indratataka, and Eastern Baray (reservoir), and builds Phnom Bakheng temple. • 899 - Yasovarman I becomes king, rules until 917, establishes capital Yasodharapura on Angkor Wat site. • 928 - Jayavarman IV takes throne, establishes capital at Lingapura (Koh Ker). • 944 - Rajendravarman crowned, builds Eastern Mebon and Pre Rup. • 967 - Delicate Banteay Srei temple built. • 968-1000 - Reign of Jayavarman V, starts work on Ta Keo temple but never finishes it. • 1002 - Khmer civil war between Jayaviravarman and Suryavarman I, construction begins on Western Baray. • 1002 - Suryavarman I wins civil war, rules until 1050. • 1050 - Udayadityavarman II takes throne, builds Baphuon. • 1060 - Western Baray reservoir finished. • 1080 - Mahidharapura Dynasty founded by Jayavarman VI, who builds Phimai temple. • 1113 - Suryavarman II crowned king, rules until 1150, designs Angkor Wat. • 1140 - Construction begins on Angkor Wat. • 1177 - Angkor sacked by the Chams people from southern Vietnam, partially burned, Khmer king killed. • 1181 - Jayavarman VII, famous for defeating Chams, becomes king, sacks Chams' capital in reprisal in 1191. • 1186 - Jayavarman VII builds Ta Prohm in honor of his mother. • 1191 - Jayavarman VII dedicates Preah Khan to his father. • End of 12th century - Angkor Thom ("Great City") built as new capital, including state temple at the Bayon. • 1220 - Jayavarman VII dies. • 1296-97 - Chinese chronicler Zhou Daguan visits Angkor, records daily life in Khmer capital. • 1327 - End of classical Khmer era, last stone engravings. • 1352-57 - Angkor sacked by Ayutthaya Thais. • 1393 - Angkor sacked again. • 1431 - Angkor abandoned after invasion by Siam (Thais), although some monks continue to use the site. TIME LINE for BOROBUDUR “Dvipantara” or “Jawa Dwipa” kingdom is reported by Indian scholars to be in Java and Sumatra. Prince Aji Saka introduces writing system to Java based on scripts of southern India. Hindu kings rule the area around Kutai on Kalimantan. “Langasuka” kingdom founded around Kedah in Malaya. about 130 Salaka or Salanka kingdom, Salakanegara, is founded in West Java. about 400 Taruma kingdom or Tarumanegara flourishes in West Java. about 425 Buddhism reaches Sumatra. about 500 Beginning of Srivijaya kingdom near Palembang, in Sumatra. about 600 Melayu kingdom flourishes around present-day Jambi on Sumatra. about 670 Chinese traveller I Ching visits Palembang, capital of Srivijaya. Hindu temples built in the high Dieng plateau of central Java. About this time, the first Sunda kingdom rises after the end of the Tarumanegara kingdom. 686 Srivijaya takes the Melayu kingdom at Jambi, and sends an expedition against the kingdoms in Java about 700 Suwawa kingdom flourishes in North Sulawesi. about 732 Sanjaya founds the Sanjaya line of princes in central Java. about 770 Sailendra King Vishnu (or Dharmatunga) begins building Borobudur. Beginning of building activity on the plain of Prambanan. 782 Sailendra king Vishnu is succeeded by Indra (or Sangramadhanamjaya). about 790 Sailendra kingdom attacks and defeats Chenla (today Cambodia); rules over Chenla for about 12 years. about 812 Sailendra king Indra is succeeded by Samaratunga. about 825 Borobudur is finished under king Samaratunga. about 835 Samaratunga passes away. His young son Balaputra has the throne taken from him by the father of his sister’s husband, Patapan of Sanjaya, who replaces Buddhism on Java with Hinduism. about 838 Patapan is succeeded by his son Pikatan (or Jatiningrat). 846 Tidore is visited by a representative of the Caliph al-Mutawakkil from Baghdad. about 850 Pikatan defeats forces of Balaputra, then resigns the throne to become an ascetic. He is succeeded by Kayuwani. Balaputra, claimant to the Sailendra throne, escapes to Sumatra and takes power in Srivijaya. King Warmadewa rules on Bali. 898 Sanjaya King Balitung takes power in central Java. 910 Sanjaya King Daksa succeeds Balitung in Mataram. He begins building the major Hindu temples at Prambanan. 919 Sanjaya King Tulodong succeeds Daksa; reigns until 921. 924 Sanjaya King Wawa takes throne of Mataram, rules until 928. 929 Sanjaya King Mpu Sindok takes power. He moves the court from Mataram to East Java (near Jombang). 947 Sri Isana Tunggawijaya, daughter of Mpu Sindok, succeeds Mpu Sindok as ruler in East Java. about 975 King Udayana of Bali, father of Airlangga, is born. 985 Dharmavamsa becomes king of Mataram. He conquers Bali and founds a settlement in western Kalimantan. 990 Dharmavamsa and Mataram send an army overseas to attack Srivijaya and take Palembang, but fail. 992 King Chulamanivarmadeva of Srivijaya sends an ambassador to China to ask for protection against the forces of Dharmavamsa from Java. 1006 Srivijaya attacks and destroys the capital of Mataram. The palace is burned, and Dharmavamsa is killed. Airlangga (then 16 years old) escapes the destruction. Several years of chaos in eastern Java follow. 1017 Rajendra Chola, king of Coromandel in India, attacks Srivijaya. 1019 Airlangga takes rule in eastern Java, founds Kahuripan kingdom, makes peace with Srivijaya, protects both Hindus and Buddhists. Over several years extends his rule over central Java, eastern Java, and Bali, uniting areas that had fallen into disunity. 1025 Rajendra Chola of southern India takes Malay peninsula from Srivijaya for twenty years. Chola raiders attack Jambi and other areas of Sumatra. Airlangga extends the power and influence of Kahuripan as Srivijaya is weakened. 1030 Airlangga marries the daughter of Sangrama Vijayottungavarman, King of Srivijaya. 1045 Airlangga divides Kahuripan into two kingdoms, Janggala (around today’s Malang) and Kediri, for his two sons, and abdicates to live the life of an ascetic. He passes away four years later. 1068 vira Rajendra, king of Coromandel, conquers Kedah from Srivijaya. More Chola raids occur on Sumatra. 1076 Around this time, the Tidung kingdom is founded around Tarakan in eastern Kalimantan. 1108 Kingdom (later Sultanate) of Tidore is founded. 1117 Kamesvara becomes king of Kediri (until 1130). He marries a princess of Janggala and reunites the two kingdoms. 1135 King Joyoboyo takes rule in Kediri until 1157. 1221 Ken Angrok, local ruler of Tumapel, defeats the forces of Kediri (Battle of Genter). 1222 Ken Angrok founds the Singhasari kingdom as King Rajasa. 1227 Ken Angrok dies, and is succeeded by Anusapati. 1247 Anusapati dies after a peaceful 20-year reign. Tohjaya, son of Ken Angrok by a concubine, becomes king of Singhasari. 1250 Tohjaya is killed in a rebellion and replaced as king by by Wisnuwardhana, son of Anusapati. 1257 Baab Mashur Malamo becomes king of Gapi (later Ternate). 1268 King Wisnuwardhana of Singhasari dies, and is succeeded by Kertanegara. Kertanegara promotes a mixture of Hinduism and Buddhism. 1275 Kertanegara begins a campaign to unite the various kingdoms around Sumatra and Java (whether by alliance or military conquest is debated). 1280 A group of Javanese from Kediri, unhappy with Kertanegara, settle around Kutai in Kalimantan. 1281 Muslims from Jambi send an embassy to Kublai Khan. 1284 Kertanegara takes Bali for Singhasari. The last Warmadewa king of Bali is killed. 1289 Kublai Khan sends messengers to Singhasari to demand tribute; Kertanegara slashes their faces and sends them home. 1290 Kertanegara takes the Melayu kingdom on Sumatra around Jambi. 1292 Marco Polo visits Sumatra and Java. Kublai Khan prepares invasion fleet of 1000 ships to take Java. Kertanegara is killed in a court rebellion; his son-in-law Wijaya retreats and founds a new court at Majapahit (today Trowulan), with the help of Arya Wiraraja, the local ruler of Madura. Bali breaks away from Singhasari under the Pejeng kings at Ubud. November Mongol fleet leaves for Java; lands at Tuban. 1293 Wijaya forms alliance with Mongol forces against the remainder of Singhasari in Kediri, led by Jayakatwang. March Combined force of Mongol/Chinese soldiers and Majapahit takes Kediri. Wijaya returns to Trowulan, then attacks the Mongols in a surprise attack. The Mongols retreat and leave Java. November Wijaya is enthroned as king Kertarajasa Jayawardhana of new Majapahit. 1295 Rebellion against King Kertarajasa of Majapahit, led by Rangga Lawe, is put down. 1297 Pasai in Sumatra converts to Islam. Sultan Malek Saleh is the first Muslim ruler in what is now Indonesia. 1298 Rebellion against Kertarajasa, led by Sora, breaks out. It lasts for two years before being suppressed. 1309 Jayanegara becomes king of Majapahit. 1316 Rebellion led by Nambi, son of a former chief minister, is put down by Jayanegara. 1319 Rebellion led by Kuti forces Jayanegara to flee the court for the countryside. An uprising against Kuti allows Jayanegara to return to court. 1328 Jayanegara is assassinated, possibly with the help of Gajah Mada. Tribhuwana Wijayatungga Dewi, daughter of Kertarajasa, is titular head until 1350. 1330 Gajah Madah becomes patih or chief minister of Majapahit, and rules as regent. 1333 Kingdom of Pajajaran is founded, with its capital at Pakuan near today’s Bogor. 1334 Hayam Wuruk is born to Tribhuwana Wijayatungga Dewi; heir to line of Majapahit. 1343 Force under Gajah Madah defeats the Pejeng king of Bali, Dalem Bedaulu, and takes Bali for Majapahit. 1345 Arab traveller and writer Ibn Battuta visits Pasai on Sumatra. 1347 Adityavarman, king of Melayu or Jambi, rules Minangkabau for Majapahit. 1350 Hayam Wuruk becomes King of Majapahit. Majapahit conquers the Islamic kingdoms of Pasai and Aru (later Deli, near Medan) in northern Sumatra. 1351 Hayam Wuruk asks to marry the daughter of the King of Pajajaran. The King of Pajajaran agrees, and travels to Bubat in eastern Java for the ceremonies. At the last minute, Gajah Mada insists that the daughter be handed over as an act of tribute from a dependent king. The King of Pajajaran refuses to submit, violence breaks out, and the entire company from Pajajaran is killed. Pajajaran becomes a dependency of Majapahit for several years. 1364 Gajah Madah passes away. The many responsibilities that he handled are considered to be too burdensome for one normal person, so his duties are divided between four new government posts. 1377 Majapahit sends a navy against Palembang, a remnant of Srivijaya, and conquers it. 1387 Empu Jamatka founds Banjarmasin. 1389 Hayam Wuruk passes away and is succeeded by Wikramawarddhana. Another son of Hayam Wuruk, Wirabumi, disputes the succession. Beginning of the decline of Majapahit. 1400 Aceh converts to Islam. 1401 War of succession begins in Majapahit, lasting four years, with the rebellious forces led by Wirabumi. The power of Majapahit begins to lessen. Paramesvara, a prince of Palembang (and descendant of the Sailendras), is driven from Palembang to Tumasik (today’s Singapore), then ruled by a local chief under the King of Siam. Paramesvara kills the chief and takes Tumasik for himself. 1402 Paramesvara is driven from Tumasik by the King of Pahang (or perhaps Patani), acting on behalf of the King of Siam. Paramesvara with his followers founds Melaka on the west coast of Malaya. 1404 Paramesvara sends an embassy to Beijing, receives promise of protection from China. 1405 Chinese Admiral Cheng Ho visits Semarang. 1406 Wirabumi is executed, and his head is brought to the court of Majapahit. The war of succession ends. 1409 Cheng Ho visits Melaka for the first time. 1411 Paramesvara visits Beijing on a state visit. 1414 Paramesvara converts to Islam, and takes the name Iskandar Syah, after marrying the daughter of the Sultan of Pasai. Melaka is now an Islamic sultanate. The following are the Architectural Styles visible and loosely classified of the KHMER/ Angkor Monuments- Sambor Prei Kuk style (610–650): Sambor Prei Kuk, also known as Isanapura, was the capital of the Chenla Kingdom. Temples of Sambor Prei Kuk were built in rounded, plain colonettes with capitals that include a bulb. Prei Khmeng style (635–700): Structures reveal masterpieces of sculpture but examples are scarce. Colonettes are larger than those of previous styles. Buildings were more heavily decorated but had general decline in standards. Kompong Preah style (700–800): Temples with more decorative rings on colonettes which remain cylindrical. Brick constructions were being continued. Scholars have worked to develop a periodization of Angkorean architectural styles. The following periods and styles may be distinguished. Each is named for a particular temple regarded as paradigmatic for the style. Kulen style (825–875): Continuation of pre-Angkorean style but it was a period of innovation and borrowing such as from Cham temples. Tower is mainly square and relatively high as well as brick with laterite walls and stone door surrounds but square and octagonal colonettes begin to appear. Preah Ko style (877–886): Hariharalaya was the first capital city of the Khmer empire located in the area of Angkor; its ruins are in the area now called Roluos some fifteen kilometers southeast of the modern city of Siem Reap. The earliest surviving temple of Hariharalaya is Preah Ko; the others are Bakong and Lolei. The temples of the Preah Ko style are known for their small brick towers and for the great beauty and delicacy of their lintels. Bakheng Style (889–923): Bakheng was the first temple mountain constructed in the area of Angkor proper north of Siem Reap. It was the state temple of King Yasovarman, who built his capital of Yasodharapura around it. Located on a hill (phnom), it is currently one of the most endangered of the monuments, having become a favorite perch for tourists eager to witness a glorious sundown at Angkor. Koh Ker Style (921–944): During the reign of King Jayavarman IV, capital of Khmer empire was removed from Angkor region through the north which is called Koh Ker. The architectural style of temples in Koh Ker, scale of buildings diminishes toward center. Brick still main material but sandstone also used. Pre Rup Style (944–968): Under King Rajendravarman, the Angkorian Khmer built the temples of Pre Rup, East Mebon and Phimeanakas. Their common style is named after the state temple mountain of Pre Rup. Banteay Srei Style (967–1000): Banteay Srei is the only major Angkorian temple constructed not by a monarch, but by a courtier. It is known for its small scale and the extreme refinement of its decorative carvings, including several famous narrative bas-reliefs dealing with scenes from Indian mythology. Khleang Style (968–1010): The Khleang temples, first use of galleries. Cruciform gopuras. Octagonal colonettes. Restrained decorative carving. A few temples that were built in this style are Ta Keo, Phimeanakas. Baphuon Style (1050–1080): Baphuon, the massive temple mountain of King Udayadityavarman II was apparently the temple that most impressed the Chinese traveller Zhou Daguan, who visited Angkor toward the end of the 13th century. Its unique relief carvings have a naive dynamic quality that contrast with the rigidity of the figures typical of some other periods. As of 2008, Baphuon is under restoration and cannot currently be appreciated in its full magnificence. Classical or Angkor Wat Style (1080–1175): Angkor Wat, the temple and perhaps the mausoleum of King Suryavarman II, is the greatest of the Angkorian temples and defines what has come to be known as the classical style of Angkorian architecture. Other temples in this style are Banteay Samre and Thommanon in the area of Angkor, and Phimai in modern Thailand. Bayon Style (1181–1243): In the final quarter of the 12th century, King Jayavarman VII freed the country of Angkor from occupation by an invasionary force from Champa. Thereafter, he began a massive program of monumental construction, paradigmatic for which was the state temple called the Bayon. The king's other foundations participated in the style of the Bayon, and included Ta Prohm, Preah Khan, Angkor Thom, and Banteay Chmar. Though grandiose in plan and elaborately decorated, the temples exhibit a hurriedness of construction that contrasts with the perfection of Angkor Wat. Post Bayon Style (1243–1431): Following the period of frantic construction under Jayavarman VII, Angkorian architecture entered the period of its decline. The 13th century Terrace of the Leper King is known for its dynamic relief sculptures of demon kings, dancers, and nāgas. Bakong as a Temple mountain The Bakong is the earliest surviving Temple Mountain at Angkor from the 12 th Century( see 14 above) The dominant scheme for the construction of state temples in the Angkorian period was that of the Temple Mountain, an architectural representation of Mount Meru, the home of the gods in Hinduism. The style was influenced by South indian temple architecture. Enclosures represented the mountain chains surrounding Mount Meru, while a moat represented the ocean. The temple itself took shape as a pyramid of several levels, and the home of the gods was represented by the elevated sanctuary at the center of the temple. History featuring INDRAVARMAN I After the Khmer king Jayavarman II founded the Khmer empire in 802 A.D., he finally established his capital at Hariharalaya, where he died. Indravarman I was the nephew of Jayavarman II. When he ascended to the throne, he ordered the construction first of Preah Ko, which was dedicated in 879, and later of the temple-mountain known as the Bakong. It is likely that this building program was made possible by the king's peaceful reign and his ability to draw income from the expanding empire. A restoration of the towers took place in early 1990s, financed by German government. While Jayavarman II was credited for the founding of the Khmer Empire ca. 800 AD, Indravarman I was credited for an extensive building program. He set the foundations for the future Angkorian kings to follow. The king's first act was to perform a public service for his subjects by building an irrigation network for the rice fields. The goal was usually achieved by constructing a large reservoir to retain water during the monsoon season and then release it during the dry season through a network of canals and channels. And in Hindu mythology the reservoir also represents an ocean and the temple-mountain represents Mount Meru, the home of the gods. The king and his Brahman advisors performed many rituals throughout the year to reinforce this belief; for example, the ritual of rain-making performed before the rice planting season. Immediately, after Indravarman I acceded, he declared in his Práḥ Kô inscription: "In five days from today I shall begin digging, etc." Dig he did with a reservoir of an immense size: the Indratāṭaka was the biggest reservoir ever built before his time being 3.8 kilometres (2.4 mi) long by 800 metres (2,600 ft) wide. However, later rulers out-built him and made his reservoir look small. Now dry, it could have held about 7.5 million cubic metres of water during the monsoon season. The king's second act was - as mentioned above - to build shrines and dedicate them to his god, ancestors, and parents. At his capital city Hariharālaya, Roluos at present, Indravarman I built Práḥ Kô (Preah Ko), which he dedicated to his maternal father and grandfather, and the dynasty founder Jayavarman II. His palace was located at Prei Monti. Preah Ko - "The Sacred Bull" which was the first temple to be built in the ancient and now defunct city of Hariharalaya (in the area that today is called Roluos), some 15 kilometers south-east of the main group of temples at Angkor, Cambodia. The temple was built under his supervision in 879 to honor members of his family, whom it places in relation with the Hindu deity Shiva. According to the inscriptions of the Práḥ Kô temple, desecrated on Monday, 25 January 880 AD (Foundation stele K. 713 a) three pairs of temple towers for three deceased kings and their queens were built by him as a kind of "memorial temple", as can be seen by the inscriptions on the door frames of the towers: The central towers were dedicated to Jayavarman II under his posthumous name Parameśvara and his queen Dharaṇīndradevī (K. 320a),[2] the northern ones for Rudravarman (consecrated as Rudreśvara) and Rajendradevī (K. 318a), his mother's parents, and the southern towers for Pṛthivīndravarman (desecrated as Pṛthivīndreśvara) and Pṛthivīndradevī (K. 315 a) and K. 713 b). Indravarman I's wife, Indradevi, was a descendant of the royal families of Sambhupura, Vyadhapura, and Aninditapura (Funan). Preah Ko was the first temple to be built in the ancient and now defunct city of Hariharalaya, some 15 kilometers south-east of the main group of temples at Angkor, Cambodia. The temple was built under the Khmer King Indravarman I in 879 to honor members of the king's family, whom it places in relation with the Hindu deity Shiva. The temple is the earliest temple built in Angkor area. The main part is six brick tower-shaped buildings, divided into two rows, each row three. In front of the main building, there are three sculptures of the cows. No. 55 – PRAH KO INSCRIPTION OF INDRAVARMAN-DATED 801 The inscription is engraved on a stele in the temple of Prah Ko in the Roluoh group in Siem Reap District. It is written in Sanskrit and contains 40 verses, the metres being Anushtubh (1-3,7-27,29-40), Upajati (6), and Sardulavikridita (4,5,28). After an invocation to Shiva (vv1-2) the inscription refers to king Indravarman who became king in 799 (877A.D) (v.3) and gives his genealogy(v.4). Then follows the eulogy of the king (vv.5-27) who installed three statues of Shiva and three of Devi in 801 Saka (879A.D) (v.28). Then follow the donations (vv.29-38) and the usual imprecations (39-40). Other important points have been noted in the summary at the end. Many verses of this inscription occur in the other places in this and the neighbouring temples, as indicated below. Prah Ko Lintel inscription contains vv.1-7 and 27-29 in a different order and in two cases with slight modifications. Bakong Door-Pillar inscription Bayang Stele inscription conatins 1,3-6, 10, 22, and 27 with slight modifications in 3 verses. It has seven additional verses as will be noted later. Bakong Stele inscription contains many common verses as will be noted below. श्रीसिद्धि स्वस्ति जय नमः यस्य याने नानि च 3. He, Indra-varma,the lord of Kambuja, who became king in the year 799, increased the prosperity of his people by following the three rules of conduct (dharma, artha, kama). 4. The queen born in a family with a succession of kings, the daughter of Rudra-varman and daughter’s daughter of king Sri-nrpatindra-varma, became the wife of king Prthivindra varman, born of a kshatriya family, and had a son, named king Indra-varman, respected by other kings. 5.EULOGY of the king. 6. [refers to the coronation of Indra varman and Mahendra mountain,and probably also to the Devaraja cult, but the exact sense is not clear] 7. Having obtained the kingdom he made a promise “in five days, beginning from to-day ,i shall begin excavations etc” 8. He possessed the glorious lion-throne, the (vehicle) Indrayana,and (the palace) Indravimanaka, made in gold according to his own design(and of several storeys). 9-27 EULOGY of the king. 28. In the year 801 Indravarman installed here three images of Isha and three of Devi – which are works of his own art. 29. By that Indravarman, emperor, lion among kings, have been given, out of devotion, all these things to the god. 30. Palanquin, umbrellas, and many vessels of gold and silver of diverse forms and good design. 31. Large silver jars, silver fans, cups of gold and silver, caskets of gold and silver. 32. Silver vessels, silver sacrificial cups, swords with golden scabbard, jewels and ornaments. 33. Mirrors with gold and silver frame, fly-whisks, camphor and other perfumes. 34. Golden shield, laces decorated with silver, variegated clothes, and all accessories. 35. Many beautiful dancing girls, girls versed in vocal and instrumental music, skilful on playing lyres and other (instruments), and well versed in pipes and tala (beating time) 36. Large number of beautiful and well-dressed men, skilful in dancing and other (arts), with requisite clothes and ornaments. 37. Thousands of men and woman, abundant means of subsistence, many villages, with extensive meadows and parks. 38. Many thousands of cows, buffaloes, goats, male and female elephants, and many horses. 39. Those who out of greed, take the things given by Sri-indra-varma, will live in the terrible hell as long as the sun and the moon (endure) 40. But those who, out of unequalled devotion, will maintain (or increase ) (the donations), will live in the abode of Shiva as long as the sun and the moon (endure). The Temple Mountain of BAKONG The king's third act was to build a temple-mountain BAKONG (or complete a construction begun by Jayavarman III) which he dedicated to a liṅga dedicated to his patron Hindu deity Shiva called after himself. Cœdès identified thirteen Angkorian kings after Indravarman built such shrines for these dual purposes (state and memorial shrine). The shrines were built with stepped pyramids surrounded by lakes. In the centre of the capital of Hariharālaya, Indravarman I built Bakong surrounded by double-walled moats. The Bakong was his state shrine, therefore, it also housed the official [Shiva|Śiva]'s liṅga. Although his shrines are bigger than his predecessors, they are modest compared to the later shrines. It was also the first time in Khmer architecture that nāgas were employed as guardians for the bridge between the human world and the temple, house of gods. The first great temple mountain was the Bakong, a five-level pyramid dedicated in 881 by King Indravarman I. The structure of Bakong took shape of stepped pyramid, popularly identified as temple mountain of early Khmer temple architecture. The striking similarity of the Bakong and Borobudur in Java, going into architectural details such as the gateways and stairs to the upper terraces, strongly suggests that Borobudur might have served as the prototype of Bakong. There must have been exchanges of travelers, if not mission, between Khmer kingdom and the Sailendras in Java. Transmitting to Cambodia not only ideas, but also technical and architectural details of Borobudur, including arched gateways in corbelling method. Other Khmer temple mountains include Baphuon, Pre Rup, Ta Keo, Koh Ker, the Phimeanakas, and most notably the Phnom Bakheng at Angkor. According to Charles Higham, "A temple was built for the worship of the ruler, whose essence, if a Saivite, was embodied in a linga... housed in the central sanctuary which served as a temple-mausoleum for the ruler after his death...these central temples also contained shrines dedicated to the royal ancestors and thus became centres of ancestor worship." A quincunx is a spatial arrangement of five elements, with four elements placed as the corners of a square and the fifth placed in the center. The five peaks of Mount Meru were taken to exhibit this arrangement, and Khmer temples were arranged accordingly in order to convey a symbolic identification with the sacred mountain. The five brick towers of the 10th-century temple known as East Mebon, for example, are arranged in the shape of a quincunx. The quincunx also appears elsewhere in designs of the Angkorian period, as in the riverbed carvings of Kbal Spean. Quincunx Khmer temples were arranged as a quincunx with four elements placed as the corners of a square and the fifth placed in the center. These represent five peaks of Mount Meru. The five brick towers of the 10th-century temple East Mebon, are arranged in the shape of a quincunx. The quincunx also appears elsewhere in designs of the Angkorian period, as in the riverbed carvings of Kbal Spean. The Borobudur temple is also built in three tiers, each individually representing a sphere of the cosmic path to nirvana, while collectively representing the physical journey to achieve it. The temple monument combines the symbolic forms of the stupa (a Buddhist commemorative mound usually containing holy relics), the temple mountain (based on Mount Meru of Hindu mythology), and the mandala (a mystic Buddhist symbol of the universe, combining the square as earth and the circle as heaven). The central quincunx of towers symbolises the five The temple is a symmetrical stupa, consisting of nine stacked platforms: six square bases, three circular ones, with a central dome at the top. Four stairways are leading up to the top. The stones are beautifully decorated by 2672 relief panels that illustrate Buddhist teachings and tales. The temple consists of nine stacked platforms, six square and three circular, topped by a central dome. It is decorated with 2,672 relief panels and 504 Buddha statues. Borobudur has one of the largest and most complete ensembles of Buddhist reliefs in the world. Vishnu: Depictions of Vishnu are prominent at Angkor Wat which was originally dedicated to him. Shiva Most temples at Angkor are dedicated to worshipped Shiva in the form of a lingam. Anthropomorphic statues of the god are also found in the bas reliefs. ( Brahma Left and Shiva Right) anthropomorphic statues of the godNaga bridge The reliefs also depicted mythical spiritual beings in Buddhist beliefs such as asuras, gods, bodhisattvas, kinnaras, gandharvas and apsarasThe reliefs also depicted mythical spiritual beings in Buddhist beliefs such as asuras, gods, bodhisattvas, kinnaras, gandharvas and apsarasThe reliefs also depicted mythical spiritual beings in Buddhist beliefs such as asuras, gods, bodhisattvas, kinnaras, gandharvas and apsaras In an art historiography review about the figure of the God Shiva Mahadeva, a Hindu icons carved in the relief of the Buddhist temple, Borobudur Visualization of God Shiva, Hinduism Icon on Borobudur, a Buddhist Temple and Its Interaction of Hindu-Buddhist Kingdom in Java 8th – 9th Century, Yusup Sigit Martyastiadi in his paper read at the 16 th Conference,2018 for Asia Digital Art and Design, Tainan, Taiwan found that one of the reasons of the presence of these Hindu icons was due to the interaction between Hindu-Buddhist kingdoms in Java 8th – 9th century. One may recall that around the 8th century, the Sailendra dynasty rose in Kedu Plain and become the patron of Mahayana Buddhism. This ancient kingdom built monuments such as the 9th century Borobudur but also the Hindu temple Prambanan in central Java. The Medang Kingdom or Mataram Kingdom was a Javanese Hindu–Buddhist kingdom that flourished between the 8th and 11th centuries. It was based in Central Java, and later in East Java. architecture reflected in the rapid growth of temple construction. Temples dotted the landscape of its heartland in Mataram (Kedu and Kewu Plain). The most notable of the temples constructed in Medang Mataram are Kalasan, Sewu, Borobudur and Prambanan, all quite close to present-day city of Yogyakarta. At its peak, the kingdom had become a dominant empire—not only in Java, but also in Sumatra, Bali, southern Thailand, Indianized kingdoms of the Philippines, and the Khmer in Cambodia. Later the dynasty divided into two kingdoms identified by religious patronage—the Buddhist and Shivaist dynasties. Civil war followed. The outcome was that the Medang empire was divided into two powerful kingdoms; the Shivaist dynasty of Medang kingdom in Java led by Rakai Pikatan and the Buddhist dynasty of Srivijaya kingdom in Sumatra led by Balaputradewa. Hostility between them did not end until 1016 when the Sailendra clan based in Srivijaya incited a rebellion by Wurawari, a vassal of the Medang kingdom, and sacked the capital of Watugaluh in East Java. Srivijaya rose to become the undisputed hegemonic empire in the region. The Shivaist dynasty survived, reclaimed east Java in 1019, and then established the Kahuripan kingdom led by Airlangga, son of Udayana of Bali https://www.researchgate.net/publication/331558178_Visualization_of_God_Shiva_Hinduism_Icon_on_Borobudur_a_Buddhist_Temple_and_Its_Interaction_of_Hindu-Buddhist_Kingdom_in_Java_8th_-_9th_Century It is believed that there were only one dynasty—the Sailendras—and there was only the shift or split of royal patronage in favour to Hinduism or Buddhism. The period, however, between the reign of King Panangkaran to King Balitung (span between 760 and 910) that roughly lasted for 150 years, marked the apogee of Javanese classic civilisation. This period witnessed the blossoming of Javanese art and architecture, as numbers of majestic temples and monuments were erected and dominated the skyline of Kedu and Kewu Plain. Most notable of these temples are Sewu, Borobudur and Prambanan temple. The Sailendras are known as the ardent temple builder. King Sanjaya was a Shivaist, and yet his successor Panangkaran was a Mahayana Buddhist. This shift of faith, from Shivaist Sanjaya to Buddhist Panangkaran has raised problematic questions among scholars; whether there were two competing royal families that dominated the political landscapes in Central Java, that each are patrons of either Shivaist Hindu or Mahayana Buddhism. Gandhara Influences: Furthermore, there is also found about Gandhara art style, which influenced the Indonesian artifacts and visual themes on those ages. In conclusion, the figure is the God Shiva, a Hindu icon, who agreed as a kalyanamitra in the Gandavyuha Sutra text. The God Shiva mentioned as spiritual mentor who had implement dharma as a boddhisattva. The Borobudur reliefs also depicted mythical spiritual beings in Buddhist beliefs such as asuras, gods, bodhisattvas, kinnaras, gandharvas and apsarasa HINDU.COSMOLOGY: According to Stuart-Fox, Martin , and Paul Reeve,“Symbolism in City Planning in Cambodia from Angkor to Phnom Penh.” (Journal of the Siam Society 99: 105–38. . 2011) Khmer Kings never decided arbitrarily or at their whim the location of cities, their orientation and their layout. The plan of the ideal Khmer city was inspired by the model of the Khmer temples, which were based on Hindu cosmology. It should have a perfect quadrangular shape, walls with four gates in the middle of each side and an organised internal layout resembling a mandala, with the city temple in the centre and its main sanctuary inside it, with a tower shape which represents the mythological Mount Meru, the sacred axis mundi, separated by successive concentric walls. At the same time, this concrete representation of cosmology in city planning was based on the religious and political idea of the “god-king” (devaraja), which considers monarchs as incarnations on the Earth (avatars) of Shiva, Vishnu or Buddha.’ ( “Hindu-Buddhist Architecture in Southeast Asia.” Chihara, Daigoro . 1996. Studies in Asian Art and Archaeology 19. Leiden: Brill.) Cosmos: At a paper presented at Vaastu Kaushal: International Symposium on Science and Technology in Ancient Indian Monuments, New Delhi, November 16-17, 2002. Subhash Kak presenting the paper- Space and Cosmology in the Hindu Temple pointed out that according to the Sthapatya Veda (the Indian tradition of architecture), the temple and the town should mirror the cosmos. The temple architecture and the city plan are, therefore, related in their conception. “ Angkor Wat is the supreme masterpiece of Khmer art. The descriptions of the temple fall far short of communicating the great size, the perfect proportions, and the astoundingly beautiful sculpture that everywhere presents itself to the viewer. Its architecture is majestic and its representation of form and movement from Indian mythology has astonishing grace and power.” Angkor Wat occupies a rectangular area of about 208 hectares (500 acres) defined by a laetrile wall. The first evidence of the site is a moat with a long sandstone causeway (length 250 meters, 820 feet; width 12 meters, 39 feet) crossing it and serving as the main access to the monument. The moat is 200 meters (656 feel) wide with a perimeter of 5.5 kilometers (3.4 miles). Angkor Wat is influenced by the Hindu temple architecture of southern India, which combines harmony and symmetry with a high degree of outer adornment. The five beehive-shaped domes that rise impressively from the center of the temple are adorned with rows of lotuses and are designed to look like lotus buds. The temple is conceived so that all five domes are visible when the temple is viewed from certain angles. The largest dome sits over the main sanctuary. Four slightly smaller domes are organized in a square plan around the central dome. The five domes represent the five peaks of Mt. Meru, arranged in the shape of a lotus blossom. What makes the towers and Angkor Wat as a whole so beautiful are the way the small details harmonize and mix with the massive architecture. The dome-topped main sanctuary is surrounded by halls, arranged together in a square plan, with lower walls and ceilings, and smaller temples on their corners that represent the mountains on the edge of the world. The galleries, corridors and halls are aligned with directions of the compass. The wall that surrounds Angkor Wat is 5/8th of a mile long on each side; the central tower is eight stories (213 feet) high; the square moat around the compound is three miles long; and the causeway that leads across the moat to the temple is 1,500 feet long. The sandstone blocks at Angkor Wat were quarried from at least 50 different quarries at the foot of Mt. Kulen 32 kilometers to the northeast. They are believed to have been transported by canals visible today with satellite imagery. Stage 1: Moat as Cosmic Sea The outermost boundary of a Khmer temple was often surrounded by a moat, a body of water symbolic of the Cosmic Sea (blue highlights above). For Hindus, the Cosmic Sea is the source of creative energy and life, the starting point for the journey toward salvation.The temple visitor begins his journey by crossing the sea on causeways lined with serpents, beasts similarly intimately associated with both Hindu and Khmer myths of creation (we explore the serpent in detail in our guidebook to Angkor). Stage 2: Enclosure Walls as Sacred Mountain Ranges Continuing on his way to the center of the temple, the visitor passes through a series of massive enclosure walls; these walls recreate sacred mountain ranges, symbolic of obstacles that must be overcome on the path to enlightenment (green highlights in Fig. 1). Monumental tower gateways, called gopurams, grant the visitor passage through the walls, each successive one revealing a more sacred area, farther removed from the outside world. --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Vegetation and land-use at Angkor, Cambodia: A dated pollen sequence from the Bakong temple moat,Dan Penny,Christophe Pottier,Roland Fletcher https://www.researchgate.net/publication/236597655_Vegetation_and_land-use_at_Angkor_Cambodia_A_dated_pollen_sequence_from_the_Bakong_temple_moat The combination of concentric enclosure walls with large gateways was derived directly from South Indian Hindu architectural precedent. Enclosure walls make their first appearance very early in the Khmer building tradition — at the late 9th century pre-Angkor site of Roluos in the temples of Preah Ko, Bakong and Lolei — and are a constant feature in all subsequent temples. Stage 3: Five Sanctuary Towers as Mount Meru At the center of the temple stand sanctuaries with tower superstructures (red highlights above). The mountain residence of the gods. Under Hindu cosmology, the gods have always been associated with mountains. The sanctuary’s form, dominated by its large tower, recreates the appearance of the gods’ mountaintop residence, Mount Meru. The mountaintop residence of the gods carried particular symbolic resonance for the Khmer people. God’s cave. The sanctuary proper, located directly under the tower, is where an image of the deity resides (see exhibit at right). Its dark interior is designed to represent the cave into which god descends from his mountain home and becomes accessible to human beings. The sacred intersection. At the Hindu temple’s sanctuary, the worlds of the divine and living connect: the god’s vertical axis (mountaintop to cave) intersects with the visitor’s horizontal axis (temple entrance to cave). The entire universe emanates from this intersection, as unity with god is the goal of earthly existence. In Hinduism, god is believed to temporarily physically inhabit his representation in the sanctuary; the Hindu temple is arranged to enable the direct devotee-to-deity interaction that necessarily follows. Unlike other faiths, there is no religious intermediary and no abstraction; god is manifest before the devotee’s eyes, a profound encounter. It is here, among the peaks of Mount Meru, that the visitor’s symbolic journey ends in nirvana: the pairs of opposites characteristic of worldly existence (e.g., good versus bad, right versus wrong) fuse into a single infinite everythingness beyond space and time. The city of Angkor, capital of the Khmer empire from the 9th to 15th century CE, is well known for its impressive temples, but recent research has uncovered an extensive channel network stretching across over 1000 km2. The channel network with large reservoirs (termed baray) formed the structure of the city and was the basis for its water management. The annual long dry season associated with the monsoon climate has challenged water management for centuries, and the extensive water management system must have played an important role in the mitigation of such marked seasonality. However, by changing the natural water courses with off-take channels the original catchments were also reshaped. Moreover, severe problems of erosion and sedimentation in human built channels evolved and impacted on the whole water management system. This paper describes the present hydrology of the area and discusses the impacts of water management on hydrology during the Angkor era. The paper, moreover, attempts to summarise lessons that could be learnt from Angkorian water management that might apply to present challenges within the field. ______________________________________________________________________ Water management in Angkor: Human impacts on hydrology and sediment transportation, Matti Kummu,March 2009,Journal of Environmental Management 90(3):1413-21 ancient water technologies This site is an exhibition of photography of ancient water sytems. Copyright permission with Larry W. Mays Water Technologies of the Khmer Civilization: Angkor Angkor (of the Khmer culture) covered more than 160 square kilometers in northern Cambodia, situated on the edge of the Great Lake (Tonle Sap). The Classic Angkor civilization was part of the Khmer culture (between AD 802 and 1327). Prior to AD 802 the Khmer political landscape consisted of a number of independent kingdoms (Coe, 2003). Angkor became the imperial capital of the Khmer Empire. Ancient Angkor was a vast complex of temples built from the 8th to the 13th century AD. Angkor has been referred to as the world’s first mega city and a hydraulic city. A study by Evans, et al (2007) concluded that the area of Angkor’s urban complex was roughly 900 to 1,100 square kilometers which is almost four times the size of present day New York City. Angkor was a low density city with dwellings and water tanks spread over the area and connected by roads. Angkor is located in the Lower Mekong Basin which is subject to an annual cycle of monsoons causing alternation between a wet rainy season (summer monsoon) and a strongly marked dry season. The heavy rainfall during the summer monsoon causes the Mekong River and its tributaries to rise and flood low-lying areas. Snow melt in Southwestern China and Tibet flowing down the Mekong contribute to the flood volume. The Tonle Sap River, a tributary of the Mekong, reverses flow because of the back water effects from the large flows in the Delta of the Mekong and causes the water levels in the Great Lake (Tonle Sap) to rise. Floods subside during the winter monsoon and again river flow is toward the Delta causing the water levels in the Great Lake (Tonle Sap) to lower. Total rainfall in the Lower Mekong Basin fluctuates from year to year and is never very high, with an average of 150 cm per year in area of Angkor. In Phnom Penh the mean rainfall is 143 cm and can be as high as 231 cm and as low as 97 cm. Architectural Plan of Angkor Wat Angkor Wat is a miniature replica of the universe in stone and represents an earthly model of the cosmic world. The central tower rises from the center of the monument symbolizing the mythical mountain, Meru, situated at the center of the universe. Its five towers correspond to the peaks of Meru. The outer wall corresponds to the mountains at the edge of the world, and the surrounding moat the oceans beyond. The plan of Angkor Wat is difficult to grasp when walking through the monument because of the vastness. Its complexity and beauty both attract and distract one's attention. From a distance Angkor Wat appears to be a colossal mass of stone on one level with a long causeway leading to the center but close up it is a series of elevated towers, covered galleries, chambers, porches and courtyards on different levels linked by stairways. The height of Angkor Wat from the ground to the top of the central tower is greater than it might appear: 213 meters (699 feet), achieved with three rectangular or square levels (1-3) Each one is progressively smaller and higher than the one below starting from the outer limits of the temple. Covered galleries with columns define the boundaries of the first and second levels. The third level supports five towers –four in the corners and one in the middle and these is the most prominent architectural feature of Angkor Wat. This arrangement is sometimes called a quincunx. Graduated tiers, one rising above the other, give the towers a conical shape and, near the top, rows of lotuses taper to a point. The overall profile imitates a lotus bud, Several architectural lines stand out in the profile of the monument. The eye is drawn left and right to the horizontal aspect of the levels and upward to the soaring height of the towers. The ingenious plan of Angkor Wat only allows a view of all five towers from certain angles. They are not visible, for example, from the entrance. Many of the structures and courtyards are in the shape of a cross. The. Visitor should study the plan on page 86 and become familiar with this dominant layout. A curved sloping roof on galleries, chambers and aisles is a hallmark of Angkor Wat. From a distance it looks like a series of long narrow ridges but close up from identifies itself. It is a roof made of gracefully arched stone rectangles placed end to end. Each row of tiles is capped with an end tile at right angles the ridge of the roof. The scheme culminates in decorated tympanums with elaborate frames. Steps provide access to the various levels. Helen Churchill Candee, who visited Angkor in the 1920s, thought their usefulness surpassed their architectural purpose. The steps to Angkor Wat are made to force a halt at beauteous obstruction that the mind may be prepared for the atmosphere of sanctity, she wrote In order to become familiar with the composition of Angkor Wat the visitor should learn to recognize the repetitive elements in the architecture. Galleries with columns, towers, curved roofs, tympanums, steps and the cross-shaped plan occur again and again. It was by combining two or more of these aspects that a sense of height was achieved. This arrangement was used to link one part of the monument to another. Roofs were frequently layered to add height, length or dimension. A smaller replica of the central towers was repeated at the limits of two prominent areas-the galleries and the entry pavilions. The long causeway at the entrance reappears on the other side of the entry pavilion. Scale of the ambition determined the structure of the Angkor. Several years must have gone into the planning as such. The perspective Scholarly vision Angkor Wat is a miniature replica of the universe in stone and represents an earthly model of the cosmic world. The central tower rises from the center of the monument symbolizing the mythical mountain, Meru, situated at the center of the universe. Its five towers correspond to the peaks of Meru. Planning The explaination and concurrence from the Monarch The Model Schedule Approvals The site The water source The material sources The manpower Assorted materials Skill and unskilled labour Logistics manpower planning Lodging abd boarding of workers Material Storage and facilitation Training & development of workers Urban planning This, perhaps, was the first low-density city – a phenomenon normally associated with the railway age, the car and the spread of suburbia – a vast-reaching conurbation, its parts linked by an ambitious network of roads and canals, reservoirs and dams carved from the forest. Khmer cities were connected to one another, by roads and waterways- so the “built-up” area of Angkor seems to have been bigger than anyone today, much less barefoot 16th Century Portuguese friars, has been able to figure. An enormous and intricate irrigation system mapped today lidar and other tech provided Angkor with food – rice for the main part – and yet the ever-increasing scale of this engineered and well populated landscape was, it seems, its undoing. The top of the central tower, the highest part of the entire temple complex, is a dizzying 700 feet above the ground. As you get into the temple and start exploring, you would find that the Angkor Wat layout and plan consists of numerous courtyards, chambers, porches, galleries, and stairways. According to Maurice Glaize, a mid-20th-century conservator of Angkor, the temple "attains a classic perfection by the restrained monumentality of its finely balanced elements and the precise arrangement of its proportions. It is a work of power, unity and style." It was originally built in the first half of the 12th century as a Hindu temple. Spread across more than 400 acres, Angkor Wat is said to be the largest religious monument in the world. ... Originally dedicated to the Hindu god Vishnu, Angkor Wat became a Buddhist temple by the end of the 12th century. How is Angkor characterized based on elements of style?It is a work of power, unity, and style.” Architecturally, the elements characteristic of the style include: the ogival, redented towers shaped like lotus buds; half-galleries to broaden passageways; axial galleries connecting enclosures; and the cruciform terraces which appear along the main axis of the temple. How many temples are in Angkor Wat? Some 72 major temples or other buildings are found within this area, and the remains of several hundred additional minor temple sites are scattered throughout the landscape beyond. Rose Bud shape: Architecturally, the elements characteristic of the style include: the ogival, redented towers shaped like lotus buds; half-galleries to broaden passageways; axial galleries connecting enclosures; and the cruciform terraces which appear along the main axis of the temple. Typical decorative elements are devatas (or apsaras), bas-reliefs, and on pediments extensive garlands and narrative scenes. The statuary of Angkor Wat is considered conservative, being more static and less graceful than earlier work. Other elements of the design have been destroyed by looting and the passage of time, including gilded stucco on the towers, gilding on some figures on the bas-reliefs, and wooden ceiling panels and doors. One of the defining characteristics of Gothic architecture is the pointed arch. the pointed arch may have originated as in Sitamarhi caves in 3rd century BCE. The free-standing temple of Trivikrama at Ter in Maharashtra India dated to Satavahana period also contains ogive arch but it is constructed using principles of corbel. Archaeological excavation conducted by Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) at Kausambi revealed a palace with its foundations going back to 8th century BCE until 2nd century CE and built in six phases. The last phase dated to 1st–2nd century CE, featured an extensive structure which features four centered pointed arches which were used to span narrow passageways and segmental arches for wider areas.[3] Pointed arches as load bearing function were also employed in Gandhara. Two pointed arch vault system was built inside the Bhitargaon temple as noted by Alexander Cunningham, which is dated to early Gupta period of 4th–5th century CE.[4] Pointed arches also appeared in Mahabodhi temple with relieving arches and vaults between 6–7th century CE. Ogival: The pointed arch as an architectonic principle in the Middle East, is said by several scholars to have first been established in Islamic architecture during the Abbasid Caliphate in the middle of the 8th century CE, and in Gothic architecture in the 11th century CE. Some scholars have refused to accept Indian origin of pointed arch including Hill (1993), some scholars have argued that pointed arches were used in the Near East in pre-Islamic architecturebut others have stated that these arches were, in fact, parabolic and not pointed arches. In Gothic architecture, ogives are the intersecting transverse ribs of arches which establish the surface of a Gothic vault. An ogive or ogival arch is a pointed, "Gothic" arch, drawn with compasses as outlined above, or with arcs of an ellipse as described. A very narrow, steeply pointed ogive arch is sometimes called a "lancet arch". The most common form is an equilateral arch, where the radius is the same as the width. In the later Flamboyant Gothic style, an "ogee arch", an arch with a pointed head, like S-shaped curves, became prevalent. the-ogival-redented-tower-shaped-like-lotus-bud-of-angkor-wat-and-the-very-steep-stairways-representing-the-difficulty-of-ascending-to-the-kingdom RIGHT Cathedral in Rome showing the ogival that also lay a role of bolstering support to the roof The principal temple of the Angkorian region, Angkor Wat, was built between 1113 and 1150 by King Suryavarman II. Suryavarman ascended to the throne after prevailing in a battle with a rival prince. An inscription says that, in the course of combat, Suryavarman leapt onto his rival's war elephant and killed him, just as the mythical bird-man Garuda slays a serpent. After consolidating his political position through military campaigns, diplomacy, and a firm domestic administration, Suryavarman launched into the construction of Angkor Wat as his personal temple mausoleum. Breaking with the tradition of the Khmer kings, and influenced perhaps by the concurrent rise of Vaisnavism in India, he dedicated the temple to Vishnu rather than to Siva. With walls nearly half a mile long on each side, Angkor Wat grandly portrays the Hindu cosmology, with the central towers representing Mount Meru, home of the gods; the outer walls, the mountains enclosing the world; and the moat, the oceans beyond. The traditional theme of identifying the Khmer devaraja with the gods, and his residence with that of the celestials, is very much in evidence. The measurements themselves of the temple and its parts in relation to one another have cosmological significance. Suryavarman had the walls of the temple decorated with bas reliefs depicting not only scenes from mythology, but also from the life of his own imperial court. In one of the scenes, the king himself is portrayed as larger in size than his subjects, sitting cross-legged on an elevated throne and holding court, while a bevy of attendants make him comfortable with the aid of parasols and fans. Vaishnavism In the early days of Angkor, the worship of Vishnu was secondary to that of Shiva. The relationship seems to have changed with the construction of Angkor Wat by King Suryavarman II as his personal mausoleum at the beginning of the 12th century. The central religious image of Angkor Wat was an image of Vishnu, and an inscription identifies Suryavarman as "Paramavishnuloka," or "he who enters the heavenly world of Vishnu." Religious syncretism, however, remained thoroughgoing in Khmer society: the state religion of Shaivism was not necessarily abrogated by Suryavarman's turn to Vishnu, and the temple may well have housed a royal lingam. Furthermore, the turn to Vaishnavism did not abrogate the royal personality cult of Angkor. by which the reigning king was identified with the deity. According to Angkor scholar Georges Coedès, "Angkor Wat is, if you like, a vaishnavite sanctuary, but the Vishnu venerated there was not the ancient Hindu deity nor even one of the deity's traditional incarnations, but the king Suryavarman II posthumously identified with Vishnu, consubstantial with him, residing in a mausoleum decorated with the graceful figures of apsaras just like Vishnu in his celestial palace."[Suryavarman proclaimed his identity with Vishnu, just as his predecessors had claimed consubstantiation with Shiva. Vishnu-Suman Angkorian representations of Vishnu include anthropomorphic representations of the god himself, as well as representations of his incarnations or Avatars, especially Krishna and Rama. Depictions of Vishnu are prominent at Angkor Wat, the 12th-century temple that was originally dedicated to Vishnu. Bas reliefs depict Vishna battling with against asura opponents, or riding on the shoulders of his vahana or mount, the gigantic bird-man Garuda. Vishnu's attributes include the discus, the conch shell, the baton, and the orb. Face towers of the Bayon represent the king as the Bodhisattva Lokesvara. Mahayana Buddhism In the last quarter of the 12th century, King Jayavarman VII departed radically from the tradition of his predecessors when he adopted Mahayana Buddhism as his personal faith. Jayavarman also made Buddhism the state religion of his kingdom when he constructed the Buddhist temple known as the Bayon at the heart of his new capital city of Angkor Thom. In the famous face towers of the Bayon, the king represented himself as the bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara moved by compassion for his subjects.[63] Thus, Jayavarman was able to perpetuate the royal personality cult of Angkor, while identifying the divine component of the cult with the bodhisattva rather than with Shiva The architecture of the Indian rock-cut temples, particularly the sculptures, were widely adopted in South Indian, and Indianised architecture of Cambodian (Khmer), Annamese and Javanese temples (of the Greater India). In any study of Angkorian architecture, the emphasis is necessarily on religious architecture, since all the remaining Angkorian buildings are religious in nature. During the period of Angkor, only temples and other religious buildings were constructed of stone. Non-religious buildings such as dwellings were constructed of perishable materials such as wood, and so have not survived. The religious architecture of Angkor has characteristic structures, elements, and motifs, which are identified in the glossary below. Since a number of different architectural styles succeeded one another during the Angkorean period, not all of these features were equally in evidence throughout the period. Indeed, scholars have referred to the presence or absence of such features as one source of evidence for dating the remains. Khmer architecture (also known as Angkorian architecture , is the architecture produced by the Khmers during the Angkor period of the Khmer Empire from approximately the later half of the 8th century CE to the first half of the 15th century CE. The architecture of the Indian rock-cut temples, particularly the sculptures, were widely adopted in South Indian, and Indianised architecture of Cambodian (Khmer), Annamese and Javanese temples (of the Greater India). In any study of Angkorian architecture, the emphasis is necessarily on religious architecture, since all the remaining Angkorian buildings are religious in nature. During the period of Angkor, only temples and other religious buildings were constructed of stone. Non-religious buildings such as dwellings were constructed of perishable materials such as wood, and so have not survived. The religious architecture of Angkor has characteristic structures, elements, and motifs, which are identified in the glossary below. Since a number of different architectural styles succeeded one another during the Angkorean period, not all of these features were equally in evidence throughout the period. Indeed, scholars have referred to the presence or absence of such features as one source of evidence for dating the remains. Sambor Prei Kuk Pre Rup Banteay Srei Bayon Many temples had been built before Cambodia became a powerful Kingdom of Khmer Empire which dominated most of the Indochina region. At that time, Cambodia was known as Chenla kingdom, the predecessor state of Khmer empire. There are three pre-Angkorean architectural styles :[ The temple itself consists of two of the primary elements of Khmer architecture: the pyramid, and concentric galleries. The pyramid takes the form of three stepped terraces, with each step bordered on all sides by covered galleries. At each level gateways in the galleries indicate the pathway to the central shrine, and towers punctuate the corners. The pyramid culminates in five towers–an indication of the temple's central shrine. A substance known as laterite was formed to support the emerging temple which was then encased in sandstone. The sandstone blocks used in construction were quarried from a site known as the Kulen Hills, 18 miles north, and floated to the construction site through a series of canals. It is unknown how long construction took to complete and, according to some interpretations, it was never fully completed. The building was purposefully situated, and paths created in the jungle, so that visitors could only enter from the west, a direction traditionally associated with the land of the dead but also with Vishnu, to experience spiritual renewal as they drew closer to the divine energies of the temple. The design, and imposing height, was intended to draw the eye upwards to read the great stories of the gods, heroes, and ancestors carved in stone across the walls and up the columns of the great temple. All around the complex, homes and workshops were built, markets and other businesses were opened, and a network of roads created. Dimensions and Building elements: Suryavarman II & Construction In Ancient Angkor Michael Freeman; and Claude Jacques say thet “The entire complex symbolizes the Hindu beliefs enshrined within. As Freeman and Jacques describe, “It is, above all else, a microcosm of the Hindu universe. The moat represents the mythical oceans surrounding the earth and the succession of concentric galleries represent the mountain ranges that surround Mount Meru, the home of the gods. The towers represent the mountain’s peaks, and the experience of the ascent to the central shrine is, maybe intentionally, a fairly convincing imitation of climbing a real mountain.” The dimensions and building elements at Angkor Wat correspond to “calendrically and cosmologically significant totals” Suryavarman II is considered one of the greatest monarchs of the Khmer Empire (802-1431 CE) for his creation of a strong central government that united the land. Suryavarman II also sent numerous military expeditions against the kingdom of Dai Viet in modern-day Vietnam and the neighboring Champa kingdoms, but these were largely unsuccessful. His greatest successes were in diplomacy, not war, as he successfully opened relations with China which increased trade and stimulated the economy. Although he is remembered as a great ruler, Suryavarman II was a usurper, who assassinated his great uncle Dharanindravarman I (r. 1107-1113 CE) to take the throne. He is said to have compared the coup to destroying a serpent but what this alludes to, or what his motivation was, is unclear. He then legitimized his rule through personal accomplishments and immortalized it through the construction of the grand complex of Angkor Wat, dedicated to his personal protector-god Vishnu, most likely in gratitude for his victory. He had amassed considerable wealth through trade and taxes and spared no expense in the creation of his temple. Scholar Christopher Scarre notes: The Khmer's unique form of kingship produced, instead of an austere civilization like that of the Indus, a society that carried the cult of wealth, luxury, and divine monarchy to amazing lengths. This cult reached it apogee in the reign of Suryavarman II who built the temple of Angkor Wat. The building was purposefully situated, and paths created in the jungle, so that visitors could only enter from the west, a direction traditionally associated with the land of the dead but also with Vishnu, to experience spiritual renewal as they drew closer to the divine energies of the temple. The design, and imposing height, was intended to draw the eye upwards to read the great stories of the gods, heroes, and ancestors carved in stone across the walls and up the columns of the great temple. All around the complex, homes and workshops were built, markets and other businesses were opened, and a network of roads created. Angkor Wat, Cambodia-Dennis Jarvis (CC BY-SA) A substance known as laterite was formed to support the emerging temple which was then encased in sandstone. The sandstone blocks used in construction were quarried from a site known as the Kulen Hills, 18 miles north, and floated to the construction site through a series of canals. It is unknown how long construction took to complete and, according to some interpretations, it was never fully completed. Religious Background Angkor Wat can be interpreted in many different ways but Suryavarman II wanted to ensure that, however one saw the work, he would be part of it. Suryavarman II is depicted in statuary as Vishnu, consorting with the god, and performing his responsibilities as ruler such as reviewing his troops and holding court. The appearance of the monarch's likeness in so many different scenes, in fact, led early excavators to conclude that the site was a funerary temple. There are compelling reasons to come to this conclusion: unlike the other temples in the area - which face east - Angkor Wat faces west toward the land of the dead. Further, the bas-reliefs which adorn the temple are clearly meant to be read counterclockwise and, in funeral services, one conducts traditional religious rituals in reverse. If any evidence had ever been found of Suryavarman II's burial at the site, there would be no contesting the claim for it as a funerary temple; but there is no evidence of this. It is possible that it was begun as a funerary temple but it remained unfinished at Suryavarman II's death and he was cremated and buried elsewhere. It is more likely, however, that Suryavarman II had it purposefully built to honor his god, and this claim holds more weight when one considers the king's religious beliefs. Suryavarman II-Kris Suryavarman II practiced a form of Hinduism known as Vaishnavism, which is devotion to the god Vishnu above all others. Although Hinduism is generally regarded as a polytheistic religion by westerners, it is actually henotheistic, meaning there is only one god with many different aspects. In a henotheistic belief system, a single god is considered too immense to be grasped by the human mind and so appears in a multiplicity of personalities all of which focus on a single different aspect of human life. In Hinduism, Brahma is the supreme deity who creates the world while, in his form as Vishnu he preserves life and, as Shiva, takes life away and rewards humans for their toil with death, which then continues the cycle of rebirth or leads to union with the oversoul. Angkor Wat reflects the course of life, death, and eternity according to Vaishnavism, removing Brahma as the supreme god and replacing him with Vishnu. Vishnu appears to human beings in many forms throughout the centuries as avatars - like the popular Hindu god Krishna - to guide and instruct people. The most famous example of this comes from the religious text Bhagavad-Gita (“Song of God”) when Krishna visits Prince Arjuna on the battlefield of Kurukshetra to explain the nature of existence and one's purpose in life. The temple of Angkor Wat is designed to fulfill this same purpose through its ornamentation which tells the story of the human condition, the immanence of the gods, and how one is to best live one's life. SURYAVARMAN II ELEVATED THE POSITION OF THE COMMON PEOPLE, USING RELIGION, BY DECREEING THE WORSHIP OF VISHNU, A DEITY WHO WAS A PROTECTOR OF ALL. The rise of Vaishnavism in Cambodia was a direct result of the conflicts between the Khmers and the neighboring Champa. Suryavarman I (r. c. 1006-1050 CE) extended the frontiers of his realm into Thailand during his reign and came into conflict with the cities of the Champa. The Champa's religion was Buddhism (which was also the faith of the Khmer elite) which was viewed with hostility by most Khmer who saw it as a threat to their faith. Vishnu, as a protector-god, rose in popularity through these conflicts and the backlash against Buddhism. By the time of Suryavarman II's reign, the form of Hinduism known as Brahmanism, which favored the elite, was growing more popular in the region and Buddhism had also gained more adherents. Suryavarman II elevated the position of the common people, using religion, by decreeing the worship of Vishnu, a deity who was a protector of all, not the supreme creator aspect nor the destructive aspect but the mediator between human beings and the divine who had also proven himself a benevolent guardian. One of the most popular stories of Vishnu's kindness and cleverness in the interests of human beings is The Churning of the Ocean (also known as The Churning of the Ocean of Milk) in which he tricks the demons into surrendering the amrita (ambrosia) which will make the gods immortal and preserve eternal order. This story is among the most famous bas-reliefs found at Angkor Wat and supports the claim that the building was originally conceived of as a temple of worship rather than a funerary site. Stories in Stone Angkor Wat is designed to represent Mount Meru, the spiritual and physical nexus in Hinduism which is the center of all reality. The five peaks of Mount Meru are represented by the five spires of the temple. Brahma and the Devas (demigods) were thought to live on Mount Meru and it is famously referenced in The Mahabharata when Yudhishthira and his brothers travel to the gates of heaven. One by one the brothers die until only Yudhishthira and his faithful dog are left. When they reach the border of heaven, the gatekeeper tells Yudhishthira that he may enter for the worthy life he lived but that dogs are not allowed in heaven. Yudhishthira rejects any paradise which does not include dogs and turns away, but the gatekeeper stops him and reveals himself as Vishnu who was only testing him one last time before allowing him entrance. Stories such as this are told all over the temple where one finds scenes from the classic works of Hindu religious literature such as the Ramayana and Bhagavad-Gita. The great Battle of Kurukshetra from the Gita is depicted clearly as is the Battle of Lanka from the Ramayana. As most people could not read in the 12th century CE, Angkor Wat served as a gigantic book on which the important religious and cultural tales could be related visually. Churning of the Ocean of Milk-Jason Eppink (CC BY) The temple was galleried – meaning it progresses upwards through a series of galleries - giving ample room for the designers to explore the cultural, religious, and temporal history of the people. The outer gallery of the temple stretches for over 1,960 feet (600 m) covered in these reliefs. Angkor Wat was designed to represent the world with the four corners of the outer wall anchored at the four corners of the earth and the moat representing the surrounding oceans. Scenes from everyday life, mythological tales, religious iconography, and royal processions all wind themselves around the façade. At the western entrance, a large statue of eight-armed Vishnu has been placed in the present day to receive visitors who place offerings at his feet in supplication or in gratitude for prayers answered. The central sanctuary of the temple is aligned north-south to the axis of the earth, and the Vishnu statue once stood in the center, making clear that Vishnu was at the heart of all earthly and divine occurrences. The galleries, according to some scholars, were used for astronomical observations and were built specifically for that purpose so that astronomers could clearly view the rotation of the heavens in the night sky. There is no doubt the site was linked to astronomical observances as it is precisely positioned to mirror the constellation of Draco, the dragon, which represents eternity because it never sets. Rededication – Transformation Angkor Wat was rededicated as a Buddhist temple in the 14th century CE and statues of the Buddha and Buddha-related stories were added to the already impressive iconography. As the Buddhists respected the beliefs of the Hindus who still worshipped there, all of the original statuary and artwork was left in place. The Buddhist craftsmen added to the intricate story of the temple while taking nothing away. By the early 16th century CE, use of the temple had waned, even though it was still occupied by Buddhist monks, and it became the subject of stories and legends. It was said to have been built by the gods in the distant past and a popular story emerged that the god Indra had built it as a palace for his son and that it rose from nothing in the course of a single night. The temple was protected from the surrounding jungle by the immense moat and so, unlike other ancient temples and cities (such as those of the Maya of Mesoamerica) it was never completely lost. Ghost Temple: very few people know that even though local people still visited the site, it became increasingly associated with hauntings and dark spirits. The great enthusiasm of devotees who used to visit the temple, it was said, needed to be continued to infuse the area with positive energy. Once worship at the site fell off, the dark spirits, attracted by the afterglow of the high energy, moved in and made the place their home. Dark energy was now thought to emanate from the empty galleries, porches, and entranceways, and fewer and fewer people went to visit. With only a few monks to care for it, the buildings began to decay and even though it was never completely taken by the jungle, natural growth made headway up the walls and through the cracks between the stones. In 2016 CE, a New York Times article reported on the ongoing efforts of archaeologists who continue to make discoveries in the surrounding jungle and have located the sites of the workers who built the temple and of others who lived around the complex. The temple itself has undergone major restoration and is one of the most popular archaeological parks in the world. Those who visit Angkor Wat today are following in the footsteps of literally millions of people from the past who have emerged from the surrounding jungle to find themselves at the site Suryavarman II created as the nexus of earth and heaven. Along with the Hindu and Indian Kandariya Mahadeva Temple at Khajuraho, Central India, and the Taj Mahal in northern India, the Cambodian Khmer temple complex of Angkor Wat ranks among the greatest examples of religious architecture in the whole of Asia, comparable to the finest specimens of Gothic architecture or Baroque architecture in Europe. Situated some 4 miles (6 km) north of the modern town of Siem Reap in northwestern Cambodia (Kampuchea), the temple was built about 1115-1145 in Angkor, the capital of the Khmer Empire, by King Suryavarman II (ruled 1113-1150), to serve as his mausoleum. Angkor Wat operated first as a Hindu shrine dedicated to Vishnu, then a Theravada Buddhist temple in the late 13th century. Today Angkor Wat is Cambodia's most famous site of religious art and its silhouette appears on the Cambodian national flag. The temple is renowned for its high classical style of Khmer architecture, as well as the staggering quantity of its relief sculpture and architectural carvings. Artifacts taken from the site and large sections cast from the temple buildings were exhibited in Paris in 1867, announcing a great and unknown civilization rivalling in sophistication the work of the greatest architects in the West. In 1992, along with a sister temple Angkor Thom, Angkor Wat was proclaimed a UN World Heritage Site. For other examples of Asian art, see: Traditional Chinese Art. Also, please see: India: Painting & Sculpture. History The city of Angkor (ancient name: Yasodharapura) was the royal capital from which Khmer kings ruled one of the largest and most sophisticated kingdoms in the history of Southeast Asia. From 890, when King Yasovarman I moved his capital to Angkor, until about 1210, the kings of Angkor controlled an area that extended from the southern tip of the Indochina peninsula northward to Yunnan and from Vietnam westwards as far as the Bay of Bengal. During this era, these kings implemented a series of massive construction projects designed to glorify both themselves and their dynastic capital. After the death of King Jayavarman VII (1181-1215), the Angkor Empire went into decline, although as late as 1280 Angkor was still a thriving metropolis and one of the most magnificent cities in Asia. However, the great construction boom was over, Angkor Wat had been turned into a Buddhist shrine, and Thai armies were watching. In 1431 they sacked the city which was then abandoned. From the early 15th century to the late 19th century, interest in Angkor was limited almost entirely to the Angkor Wat temple complex which, having been maintained by Buddhist monks, became one of the most significant pilgrimage sites in Southeast Asia. In time, the complex fell into disrepair and all that remained were jungle-covered ruins of the ancient temples and the remnants of the once-magnificent series of waterways, although it was never completely abandoned and its moat helped to preserve it against total engulfment. After the French took over Cambodia in 1863, they instigated a thorough program of reconstruction, under which Angkor Wat's buildings, reservoirs, and canals were restored to something approaching their original grandeur. The political and military upheavals which took place in Cambodia during the period 1935-1990 put an end to this program, but otherwise caused no great headaches. The site's only serious problem remained the encroachment of the jungle. Architecture and Construction The Angkor Wat temple is made from 6-10 million blocks of sandstone, each of which has an average weight of 1.5 tons. The city of Angkor required more stone than all the Egyptian pyramids combined, and originally occupied an area considerably greater than modern-day Paris. Given the additional complexity of the overall building scheme, it is clear that Angkor was designed and managed by some of the finest architects in southeast Asia. The temple was designed and built on the basis of religious and political ideas imported from India, albeit adapted to local conditions. From the time of King Yasovarman I, for whom the city (originally called Yasodharapura) was named, Angkor was designed as a symbolic universe modelled on traditional Indian cosmology, and its temples were built in order to provide a means whereby Khmer kings could be assured of immortality by becoming closely identified with Shaiva or one of the other important deities of the realm. Angkor Wat, for instance, was built by King Suryavarman II as a huge funerary temple and tomb to serve as a home for his earthly remains and to confirm his immortal and eternal identitification with Vishnu. Angkor Wat defines what has come to be understood as the classical style of Angkorian architecture: other temples designed in this idiom include Banteay Samre and Thommanon in the area of Angkor, and Phimai in modern Thailand. It combines two basic features of Khmer temple architecture: the temple-mountain and the galleried temple, founded on early Dravidian architecture, with key features including the "Jagati" - a raised platform or terrace upon which many buddhist and hindu temples were built. In addition to Angkor Wat, another famous shrine with a jagati is the Kandariya Mahadeva Temple, at Khajuraho. Built on rising ground and surrounded by an artificial moat, the temple of Angkor Wat is laid out symmetrically on tiered platforms that ascend to the central tower (one of a quincunx), which rises to a height of 213 feet (65 metres). Long colonnades connect the towers at each stepped level in concentric rings of rectangular galleries, whose walls are lined with sculpture and relief carvings. The temple is approached across the moat, via a stone causeway lined with stone figures. The ascending towers represent the spiritual world and mountain homes of the gods and were probably built in homage to ancestral deities. The temple's structures are chiefly built in stone with detailed bas-reliefs carved into the walls; the corbelled blockwork and pseudo-vaulted towers are covered with highly animated figures chiseled into the sandstone and volcanic rock. Sculpture The Angkor Wat temple is world famous for its stone sculpture which can be seen on almost all of its surfaces, columns, lintels and roofs. There are literally miles of reliefs, typically in the form of bas-relief friezes illustrating scenes from Indian mythology, and featuring a bewildering array of animal and human figures, as well as abstract motifs like lotus rosettes and garlands. They include: devatas (Hindu gods or spirits), griffins, unicorns, lions, garudas, snakes, winged dragons, dancing girls and warriors. Khmer sculptors - surely some of the greatest sculptors in southeast Asia - paid meticulous attention to the headdresses, hair, garments, posture and jewellery of the deities and human figures. In addition to reliefs, Angkor Wat contains numerous statues of Buddhas and Bodhisattvas. Carved pediments and lintels decorate the entrances to the galleries and to the shrines. While the inner walls of the outer gallery, for example, are decorated with a series of large-scale scenes depicting episodes from Hindu sagas like the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. On the southern gallery walls there is a representation of the 37 heavens and 32 hells of Hindu mythology, while the eastern gallery houses one of the most celebrated friezes, the Churning of the Sea of Milk, featuring Vishnu showing 88 devas and 92 asuras. The massive sandstone bricks used to construct the 12th-century temple of Angkor Wat were brought to the site via a network of hundreds of canals, according to new research. The findings shed light on how the site's 5 million to 10 million bricks, some weighing up to 3,300 pounds (1,500 kilograms), made it to the temple from quarries at the base of a nearby mountain. The researchers found many quarries of sandstone blocks used for the Angkor temples and also the transportation route of the sandstone blocks. Archaeologist knew that the rock came from quarries at the base of a mountain nearby, but wondered how the sandstone bricks used to build Angkor Wat reached the site. Previously people thought the stones were ferried to Tonle Sap Lake via canal, and then rowed against the current through another river to the temples. To see whether this was the case the area was surveyed to find 50 quarries along an embankment at the base of Mt. Kulen. They also scoured satellite images of the area and found a network of hundreds of canals and roads linking the quarries to the temple site. The distance between the quarries and the site along the route Uchida's team found was only 22 miles (37 kilometers), compared with the 54 miles (90 km) the river route would have taken. The grid of canals suggests the ancient builders took a shortcut when constructing the temple, which may explain how the imposing complex was built in just a few decades. Sambor Prei Kuk style (610–650): Sambor Prei Kuk, also known as Isanapura, was the capital of the Chenla Kingdom. Temples of Sambor Prei Kuk were built in rounded, plain colonettes with capitals that include a bulb. Prei Khmeng style (635–700): Structures reveal masterpieces of sculpture but examples are scarce. Colonettes are larger than those of previous styles. Buildings were more heavily decorated but had general decline in standards. Kompong Preah style (700–800): Temples with more decorative rings on colonettes which remain cylindrical. Brick constructions were being continued. Scholars have worked to develop a periodization of Angkorean architectural styles. The following periods and styles may be distinguished. Each is named for a particular temple regarded as paradigmatic for the style. Kulen style (825–875): Continuation of pre-Angkorean style but it was a period of innovation and borrowing such as from Cham temples. Tower is mainly square and relatively high as well as brick with laterite walls and stone door surrounds but square and octagonal colonettes begin to appear. Preah Ko style (877–886): Hariharalaya was the first capital city of the Khmer empire located in the area of Angkor; its ruins are in the area now called Roluos some fifteen kilometers southeast of the modern city of Siem Reap. The earliest surviving temple of Hariharalaya is Preah Ko; the others are Bakong and Lolei. The temples of the Preah Ko style are known for their small brick towers and for the great beauty and delicacy of their lintels. Bakheng Style (889–923): Bakheng was the first temple mountain constructed in the area of Angkor proper north of Siem Reap. It was the state temple of King Yasovarman, who built his capital of Yasodharapura around it. Located on a hill (phnom), it is currently one of the most endangered of the monuments, having become a favorite perch for tourists eager to witness a glorious sundown at Angkor. Koh Ker Style (921–944): During the reign of King Jayavarman IV, capital of Khmer empire was removed from Angkor region through the north which is called Koh Ker. The architectural style of temples in Koh Ker, scale of buildings diminishes toward center. Brick still main material but sandstone also used. Pre Rup Style (944–968): Under King Rajendravarman, the Angkorian Khmer built the temples of Pre Rup, East Mebon and Phimeanakas. Their common style is named after the state temple mountain of Pre Rup. Banteay Srei Style (967–1000): Banteay Srei is the only major Angkorian temple constructed not by a monarch, but by a courtier. It is known for its small scale and the extreme refinement of its decorative carvings, including several famous narrative bas-reliefs dealing with scenes from Indian mythology. Khleang Style (968–1010): The Khleang temples, first use of galleries. Cruciform gopuras. Octagonal colonettes. Restrained decorative carving. A few temples that were built in this style are Ta Keo, Phimeanakas. Baphuon Style (1050–1080): Baphuon, the massive temple mountain of King Udayadityavarman II was apparently the temple that most impressed the Chinese traveller Zhou Daguan, who visited Angkor toward the end of the 13th century. Its unique relief carvings have a naive dynamic quality that contrast with the rigidity of the figures typical of some other periods. As of 2008, Baphuon is under restoration and cannot currently be appreciated in its full magnificence. Classical or Angkor Wat Style (1080–1175): Angkor Wat, the temple and perhaps the mausoleum of King Suryavarman II, is the greatest of the Angkorian temples and defines what has come to be known as the classical style of Angkorian architecture. Other temples in this style are Banteay Samre and Thommanon in the area of Angkor, and Phimai in modern Thailand. Bayon Style (1181–1243): In the final quarter of the 12th century, King Jayavarman VII freed the country of Angkor from occupation by an invasionary force from Champa. Thereafter, he began a massive program of monumental construction, paradigmatic for which was the state temple called the Bayon. The king's other foundations participated in the style of the Bayon, and included Ta Prohm, Preah Khan, Angkor Thom, and Banteay Chmar. Though grandiose in plan and elaborately decorated, the temples exhibit a hurriedness of construction that contrasts with the perfection of Angkor Wat. Post Bayon Style (1243–1431): Following the period of frantic construction under Jayavarman VII, Angkorian architecture entered the period of its decline. The 13th century Terrace of the Leper King is known for its dynamic relief sculptures of demon kings, dancers, and nāgas. Chapter 2 The Walls and TOWERS of Angkor Thom Wide gates built to accommodate royalty on elephants -12th Century Khmer engineering. The Chinese diplomat, Zhou Daguan, who visited Angkor from 1296–97, and published in his book The Customs of Cambodia, recalls the splendor of life in the royal city. "Each time he [King Indravarman III] came out all his soldiers were gathered in front of him, with people bearing banners, musicians and drummers following behind him. One contingent was made of three to five hundred women of the palace. They wore clothes with a floral design and flowers in their coiled-up hair, and carried huge candles, alight even though it was daylight.” Picture this: A full-moon midnight and warriors with torches running atop a high stone wall. Flaming arrows whizzing through the air, setting ablaze trees, huts, and unfortunate citizens. Elephants trumpet wildly as they charge the wall. Crocodiles crunch bones in the waters of the wide moat. The relentless Siamese army with its archers on horseback and its wall-smashing elephants are attempting to breach the 3-kilometre-long south wall of Angkor Thom, citadel and heart of the vast Khmer Kingdom. That was in the year 1431, some six centuries after the birth of the Khmer Kingdom and the planning of its fabulous architectural monuments by King Jayavarman VII. The wall was 12 kilometres long Historically a defensive wall is a fortification usually used to protect a city, town or other settlement from potential aggressors. The walls can range from simple palisades or earthworks to extensive military fortifications with towers, bastions and gates for access to the city. From ancient to modern times, they were used to enclose settlements. Generally, these are referred to as city walls or town walls, although there were also walls, such as the Great Wall of China, Walls of Benin, Hadrian's Wall, Anastasian Wall, and the Atlantic Wall, which extended far beyond the borders of a city and were used to enclose regions or mark territorial boundaries. In mountainous terrain, defensive walls such as letzis were used in combination with castles to seal valleys from potential attack. Beyond their defensive utility, many walls also had important symbolic functions – representing the status and independence of the communities they embraced. How did the Khmer build their temples? Khmer temples were typically enclosed by a concentric series of walls, with the central sanctuary in the middle; this arrangement represented the mountain ranges surrounding Mount Meru, the mythical home of the gods. Enclosures are the spaces between these walls, and between the innermost wall and the temple itself. Angkor Thom "Great City", alternatively Nokor Thom located in present-day Cambodia, was the last and most enduring capital city of the Khmer Empire, established in the late twelfth century by King Jayavarman VII. It covers an area of 9 km², within which are located several monuments from earlier eras as well as those established by Jayavarman and his successors. At the centre of the city is Jayavarman's state temple, the Bayon, with the other major sites clustered around the Victory Square immediately to the north. The site is one of the major tourist attractions of southeast Asia. Is Angkor Wat and Angkor Thom same? Angkor Thom is not a singular temple dedicated to a Hindu deity such as Angkor Wat; instead, it is the name of one of the most impressive royal cities of the Angkor Period (9th–15th centuries) and an urban planning marvel. The purpose of studying Angkor Thom walls is to generally identify the wall building construction trends of all walls built during the time of the so called Khmer empire and consequently the various dynasties. Existing ancient walls are almost always masonry structures, although brick and timber-built variants are also known. Depending on the topography of the area surrounding the city or the settlement the wall is intended to protect, elements of the terrain such as rivers or coastlines may be incorporated in order to make the wall more effective. Walls may only be crossed by entering the appropriate city gate and are often supplemented with towers. The practice of building these massive walls, though having its origins in prehistory, was refined during the rise of city-states, and energetic wall-building continued into the medieval period and beyond in certain parts of Europe. Simpler defensive walls of earth or stone, thrown up around hillforts, ringworks, early castles and the like, tend to be referred to as ramparts or banks. 2 type of walls Curtain wass : In the stick system, the curtain wall frame (mullions) and glazing panels are installed and connected together piece by piece. In the unitized system, the curtain wall is composed of large units that are assembled and glazed in the factory, shipped to the site, and erected on the building. Definition of Outer or Boundary Wall: A boundary wall is “any wall constructed on, above, or over the physical border between two properties so that it stands on or occupies space on both properties at least partially.” Does boundary wall Need foundation? If the soil condition is extremely poor like in a marshy terrain, and warrants the use of piling or raft foundation, a deeper footing is required for the boundary wall. In such cases the depth of the excavation should be higher and the usage of adhering materials in necessary. It is very important to build a proper foundation for the freestanding boundary wall. As the outer wall does not have any other support, then make sure to add good quality steel reinforcement bars. Moreover, as a general rule, create a wider and deeper foundation for a strong and stable boundary wall. The idea behind a shell keep castle was to replace the wooden outer wall which had previously encircled the castle with a stone wall. The stone shell contained the existing wooden buildings and acted as a shield against attackers. Most of it was used for subdividing property (boundary markers, field subdivisions, and livestock enclosure). Much of the remainder was used for the construction of foundations, the filling of wet land, the strengthening of embankments, and other engineered structures. What is on the wall of Angkor Wat? On top of the four corners of the wall are the small temples which are called Chrung temples or Corner temples. Mr. Ros Chandraboth, a PhD in political science wrote in his book on Cambodia's history that the act of bravery of King Jayavarman VII was inscribed on the stone of the Chrung temple in Angkor Thom city. Angkor Wat is the largest religious monument on the planet. Angkor Wat is spread across over 400 acres / 1.6 km², and is said to be the largest religious monument in the world. It was listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1992, which encouraged an international effort to save the complex. Research findings shed light on how the site's 5 million to 10 million bricks, some weighing up to 3,300 pounds, made it to the temple from quarries at the base of a nearby mountain. History of Forts in Ancient India A discussion of the evolution of forts during Ancient India is an ambitious endeavour. This period saw the rise and fall of numerous empires and dynasties throughout the length and breadth of the country. The forts of the subcontinent during this period exhibit great diversity and do not follow a linear pattern of development. This period saw the synthesis of art and architectural traditions that developed within the subcontinent as well as those that travelled from far off lands along with conquerors and adventurers. The present essay aims to provide a broad overview of these developments. Forts today are seen as the tangible reminders of the military might of the kingdoms of the past. However, the beginning of forts in India start way back in time when kingdoms and empires had not yet come into existence. The earliest fortifications were perhaps not even manmade. Natural defenses such as rivers, hills and forests were used as lines of protection and spaces of safety. Some of the earliest evidence of built fortifications on the Indian subcontinent predate the Indus Valley Civilization. Excavations in areas around the Indus revealed the existence of a Pre-Harappan Phase wherein large fortified settlements existed. A notable level of expertise in crafts such as stone working and metals seems to have been achieved during the period. Indus Valley Period As we come to the Indus Valley period, fairly elaborate fortifications built of mud, baked bricks and (even) stones appear. This period is rich in archaeological evidence which enables an in depth understanding of its architectural heritage. An important feature of Indus Valley town planning was the division of the settlements into two distinct areas: Citadel and Lower Town. The town of Mohenjodaro was also divided into these two broad divisions, and the citadel area was additionally surrounded by a moat. Kot Diji (3300 BCE) was a fortified site with a massive wall made of limestone rubble and mud-brick, and the settlement consisted of a citadel complex and a lower residential area. Kalibangan (2920–2550 BCE) was surrounded by massive mud-brick fortifications. In the rocky areas of Kutch and Saurashtra, there was extensive use of stone in building fortified walls. Dholavira in the Rann of Kutch was fortified with an imposing wall made of stone rubble set in mud mortar. This massive fortification wall and the remains of stone pillars in the citadel are very distinctive and are not witnessed at any other Harappan site. Many scholars do not consider these constructions to be defensive works, but regard them as either protective embankments against floods or as structures erected for social functions. However, fortifications, especially imposing ones such as in Dholavira, cannot be overlooked. Force and conflict could not have been completely absent in such a large area over such a long period of time as encompassed by the Indus Valley Civilization. Vedic Period Evidence from the Vedic period comes more in the form of literature and less in the form of material archaeological evidence. The Rig Veda mentions a famous Bharata king by the name of Divodasa who defeated the Dasa ruler Shambara, who commanded many mountain fortresses. It also mentions tribes living in fortifications called Pura. The Aiteraya Brahmana refers to three sacrificial Agnis, or fires, as three forts which prevent the Asuras (demons) from disturbing the sacrifice. Indra, is referred to in Vedic literature as Puramdara or the destroyer of forts. Mahajanapadas The next set of archaeological evidence for forts comes from the period of the Second Urbanisation in India (6th century B.C. to 3rd century B.C.) which witnessed the large-scale growth of town life in the middle Gangetic basin. This period also witnessed the emergence of the Mahajanapadas or sixteen republics: Anga, Avanti, Assaka, Chedi, Gandhara, Kasi, Kamboja, Kosala, Kuru, Malla, Matsya, Magadha, Panchala, Surasena, Vatsa and Vriji. With the growth of powerful kingdoms, emerged constant warfare, and the consequent need for strengthening their defense and military prowess. Rajgir, close to Patna, is the site of ancient Rajagriha which was the first capital of Magadha. There were two cities—Old Rajagriha and New Rajagriha. Old Rajagriha, lay between five hills and was surrounded by two stone fortification walls. New Rajagriha was also surrounded by stone fortifications. The Old Rajagriha outer fortifications belong to the time of Bimbisara, i.e., the 6th century BCE and the two sets of walls around New Rajagriha belong to the time of Ajatashatru, i.e., 5th century BCE. The Maha-Parinibbana-sutta, a Buddhist text, mentions that a fort was built near the village of Patali, under the orders of King Ajatashatru of Rajagriha. This later emerged as the town of Pataliputra. The Magadha ruler Udayin shifted his capital from Rajagriha to Pataliputra. Ancient Champa, capital of Anga (now Champapur and Champanagar villages in south Bihar) was surrounded by fortifications and a moat. Kaushambi, capital of Vatsa, too was surrounded by a mud fortification wall. Ahichchhatra, capital of Panchala, was a huge fortified city. Ujjayini (modern Ujjain), on the banks of the Sipra river, was the capital of Avanti. The settlement was surrounded by an imposing mud fortification wall as well as a moat. . In 326 BCE, Alexander reached the boundaries of Magadha. Arian’s Anabasis of Alexander (a history of the campaigns of Alexander) written around the 1st or 2nd century BCE describes the Mallian campaign (against the Malloi of Punjab region also known as Malavas) of Alexander in great detail. It spoke of the walled cities with citadels of commanding heights which were difficult to access. The walls are also said to have had towers at regular intervals. Mauryan Period After the fall of the Nanda Dynasty, Chandragupta Maurya became the first king of the great Mauryan dynasty (321 BCE) with the help of his legendary minister Kautilya. Kautilya’s Arthasastra, a political treatise, is in fact one of the most important literary sources for understanding the military institutions and fortifications of the period. Its concept of the saptanga rajya considers the state as consisting of seven inter-related elements —svami (the king), amatya (ministers), janapada (the territory and the people), danda (justice), durga (the fortified capital), kosha (the treasury), and mitra (ally). While describing the fourth element, i.e., durga, he provides detailed directions for its construction. He recommends a mud rampart with parapets of brick or stone, and suggests that troops be stationed all along the fort. The fort walls are to be be surrounded by three moats filled with lotuses and crocodiles. The fort should be well supplied with provisions to last through sieges and should have secret escape routes. Kautilya also mentions different categories of forts: the Dhanva Durg or desert fort; the Mahi Durg or mud fort; the Jala Durg or water fort; the Giri Durg or hill fort; Vana Durg or forest fort; the Nara Durg or fort protected by loyal soldiers. The last Mauryan king was overthrown by Pushyamitra Shunga who established the Shunga dynasty in 187 BCE. Fortifications belonging to the Shunga period were identified at Katragarh, in Muzaffarpur district, Bihar which included ramparts made of burnt brick walls with a mud core and a trench. Peninsular India (Sangam Period). Literary and archaeological evidence indicates that the map of the early peninsular India was dotted with hundreds of forts. The concept of a fully-built fort with all its architectural features such as moats, turrets and bastions had reached a mature stage of evolution during the Sangam period (3rd century BCE- 3rd century CE). The forts were built either of mud or huge laterite blocks or bricks. Brickbats and pebbles were used during later renovations meant to strengthen the ramparts. While bigger forts were built around capital cities (like Madurai, Kanachi, Vanji - the capitals of the Pandyas, Paliavas and Cheras respectively) and important commercial centres, smaller forts were erected around royal palaces. One of the earliest South Indian forts built with stones and bricks has been reported from Pudur village in Nellore in Andhra Pradesh. The fort was rectangular in plan and built of large bricks. The moat around the fort was nearly 30 metres wide. One of the grandest forts vividly described in the Sangam literature, was the one at Madurai. Puram (Tamil classical poetry concerned with war) says, “The huge fort walls at Madurai looked like a mountain while the gates of the fort were like a broad river. The entire city was surrounded by forests dense with trees and shrubs; beyond this was a very deep moat full of clear water.” Gupta Period The Gupta Dynasty ruled the North Central India between the 4th and 6th centuries CE and is considered a golden age for arts. The Dynasty was founded by Chandragupta I who acceded to the throne in 320 CE. The Guptas were the first to build Hindu and Buddist temples to fulfill a certain purpose. Their style of architecture displays a variety of beautifully adorned towers, engravings and carvings, and rock cut shrines in their temples. Unfortunately very few among the many temples of the Gupta Dynasty survive today. Gupta architecture includes a plethora of varied designs, styles and features and preceded the time of standardized structures of Hindu temples. Gupta empire encompassed a large part of the Indian subcontinent between the 3rd and the 6th centuries CE. In terms of architecture, the Gupta period is primarily known for its religious architecture consisting of Buddhist and Jain cave temples and some of the earliest free-standing Hindu temples. Not a lot of scholarly attention has been focused on the fortifications and military architecture of the imperial Guptas. The Allahabad Pillar inscription records that Samudragupta, during his southern expedition in the 4th century CE, arrived at Mahendragiri and defeated a king named Svamidatta. He is also said to have captured the hill-forts of Mahendragiri and Kottura in Ganjam. The hill-fort of Mahendragiri was built by the early Ganga Kings. The Garhwa Fort complex houses some of the oldest remains of the Gupta period, including architectural relics of temples and tanks dating back to the 5th-6th century. It was however Raja Baghel Raja Vikramaditya of Bara (UP) who secured the temple ruins at Garhwa with a square enclosure and parapets in the 18th century. Basarh fort, in present-day Bihar (known as Raja Bisal-ka-garh), is believed to have been constructed under the Guptas. Temple Architecture Temple Architecture in the Gupta Age was a five stage development process. The first stage saw Flat Roof Temples, Square Temples, Shallow Pillared approach to the front and temples on low platforms. An example of this stage is Temple 17 at Sanchi (Madhya Pradesh). In the Second stage Flat Roof and square temple continued and so did the pillar approach except it wasn’t shallow. Temples were now on high platforms/upraised platforms. There were Covered ambutary around the sanctum sanctorum. Instances of two storeyed temples were also seen. Third Stage included Square temples, the pillared approach, High platform, low and squared Shikars were also found and the Panchayatan Style was introduced along with the concept of subsidiary shrines. The Nagara style is a successor of the third stage of temple making. The fourth stage introduced Rectangular Temples while all other features continued. Fifth Stage included Circular Temples with shallow rectangular projections while all else continued. There are three styles of Temple Architecture: The Nagara Style, the Dravidan style and the Vesara. Nagara Style The Nagara Style of Temple architecture saw the absence of tank in the temples. The temple walls were divided in to three vertical planes or ‘rathas’. Sculptures were made in these three rathas -Trirathas. Later Pancharatha, Saptaratha and even Navaratha emerged. This style was prominent in northern and central India but not in the Peninisular. Three sub schools developed in Nagara Style: Odissa School, Khajuraho School and Solanki School. Khajuraho Style This style was developed by Chandela Rulers. Both the interior and the exterior of the temple are lavishly decorated with intricate carvings. Sculptures based on erotic themes seen on the temples. Temples lacked boundary walls. Shikaras were seen even on the subsidiary shrines and such style had temples on high platforms. There are three key elements seen in this style: Garbha Griha, Assembly Hall and Portico (Veranda surrounded by pillars) Solanki School This school was based in Gujarath under the Solanki Rulers. Temples were constructed on the steps of massive rectangular stepped tank. The wall of the central shrine is devoid of carvings and the temple faces east. Hence every year on Equinox sun shines directly onto the Central Shrine. The central projections of the west, north and south faces are occupied by matching balconies with purna-kalasha columns and a deep porch frames. The entrance to the temple is in the east. Dravidian Style This style was seen during the Pallava Period and can be divided into four stages. First Stage included the Mahendra Group, Rock Cut Arches and the word Mandapa was used. The Second Stage included the Narasimha Group, decorations and Mandap became Rathas. Raja Simha Group, development of the real structural temples and the shore temple at Mahabalipuram and Kailasanatha Temple at Kanchipuram are attested to the third stage. While the Nandi Varman Group, development of Small temples and Dravidian style further continued into the fourth stage. Shikara is the crowning element on the top of the temple, similar to Amalak and Kailash of Nagara Style. The entrance has sculptures of dwarpalas. There is only one vimana. Temples functioned as Religious Centres, Administrative centres and Centres of Education and Revenue. Vesara It’s a mix of both the Dravidian and the Nagara Style of the Temple Architecture. The principle components of this style are Vimana and Mandapa. Covered ambulatory is not observed in this style. Pillars, Door frames and the ceilings are intricately carved. Vijayanagara Slight variations are seen in the Temple Architectures. These being that the Gopurams were now enlarged, high enclosure walls were seen, there was more decoration and the sculpture of the Motiff of a supernatural horse were seen more frequently. Secular buildings were also seen. An example of this style is the Lotus Mahal. Hoysala Hoysala is seen in South Karnataka in the Mysore Region. Multiple shrines are grounded around the central hall. It follows the Stellate Plan or star shaped shrines. This style has softsoap stone temples and both the exterior and the interior of the temple have carvings. The Shikara in each inner chamber is radically arranged in horizontal lines and mouldings which revolve in an orderly succession. There is an upraised platform or a Jagati and a star and zig-zag design is seen among these temples. https://www.thehansindia.com/posts/index/Hans/2016-05-31/Understanding-Gupta-Architecture/231823 Rajputs The topography of Rajasthan, is defined by the existence of the Aravalli hills which results in a rocky terrain covered by scrubland. One of the defining characteristics of the Rajputs, apart from their strong clan loyalties, is the widespread construction of forts. The Rajput forts that we encounter today in their full glory are structures that have existed over the centuries and witnessed layers of construction. According to a legend, the Chittorgarh fort was said to be built by a local Maurya ruler Chitrangada Maurya. The fort is believed to have been captured by Guhila (a Rajput clan) ruler Bappa Rawal in the 8th century CE. According to a local legend, the Gwalior Fort was built by a local king named Suraj Sen (of the Sakarwar clan of Rajputs) in the 3rd century CE. He named the fort after a sage called Gwalipa who cured him of leprosy. The Amer Fort too boasts of a long history. The first Rajput structure is believed to have been built in the 11th century. The Fort, as is witnessed today, was built over this older structure by Raja Man Singh, the Kachwaha King of Amer, between the 16th and the 17th centuries. The Jaisalmer fort is believed to have been built by Rawal Jaisal a Rajput of Bhati clan in the 12th century CE. The Rajput forts, mostly built during the early medieval period, continued well into the medieval times when they attained more complex and refined forms. In their mature phases the Rajput forts display distinct characteristics. The Forts feature massive fortified gates, flanked by watchtowers. Most forts contained a series of gates. These gates were often built to commemorate victories in battle. Ramparts and outer fortified walls consisted of watchtowers at regular intervals. The ramparts also contained a unique system of tunnels and stairs. The design of the ramparts was customised according to the usage of weapons. In the days of bows and arrows, these had narrow slits that allowed only the arrow to come out. Later, with the introduction of gunpowder and cannons during the medieval period, the ramparts were designed to accommodate both cannon and men. Walls were strengthened and reinforced to withstand cannon fire. All forts had a special area for worship dedicated to the deity of the ruling clan. Southeast Asia The concept of a city fully enclosed by walls was not fully developed in Southeast Asia until the arrival of Europeans. However, Burma serves an exception, as they had a longer tradition of fortified walled towns; towns in Burma had city walls by 1566. Besides that, Rangoon in 1755 had stockades made of teak logs on a ground rampart. The city was fortified with six city gates with each gate flanked by massive brick towers. In other areas of Southeast Asia, city walls spread in the 16th and 17th century along with the rapid growth of cities in this period as a need to defend against European naval attack. Ayutthaya built its walls in 1550 and Banten, Jepara, Tuban and Surabaya all had theirs by 1600; while Makassar had theirs by 1634. A sea wall was the main defense for Gelgel. For cities that did not have city walls, the least it would have had was a stockaded citadel. This wooden walled area housed the royal citadel or aristocratic compounds such as in Surakarta and Aceh. Bastions and star forts As a response to gunpowder artillery, European fortifications began displaying architectural principles such as lower and thicker walls in the mid-1400s. Cannon towers were built with artillery rooms where cannons could discharge fire from slits in the walls. However this proved problematic as the slow rate of fire, reverberating concussions, and noxious fumes produced greatly hindered defenders. Gun towers also limited the size and number of cannon placements because the rooms could only be built so big. Notable surviving artillery towers include a seven layer defensive structure built in 1480 at Fougères in Brittany, and a four layer tower built in 1479 at Querfurth in Saxony.[21] The star fort, also known as the bastion fort, trace italienne, or renaissance fortress, was a style of fortification that became popular in Europe during the 16th century. The bastion and star fort was developed in Italy, where the Florentine engineer Giuliano da Sangallo (1445–1516) compiled a comprehensive defensive plan using the geometric bastion and full trace italienne that became widespread in Europe. The main distinguishing features of the star fort were its angle bastions, each placed to support their neighbor with lethal crossfire, covering all angles, making them extremely difficult to engage with and attack. Angle bastions consisted of two faces and two flanks. Artillery positions positioned at the flanks could fire parallel into the opposite bastion's line of fire, thus providing two lines of cover fire against an armed assault on the wall, and preventing mining parties from finding refuge. Meanwhile, artillery positioned on the bastion platform could fire frontally from the two faces, also providing overlapping fire with the opposite bastion. Overlapping mutually supporting defensive fire was the greatest advantage enjoyed by the star fort. As a result, sieges lasted longer and became more difficult affairs. By the 1530s the bastion fort had become the dominant defensive structure in Italy. Outside Europe, the star fort became an "engine of European expansion," and acted as a force multiplier so that small European garrisons could hold out against numerically superior forces. Wherever star forts were erected the natives experienced great difficulty in uprooting European invaders. In China, Sun Yuanhua advocated for the construction of angled bastion forts in his Xifashenji so that their cannons could better support each other. The officials Han Yun and Han Lin noted that cannons on square forts could not support each side as well as bastion forts. Their efforts to construct bastion forts, and their results, were limited. Ma Weicheng built two bastion forts in his home county, which helped fend off a Qing incursion in 1638. By 1641, there were ten bastion forts in the county. Before bastion forts could spread any further, the Ming dynasty fell in 1644, and they were largely forgotten as the Qing dynasty was on the offensive most of the time and had no use for them. ANGKOR THOM Today trees line both sides are huge, ancient things—80 to 100-foot-tall sandalwoods, teak, flowering rosewood—and from them comes a serenade: a panoply of bird calls, monkey squalls, and the fricative mating songs of a thousand lovelorn cicada. The walls of Angkor Thom. The arching South Gate of Angkor Thom, is huge in size and with elaborate carvings.The wall itself is imposing, built of blocks of black laterite the size of refrigerators. Thousands of them. Twenty to thirty feet high and half again as thick, the wall encompasses forest and farmland vast enough to support a population of 500,000 citizens plus an army of another 100,000. It’s an engineering marvel designed to protect an entire city and its outlying citizens who could seek safety within. Back then, there was no way an army could gain entry at any of the gates or breach the mammoth wall. Yet on this day, seven centuries later, here we were, ambling along the trail atop that very wall. Southeast Corner Sanctuary… The battle of 1431/The Bayon ruins inside Angkor Thom The Wild Wild East Gate… There is no detailed description of following the wall of Angkor Thom in any guidebook or on any Website one traverses a long stretch of open trail unprotected from the sun with temp in the 90s. A blacktop road runs through the East gate. The second gate on the eastern side, the Royal Gate, where the road through leads directly to the heart of Angkor Thom, to the place where royalty had resided, honoured their ancestors, and held their ceremonies. Some guidebooks call it the Victory Gate. The battle between the Khmer Empire and the Kingdom of Siam was faught here when a renegade military commander inside the wall secretly gave access to the East Gate in return for who knows how many ox-carts of booty and slaves, and how then the Siamese army quickly overran the surprised Khmer troops. The Terrace of the Leper King with its wonderful maze of carved passageways and continued along the extensive foundation wall of The Elephant Terrace with its scores of life-size sandstone elephants bursting forth one after the other, no two the same. Prasat Chrung (Southeast) (Southeast) Temple positioned at the SE corner of Angkor Thom's defensive wall. Four towers known as the 'Prasat Chrung' stand at the corners of Jayavarman VII's grand fortress of Angkor Thom. Although they occupy strategic spots with great visibility into the surrounding countryside--an area that used to be thickly populated outskirts of the capital--the towers were not built for defense. Rather, each commemorated the deeds of Jayavarman VII and housed a stele extolling his accomplishments. Although the stele have been removed for safekeeping elsewhere, the sites are worth visiting as they are relatively off the beaten path and contain high-quality apsara figures. Of the four Prasat Chrung, the southeast corner tower (the one shown here) is the best preserved. As the four towers sit atop Angkor Thom's walls there is no modern road leading to the sites. Visitors interested in seeing the southeast tower need to ascend the wall at the Gate of the Dead and walk 1.5 kilometers south along the wall. Although the path is clear, one should be careful not to stray too close to the edge of the wall. The SITE & The walls The city lies on the west bank of the Siem Reap River, a tributary of Tonle Sap, about a quarter of a mile from the river. The south gate of Angkor Thom is 7.2 km north of Siem Reap, and 1.7 km north of the entrance to Angkor Wat. The walls, 8 m high and flanked by a moat, are each 3 km long, enclosing an area of 9 km². The walls are of laterite buttressed by earth, with a parapet on the top. There are gates at each of the cardinal points, from which roads lead to the Bayon at the centre of the city. As the Bayon itself has no wall or moat of its own, those of the city are interpreted by archaeologists as representing the mountains and oceans surrounding the Bayon's Mount Meru. Another gate—the Victory Gate—is 500 m north of the east gate; the Victory Way runs parallel to the east road to the Victory Square and the Royal Palace north of the Bayon. It is around 30 minutes from central Siem Reap. The faces on the 23 m towers at the city gates, which are later additions to the main structure, take after those of the Bayon and pose the same problems of interpretation. They may represent the king himself, the bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara, guardians of the empire's cardinal points, or some combination of these. A causeway spans the moat in front of each tower: these have a row of devas on the left and asuras on the right, each row holding a naga in the attitude of a tug-of-war. This appears to be a reference to the myth, popular in Angkor, of the Churning of the Sea of Milk. The temple-mountain of the Bayon, or perhaps the gate itself,would then be the pivot around which the churning takes place. The nagas may also represent the transition from the world of men to the world of the gods (the Bayon), or be guardian figures. The gateways themselves are 3.5 by 7 m, and would originally have been closed with wooden doors. The south gate is now by far the most often visited, as it is the main entrance to the city for tourists. At each corner of the city is a Prasat Chrung—corner shrine—built of sandstone and dedicated to Avalokiteshvara. These are cruciform with a central tower, and orientated towards the east. Within the city was a system of canals, through which water flowed from the northeast to the southwest. The bulk of the land enclosed by the walls would have been occupied by the secular buildings of the city, of which nothing remains. This area is now covered by forest. Most of the great Angkor ruins have vast displays of bas-relief depicting the various gods, goddesses, and other-worldly beings from the mythological stories and epic poems of ancient Hinduism (modified by centuries of Buddhism). Mingled with these images are actual known animals, like elephants, snakes, fish, and monkeys, in addition to dragon-like creatures that look like the stylized, elongated serpents (with feet and claws) found in Chinese art. But among the ruins of Ta Prohm, near a huge stone entrance, one can see that the "roundels on pilasters on the south side of the west entrance are unusual in design." What one sees are roundels depicting various common animals—pigs, monkeys, water buffaloes, roosters and snakes. There are no mythological figures among the roundels, so one can reasonably conclude that these figures depict the animals that were commonly seen by the ancient Khmer people in the twelfth century. The walls of Angkor Wat A view of the gates and west wall of the outer enclosure of Angkor Wat from across the moat Outer enclosure The outer wall, 1,024 m (3,360 ft) by 802 m (2,631 ft) and 4.5 m (15 ft) high, is surrounded by a 30 m (98 ft) apron of open ground and a moat 190 m (620 ft) wide and over 5 kilometres (3 mi) in perimeter. The moat extends 1.5 kilometres from east to west and 1.3 kilometres from north to south. Access to the temple is by an earth bank to the east and a sandstone causeway to the west; the latter, the main entrance, is a later addition, possibly replacing a wooden bridge. There are gopuras at each of the cardinal points; the western is by far the largest and has three ruined towers. Glaize notes that this gopura both hides and echoes the form of the temple proper. Under the southern tower is a statue known as Ta Reach, originally an eight-armed statue of Vishnu may have occupied the temple's central shrine. Galleries run between the towers and as far as two further entrances on either side of the gopura often referred to as "elephant gates", as they are large enough to admit those animals. These galleries have square pillars on the outer (west) side and a closed wall on the inner (east) side. The ceiling between the pillars is decorated with lotus rosettes; the west face of the wall with dancing figures; and the east face of the wall with balustered windows, dancing male figures on prancing animals, and devatas, including (south of the entrance) the only one in the temple to be showing her teeth. The outer wall encloses a space of 820,000 square metres (203 acres), which besides the temple proper was originally occupied by the city and, to the north of the temple, the royal palace. Like all secular buildings of Angkor, these were built of perishable materials rather than of stone, so nothing remains of them except the outlines of some of the streets. Most of the area is now covered by forest. A 350 m (1,150 ft) causeway connects the western gopura to the temple proper, with naga balustrades and six sets of steps leading down to the city on either side. Each side also features a library with entrances at each cardinal point, in front of the third set of stairs from the entrance, and a pond between the library and the temple itself. The ponds are later additions to the design, as is the cruciform terrace guarded by lions connecting the causeway to the central structure. Central structure The temple stands on a terrace raised higher than the city. It is made of three rectangular galleries rising to a central tower, each level higher than the last. The two inner galleries each have four large towers at their ordinal corners (that is, NW, NE, SE and SW) surrounding a higher fifth tower. This pattern is sometimes called a quincunx and represents the mountains of Meru. Because the temple faces west, the features are all set back towards the east, leaving more space to be filled in each enclosure and gallery on the west side; for the same reason the west-facing steps are shallower than those on the other sides. How many battles were fought by warring kingdoms before the Khemer monarchs could seize absolute power and then build the magnificent temple structures? In the THE BATTLES for Angkor Wat or Preah Pisnulok- I explore this unknown feature of Angkor History. In my book THE BATTLES for Angkor Wat or Preah Pisnulok- published by the Indo Nordic Author's Collective (https://www.academia.edu/50915582/THE_BATTLES_for_Angkor_Wat_or_Preah_Pisnulok_) I have described the bloody conflict that went into the erection of these structures we recall the Khmer kings with. All these battles and impending attacks needed strong defensive walls to push off the enemy. Also in my paper The 5 Gates of Angkor thom(https://www.academia.edu/84074992/The_5_gates_of_Angkor_Thom) I quote what PJ de Beerski wrote about the Angkor Thom Gates "Through here all comers to the city had to pass, and in honour of this function it has been built in a style grandiose and elegant, forming a whole, incomparable in its strength and expression" Angkor Thom-The last great capital of the Khmer empire, Angkor Thom (literally “Great City”) took monumental to a whole new level. It was built in part as a reaction to the surprise sacking of Angkor by the Chams. King Jayavarman VII decided that his empire would never again be vulnerable at home. Beyond the eight meter (26 ft) high walls is a massive moat that would have stooped all but the most determined invaders. The city wall has a sanctuary tower at each corner and five entry gates; one per cardinal direction plus an additional eastern portal, the Victory Gate. The gates each feature a tower topped by four huge faces, similar to those at the Bayon temple. The most fascinating way to enter Angkor Thom is through the south gate. The causeway here is flanked by 54 gods and 54 demons depicting parts of the popular Hindu legend “The Churning of the Ocean of Milk”. Angkor Thom remained the capital of the Khmer Empire throughout its decline – and was probably fully abandoned in the 16th century. It is now, as with the other temples in the Angkor Park, a World Heritage site. Architectural design The city of Angkor Thom is surrounded by a wall, 8m high and 12km long, with five gates (two in the eastern wall). The entrances to some of the gates are lined with statues of gods and demons holding nagas, and the gates themselves are adorned with the face of Avalokiteshvara, the goddess of compassion (although it’s thought they also strangely resemble King Jayavarman VII). The wall itself is circled by a 100m wide moat. Bayon is in the center of this area, with Baphuon slightly to the west, and some of the smaller temples further north. The stunningly intricate Terrace of Elephants and Terrace of the Leper King are to the north of Bayon. Bayon Perhaps the spookiest or the most mesmerizing of the Angkor temples, the center piece of Angkor Thom – Bayon – looks like nothing much from a distance. However, once inside, you realize that Bayon is constructed around 54 towers, with 216 smiling faces of Avalokiteshvara peering down at you. Bayon is a fantastic temple to explore – with mazes of tunnels, blocked doorways and tumble-down rocks making it a perfect place to get lost in the mysteries of Angkor. Bayon is 45m high and has three levels linked by stairs and small yards. The galleries on the first and second level have historical and religious bas-reliefs. The third level has a central circular tower, which is unique in Khmer Architecture. Baphuon Baphuon is located 200m west of Bayon and was marked as the center of the city when the whole of Angkor Thom was fully complete. A pyramidal representation of Mount Meru, at the time, it was probably one of the most impressive of the Angkor temples. A 200m elevated walkway leads to the temple which has a central tower 43m high. This 350m long terrace was supposedly used as a platform from which Jayavarman VII viewed his victorious returning army. The stairs are decorated with lions and garudas and life-sized images of elephants and their guardians are displayed on the terrace walls. Terrace of the Leper King This 7m high platform is located north of the Terrace of Elephants. On top of the platform you will see a nude statue (the original is kept in the National Museum of Phnom Penh). The exact meaning of the statue isn’t known. Some believe that it represents one of two possible Angkorian Kings who had leprosy. Others believe is represents the God of Death, and that the terrace as the royal crematory. Preah Palilay One of the loveliest temples in the Angkor Thom complex is Preah Paliliay in the north-west corner of the site. Quiet and atmospheric, it provides some great photo opportunities with huge trees looming over its structure. Phimeanakas Phimeanakas is more interesting historically than visually. It used to house a Royal Palace, where bathing would take place (the pools are still apparent) but very little remains. However, a climb up its pyramidal structure gives nice views of the surrounding area. Five Gates to Angkor Thom There are a total of 5 gates to Angkor Thoms: North Gate, East Gate, South Gate, West Gate, and Victory Gate. Angkor Thom has gates at each of the 4 cardinal points (North, East, South, West). From those points, the roads connect the gates to the Bayon, the state temple, at the center of the city. A causeway extends across a moat in front of each entrance. The best-preserved and the most impressive gate is the South Gate. The causeway over the moat to the South Gate is lined with stone figures of mythical beings. There are 23-meter high entry towers located at the city gates. There is another gate to Angkor Thom, the Victory Gate. It is located 500 meters north of the east gate. But the walls keep the Ghosts safe even to this day Chapter 3 The unusual design of the 12 towers of the 'Prasat Suor Prat' Known as The'Towers of the Rope Dancers", these twelve towers the 'Prasat Suor Prat' are located just to the east of the Royal Terraces in the vicinity of the Royal Palace. Although the modern name means 'Towers of the Rope Dancers"—referring to the legend that they were used for royal entertainments involving tightrope walkers—there is no definitive evidence for this. In fact, the function of the towers remains a mystery. Intriguingly, Zhou Daguan, the 13th century Chinese diplomat who visited Angkor. Zhou Daguan was a Chinese diplomat of the Yuan dynasty of China, serving under Temür Khan (Emperor Chengzong of Yuan). He is most well known for his accounts of the customs of Cambodia and the Angkor temple complexes during his visit there. He arrived at Angkor in August 1296, and remained at the court of King Indravarman III until July 1297. He was neither the first nor the last Chinese representative to visit the Khmer Empire. However, his stay is notable because he later wrote a detailed report on life in Angkor, The Customs of Cambodia. His portrayal is today one of the most important sources of understanding of historical Angkor and the Khmer Empire. Alongside descriptions of several great temples, such as the Bayon, the Baphuon, Angkor Wat, and others, the text also offers valuable information on the everyday life and the habits of the inhabitants of Angkor.Regarding the 12 Towers he is supposed to have said: How to settle disputes. He wrote: "If two families have a dispute to resolve and cannot agree on right and wrong, there are twelve small stone towers on a bank opposite the place, and the two people concerned are sent to sit in two of them. Outside, members of each family keep guard against the other. They may site in the towers for a day or two, or for three or four days. Then for sure the one who is in the wrong becomes visibly ill, and leaves." [Trans. by Harris, Peter. A Record of Cambodia, Chapter 14.} This account is greeted with suspicion by modern scholars, partly because the towers appear to be shrines of some sort. UNUSUAL Design If so, their design is quite unusual, as each has three windows on the ground floor facing north, east, and south. At no other location do we find Khmer shrines with windows in the main sanctuary. For this reason, some scholars believe the towers may have been used as reception halls for foreign visitors (perhaps accounting for why Zhou Daguan was able to access them). All but two of the towers face the parade ground, and each is elevated on a terrace, which would make them useful for viewing the many large ceremonies conducted to the east of the royal palace. A problem with this theory is that the king's own palace was made of wood (and has long since vanished), making it unlikely that the Khmers would have used high quality stone for guests while leaving their own monarch in a wooden palace. Angkor Towers: The five central towers of Angkor Wat symbolize the peaks of Mount Meru, which according to Hindu mythology is the dwelling place of the gods. The mountain is said to be surrounded by an ocean, and the complex's enormous moat suggests the oceans at the edge of the world. In any case, the towers are relatively good condition with the majority retaining much of the original appearance. Each is spaced about 25 meters from one another and faces west, apart from the two central towers which face one another across the path leading to the Gate of Victory. The interior of each tower measures 4 x 6 meters, with three large windows providing ample light and air. They were probably built in the early 13th century by Indravarman II who was the ruler of the Khmer Empire, and son of Jayavarman VII. There is some dispute regarding the actual period of his reign, even because his successor, Jayavarman VIII, probably destroyed historical records about him, but the only inscription which directly mention him reports that he died in 1243. He was a Buddhist and was also credited with having enlarged (or completed) some of Jayavarman VII's temple. During his peaceful kingdom, the Khmers lost control of Champa and the newborn Sukhothai Kingdom under Indraditya took possession of some western territories. David P. Chandler hypothesized that Indravarman II was possibly the Leper King of Khmer legends.Though others attribute the title to Yasovarman I who reigned in 889–910 CE. 5 Towers of Angkor These are twelve similar towers made of laterite and sandstone in Angkor Thom, which lies on the side of the South-North axis of the Angkor Thom crossroads. The so-called “Victory avenue”, which crosses on halfway the intersection in Eastern-West direction, divides the tower row into two parts with six towers on each side of the intersection. Different architecture at Prasat Suor Prat The architecture of the towers is different to other temple buildings: All twelve towers have big open windows on every side and all gates are towards the West. The function as well as the original name of the towers remains a mystery until today. How the twelve towers of Prasat Suor Prat were used Tcheou Ta-Kouan a Chinese clerk, who stayed for one year in Cambodia in the end of the 13th century (1296 – 1297) gave a pictorial but also inadequate explanation of what could have been the possible use of the towers: Supposedly when two men would have a disagreement with each other they were forced to sit for four days in one of the twelve towers, while their relatives were outside waiting for them. During this period, the one man who was wrong in the argument would start to feel sick from a gastric ulcer, catarrh or bad fever. The other one would remain healthy. This is why we call right or wrong “divine judgement”. The Terrace of the Leper King (or Leper King Terrace), Preah Lean Sdach Kumlung) is located in the northwest corner of the Royal Square of Angkor Thom, Cambodia. Built in the Bayon style under Jayavarman VII, though its modern name derives from a 15th-century sculpture discovered at the site. The statue depicts the Hindu god Yama, the god of death. The statue was called the "Leper King" because discolouration and moss growing on it was reminiscent of a person with leprosy, and also because it fit in with a Cambodian legend of an Angkorian king Yasovarman I who had leprosy The name that the Cambodians know him by, however, is Dharmaraja, as this is what was etched at the bottom of the original statue. The U-shaped structure is thought by some to have been used as a royal cremation site. The book The Customs of Cambodia was written within 15 years of Zhou's return from Cambodia. The current surviving text is believed to be only around a third of the size of the original. Description of Angkor Thom Zhou wrote that the city had five gates with multiple doorways, one in each compass direction, but in the east two. The city was surrounded by a wide moat crossed by bridges with sculptures of 54 figures pulling a nine-head nāga. On top of the city gate there were five Buddha heads, four of them facing four directions, the one at the centre was covered with gold. "The city is square in shape at each corner; the city gates are guarded, open during the day but closed at night. Dogs and convicts are barred from entering the city". Description of the palace Zhou wrote that the Palace was at the north of the golden bridge and the golden tower, and the Palace faced east. The main hall of the Palace was covered with lead tiles, while the rest had clay tiles. Description of the Khmer people Zhou observed that the upper, middle, and lower class khmer dressed differently depending on their social class. The peasants, both men and women kept their chests exposed, walked barefoot, and wore only a piece of cloth wrapped around their waists. The common women wore hair ornaments, golden rings or bracelets. Beautiful women were sent to court to serve the king or his royal family at his whim. All trades were carried out by women. The upper class Khmer were dressed elaborately with gold headpiece, jewelries, and long intricate styled dressed. In the market place, there were no buildings, but rather the female vendors sold their wares on large mats spread about ground. The space in the market also required a rent to be paid to the officials. He saw the Khmer people needed no tables or chairs in their homes, no recognisable bowls or buckets. They cooked their food in earthen pots used for boiling rice and for preparing soup. Their ladles were made from coconut shells and soup was then served into a tiny bowl made from woven leaves, which were made waterproof. He recounted a royal procession of Indravarman III who wielded a sacred sword in his hand: When the king goes out, troops lead the escort; then come flags, banners and music. Palace women, numbering from three to five hundred, wearing clothes decorated with flowers, with flowers in their hair, hold candles in their hands, and form a troupe. Even in broad daylight, the candles are lit. Then come other palace women, carrying lances and shields; then the king's private guards; then carts drawn by goats and horses, all in gold. Afterwards ministers and princes mounted on elephants, and in front of them one can see, even from afar, their numerous red umbrellas. Next the wives and concubines of the king appear in palanquins, carriages, on horseback and on elephants. They have more than one hundred parasols, speckled with gold. Finally the sovereign arrives, standing on an elephant, brandishing his sacred sword in his hand. His elephant's tusks are encased in gold. Translations Zhou's book was first translated into French by the sinologist Jean-Pierre Abel-Rémusat in 1819, and again by Paul Pelliot in 1902. The Pelliot translation, which was later revised, has been translated into English and German. In 2007, the linguist Peter Harris completed the first direct translation from Chinese to modern English. Harris also draws a series of parallels between the voyage of Zhou and the travels of Marco Polo. Marco Polo was Zhou's contemporary, however, according to Harris, Polo's travels contain a number of unusual omissions that have yet to be fully explained. There is also Thai translation of The Customs of Cambodia by Chaloem Yongbunkiat in 1967 which has been reprinted by Matichon Press in 2014. Other translation of Zhou's record on Cambodia are also available. A direct translation from an ancient Chinese text into English by a native Chinese (Mrs. Beling Uk) and a native Cambodian (Solang Uk) in 2010. A Cambodian version of the translation by the same authors was published in Phnom-Penh in 2011 In the Center-Portrait of Emperor Temur Khan who ruled China from 1294–1307 when Zhou Daguan ( extreme Right pic) wrote his “Record of Cambodia.” About the Author--- UDAY DOKRAS The author has worked for 30 years in the human resources arena in India and abroad. He was Group Vice -President of MZI Group in New Delhi and has anchored Human Relations in Go Air and Hotel Holiday Inn;was General Manager-Health Human Resources at the Lata Mangeshkar Hospital amd Medical college. Is currently Consultant to Gorewada International Zoo,Nagpur and visiting Faculty at the Central Institute of Business Management and Research, Nagpur. In Sweden he anchored HR in Stadbolaget RENIA, SSSB and advisor to a multi millionaire. He has studied in Nagpur, India where he obtained degrees of Bachelor of Science, Bachelor of Arts(Managerial Economics) and Bachelor of Laws. He has done his Graduate Studies in labour laws from Canada at the Queen's University, Kingston; a MBA from USA, and Doctorate from Stockholm University, Sweden. Apart from that he has done a Management Training Program in Singapore. A scholar of the Swedish Institute, he has been an Edvard Cassel Fund and Wineroth Fund Awardee.A scholar for the Swedish Institute for 5 years. In 1984 he was involved with the Comparative Labour Law Project of the University of California, Los Angeles, U.S.A. He was also visiting lecturer there. In 1985 he was invited by the President of Seychelles to do a study of the efficacy of the labour laws of Seychelles. Author of a book on a Swedish human resource law, his brief life sketch is part of the English study text book of 7 th Class Students in Sweden -“Studying English. SPOTLIGHT 7”- and 8th Class students in Iceland - “SPOTLIGHT 8- Lausnir.” RESEARCH PAPERS-320 + in Researchgate and academia.edu & scribd Followers(readers) 65,000 consolidated as on 26 th September,2020. Chapter 4 Hindu Temples and Khmer Style of Architecture A COMPARISON…………………. Steps in Hindu Temple Construction The origins of the temple lie in what may be the world’s oldest religious text, the Rig Veda, one of the four Veda Samhitas of Hindu literature. Astronomy and Hindu cosmology are inseparably intertwined at Angkor Wat The Agama Shastras the Hindu Architectural Manuals say that the Temple structure is a mini cosmos. The Temple entrance should face east – the direction of the Rising Sun. The ideal Temple should have at least one entrance, an ArdhMandapa, a Mandapa or a large hall, a Garba-Griha and a Shikara directly above the Garbha-Griha. This text describes the gods of heaven and earth, including the earthly god Vishnu, “The Preserver.”. At the time of construction it was believed that that King Suryavarman II, after his death, would be transmuted into Vishnu, to whom the temple is consecrated. . Along the east wall is a scene illustrating the “churning of the sea of milk,” a creation myth in which the gods attempt to churn the elixir of immortality out of the milk of time. The north wall depicts the “day of the gods,” along the west wall is a great battle scene from the Mahabharata, and the south wall portrays the kingdom of Yama, the god of death. It has been suggested that the choice and arrangement of these scenes was intended to tie in with the seasons. The creation scene of the east wall is symbolic of the renewal of spring, the “day of the gods” is summer, the great battle on the west wall may represent the decline of autumn, and the portrayal of Yama might signify the dormancy, the lifeless time of winter. The design comprises: Temple Layout and its symbolism 1. A Towering structure called the Rajagopuram (pyramid in pattern) on the Eastern side at the entrance to the Temple. 2. A Dwajasthamba (pillar) in line with the main shrine immediately after the Rajagopuram. 3. Near the Dwajasthamba is a lotus shaped pedestal for offerings, called the Balipeeta. 4. A large Mandapa or hall for assembly of devotees. 5. The passage through the Mandapa leads to the “Garba-Griha” (womb chamber) where the Main Deity is installed. 6. Ardha Mandapa adjacent to the main Mandapa and before the “Garba-Griha”. 7. The Main Deity faces East word inside and the Garba-Griha is located inside a structure or sanctuary called the “Vimana”. 8. The pyramidal or tapering roof over the Deity is called “Shikara” or “Gopuram” which is a dome. 9. There is a circumnutating passage or “Pradakshira Patha” around the Garba Griha and Mandapa. The above design applies both to the “Shiva” and “Vaishnava” Temples with small variations. Architecture is otherwise called “Shilpa” and the one who constructs the Temple is called a “Sthapathi”. The “Sthapathi” is an expert in Temple architecture and idol creation. The procedure of worship in the Temple is known as “Agama Vidhi”. TEMPLE LAYOUT : The basic purpose of Hindu temple is to give shelter for a deity and to facilitate its worship by its devotees . The style and Architecture of a Hindu temple is a symbol of Hindu. The Hindu temple is laid out on an east-west alignment; the temple entrance is on the eastern side and the sanctuary is on the western side. The entire temple complex is placed on a high plinth or platform to symbolize its significance. Vaikanasagamas and the silapashastras stipulate the rules for the selection of the site and construction of the temple buildings. Most of the temple adhere to this rule. The Indian temple architecture also seems to be based on the concept of main shrine as being composed of multiple images of small shrines normally leading up to the building us of towering the super structure. The region wise categories have got the following distinguishing characteristic features. Region Architectural shape Presiding god/deity North India Nagara Square Brahma South India vesara Circular Siva Far south Octagonal Vishnu The temple type that is popular in the Tamil country is the octagonal Dravida-Vimana which is also known as Dravida-Satanga-Vimana. This type consists of six important parts from the base to the final. These six parts are linked to the angas of human beings. There are 1. upapitha, 2. adhisthana, 3. pada or bhiti, 4. prastara, 5. sikhara and 6. griva (Kalasa) humans parts are as follows. Upapitha : Feet Adhisthana : Thigh , up to hip Pada : Forso Prastara : Head Griva(Kalasa) : Neck (top knot) The upapitha and adhisthana constitute the basement. The upapitha is an additional part meant to increase the height of the basement.The pada or bhitti is the wall part of htehouse that houses themulbera. It is fitters with additional architectural moldings such as the kumbha panjara and kostha panjara that add to the aesthetics of the edifice. The kumbhapanjara is of the shape of the full pitheher at its base and is an architectural addition. The kosthapanjara houses Avaranamurts. WALLED TEMPLE ENCLOSURE This is a unique feature of the South India temple style. Temples are usually encircled by protective, concentric enclosure walls, with entrances through large gateways (called gopurams) that sometimes even dwarf the enclosed temples. This walled design was perhaps precipitated by the increased fragility of Hindu empires in the wake of ongoing Islamic Angkor layout invasions that jeopardized the sacred structures of their civilization. As a result, the temple complex came to include not only the temple, but also the surrounding city itself. Accordingly, the templecities now even more accurately symbolized the divine city surrounded by its mountain ranges (city walls). PRIMARY STRUCTURES The chief temple structures (moving from east to west) include: Ardha-mandapa. This is a largely open entrance vestibule, entered by passing under a gopuram (arched gateway), symbolic of the passage from the world of the profane to the sacred. Temple-goers ascend stairs, pass under the gopuram to the level of the ardha-man- dapa, and then proceed into the mandapa. Mandapa. The mandapa is positioned directly between the entrance vestibule and the garb- ha griha; it is a columned or hypostyle hall, in which devotees assemble (to view the deity in the garbha griha) and ritual dances are performed. Some more advanced temples will have a second mandapa — called the maha mandapa — that is located in between the external mandapa and the garbha griha. Garbha griha. The square-shaped garbha griha holds the core sanctuary, cella, or Holy of Holies where the resident deity resides. The vimana, the main tower of the temple, sits directly above the garbha griha. The images since the early chola period that decorate the kosthapanjara are the following Ardha-mandapa South Ganapathi Garbhagrha South Daksinamurti Garbhagraha West Lingodbhavamurth Far south Octagonal Vishnu Vishnu (or) Ardhanarisvara Garbhagraha North Brahma Ardhamandapam north Mahissuramardini In view of the six-fold division of the Hindu temple in its vertical order in comparison with the human angas. It is called parusa. That is to say the temple is equal to that of the cosmic man virat purusa or human form . In its horizontal order of the temple site is divided into a number of squares that is called Vastupurusa. Therefore the Hindu temple is Vastupurusa. 3.THE SQUARE AND CIRCLE: The square sanctuary (garbha griha) is the core of the temple complex, positioned directly under the mountain tower (vimana); it houses the resident deity. The overall plan of the temple is dictated by this central square, as its form is mirrored by surrounding structures. To return briefly to cosmology: The square form is associated in Hinduism with divinity (hence the square sanctuary), whereas the circle is associated with humanity. The transition from profane (circle) to sacred (square) is most profoundly indicated by the half-circle stones positioned at the base of the entrance stairways to temples’ ardha-mandapas. It is interesting to note that the apsidal form used as the floorplan for Buddhist sanctuaries (cha- itya) fuses the circular with the square; this was likely the inspiration for the use of these basic, symbolic architectural forms. 4.MOUNT of the God AT THE ENTRANCE The approach to the temple entrance (ardha-mandapa) is indicated by the presence of the resident divinity’s mount or transport: Temples venerating Shiva (and his consort, Parvati) display stone images of his mount, Nandi (a seated bull), facing the main shrine. Temples dedicated to Vishnu (and his consort, Lakshmi) display stone images of his mount, Garuda (a mythical bird), facing the main shrine. There are often three entrances to the South India temple, on the east, north, and south sides of the external ardha-mandapa. This compares versus the Northern temple’s single eastern entrance. The progression of rooms follows the same pattern as in the North: the internal mandapa is shown in yellow highlights and the garbha griha sanctuary is shown in red highlights. Vast hypostyle halls. Later in the Southern style’s development, the internal mandapa was replaced by vast hypostyle halls, with as many as one thousand pillars. Later, even the external ardha-mandapa was expanded, becoming a small hypostyle hall that fed an even larger one. 5. SOURTHERN STYLE TEMPLE, The Southern style’s tower exhibits sharp vertical sides that proceed to the summit in a series of diminishing storey’s to form a pyramidal outline (rather than a curved, corn cob like shape). This is perhaps the most easily identifiable feature of the Southern style temple. Further, the clearly visible horizontal lines indicative of the storeys contrast with the Northern style’s strong vertical lines. The tower shape was originally inspired by Buddhist vihara monastery antecedents — specifically, the parapets (discussed below) represent the cells around a squareshaped room in which Buddhist monks were allowed to sleep. This core “cell-surrounded square” form is merely superimposed in ever-smaller layers until the desired temple height is achieved. 6. HINDU TEMPLE IN TAMILNADU The Hindu temple in Tamil Nadu was an evolving phenomenon since the pallava to the Vijayanagara Nayaka period. The simple vimana on the Mamallapuram beach(the mukunda Nayanar Temple) has a micro structure which became a macro during the Nayaka period as the temple in Srirangam. Madurai and Tiruvanamalai are the early temples consists of the six vertical parts (Upapitha to kalasa) and the basic plan includes the garbhagraha antarala and Mukhamandapa. From the pallava to Nayaka period a lot of development took place both vertically and horizontally in the format of the Hindu temple building. A number of gopuras, mandapas, subsidiary chapels, tirthas, vahanas and so on were added. The micro gopura that peeps in the kailasanatha temple at Kanchi acquire a pyramidal proportion in the latter temples at Srirangam, Madurai and Tiruvanannamalai . 7. TEMPLE MOUNTAIN Aerial view, Angkor Wat, Siem Reap, Cambodia, 1116-1150 (photo: Peter Garnhum, CC BY-NC 2.0) An aerial view of Angkor Wat demonstrates that the temple is made up of an expansive enclosure wall, which separates the sacred temple grounds from the protective moat that surrounds the entire complex (the moat is visible in the photograph at the top of the page). The temple proper is comprised of three galleries (a passageway running along the length of the temple) with a central sanctuary, marked by five stone towers. Gallery, Angkor Wat, Siem Reap, Cambodia, 1116-1150 (photo: fmpgoh, CC BY-NC-ND 2.0) The five stone towers are intended to mimic the five mountain ranges of Mt. Meru—the mythical home of the gods, for both Hindus and Buddhists. The temple mountain as an architectural design was invented in Southeast Asia. Southeast Asian architects quite literally envisioned temples dedicated to Hindu gods on earth as a representation of Mt. Meru. The galleries and the empty spaces that they created between one another and the moat are envisioned as the mountain ranges and oceans that surround Mt. Meru. Mt. Meru is not only home to the gods, it is also considered an axis-mundi. An axis-mundi is a cosmic or world axis that connects heaven and earth. In designing Angkor Wat in this way, King Suryavarman II and his architects intended for the temple to serve as the supreme abode for Vishnu. Similarly, the symbolism of Angkor Wat serving as an axis mundi was intended to demonstrate the Angkor Kingdom’s and the king’s central place in the universe. In addition to envisioning Angkor Wat as Mt. Meru on earth, the temple’s architects, of whom we know nothing, also ingeniously designed the temple so that embedded in the temple’s construction is a map of the cosmos (mandala) as well as a historical record of the temple’s patron. 8. MANDALA According to ancient Sanskrit and Khmer texts, religious monuments and specifically temples must be organized in such a way that they are in harmony with the universe, meaning that the temple should be planned according to the rising sun and moon, in addition to symbolizing the recurrent time sequences of the days, months and years. The central axis of these temples should also be aligned with the planets, thus connecting the structure to the cosmos so that temples become spiritual, political, cosmological, astronomical and geo-physical centers. They are, in other words, intended to represent microcosms of the universe and are organized as mandalas—diagrams of the universe. Golden Temple (LEFT) Bali Udut Palace,Bali,Indonesia RIGHT Lotus temple new Delhi Mandala Giri - A photography exhibition.Griya Santrian Gallery.Jl. Danau Tamblingan 47, Sanur, Bali Tirta Empul Temple BALI ANGKOR /////////////AMARKANTAK TEMPLE IN MADHYA PRADEH TO RIGHT Water Temple Mandala Art Therefore there is no need to doubt the presence of water near Angkor. Water in large uantities was also necessary to transport building blocks of stones from uarries around by use of barges and boats over canals. Another interesting symbolism is that when a devotee enters the temple, he is virtually entering into a mandala and therefore participating in a power-field. His progress through the pavilions to reach the sanctum is also symbolic. The layout of the Angkor Wat mirrors the Hindu cosmos itself and is one big sacred mandala. The five towers of the central shrine are the peaks of the mythical Mount Meru, axis of the universe and home of the Gods. Like a symmetrical mandala, the Angkor Wat has many correspondences in numbers and shapes. Like a symmetrical mandala, the Angkor Wat has many correspondences in numbers and shapes. In all, there are 108 lotus bud shaped towers, a sacred number to both Hindi and Buddhists. More impressive than the structure of the city itself, are over 2,000 divine nymph figures called Asparas decorating the walls and towers.Among the nymphs are bas-reliefs describing the Hindu legends including the ancient battles (some fought in the sky), the 32 hells and 37 heavens. Like many ancient masterpieces the Angkor Wat temple hides a dark history. Usurpian King, Suryavarman II, ambushed his uncle at the age of 14 to overtake the throne. To prove himself to the people, he planned an massive intricate temple that would serve as his gateway to the afterlife. The cost of building heaven on earth was horrific violence amongst thousands of Khmer forced into harsh conditions during labor. Over five million tons of sandstone was quarried and transported 25 miles to the temple. It represents the phases of progress in a man’s journey towards divine. In accordance with this scheme, the architectural and sculptural details vary from phase to phase ; gradually leading him to the experience, which awaits him as he stands in front of the deity in the in the sanctum. This is explained in the following way. On reaching the main gateway, a worshipper first bends down and touches the threshold before crossing it. This marks the transition from the way of the world to the world of God. Entering the gateway, he is greeted by a host of secular figures on the outer walls; representing the outward and diverse concerns of man. As he proceeds, the familiar mythological themes, carved on the inner walls attune his attitude. The immediate pavilion and vestibule near the sanctum are restrained in sculptural details and decorations; these simpler motifs and the prevailing semi darkness help the worshipper to put aside distractions and try focusing his attention on the sanctum. Finally the shrine, devoid of any ornamentation, and with its plainly adorned entrance, leads the devotee further to tranquility, to fulfilment and to the presence of God. The garbhagriha is usually surrounded by a circumambulatory path, around which the devotee walks in a clockwise direction. In Hindu and Buddhist thought, this represents an encircling of the universe itself. Positions and orientations of the temples. The following plan indicates the position of gods and goddesses in an 81 celled temple-site. This plan relates to construction of a Vishnu temple. Atri Samhita ( 2.38.42) prescribes that the central Brahma bagha must be divided into four equal parts and the main shrine facing east must be located on the North-western side thereof. The shrine must have five sanctums, to house five forms of Vishnu; and the shrine should have three stories. The icon of Vishnu , the principal object of worship, may be represented in the shrine in one of his many forms . It could be single ( eka-murti-vidana) or many ( aneka-murti-vidana). The aneka forms might be : 5 (pancha murti); 6 ( shan murti); or 9 ( nava murti). The opening of the sanctum on the Eastern side is preferred , specially in a shrine dedicated to Vishnu. The shrine must never have a door in the intermediate direction (Vidik)- Atri Samhita (2.3233) And, generally, the doorway to the East is the best , most auspicious (utta-mottamam) ;to the West is next best (uttama); to the South is middling (madhyama); and, to the North is not desirable ( adhama) – Vimanarchana kalpa (patala 3) The Vastu-Purusha-Mandala- The goal of a temple's design is to bring about the descent or manifestation of the unmanifest and unseen. The architect or sthapati begins by drafting a square. The square is considered to be a fundamental form. It presupposes the circle and results from it. Expanding energy shapes the circle from the center; it is established in the shape of the square. The circle and curve belong to life in its growth and movement. The square is the mark of order, the finality to the expanding life, life's form and the perfection beyond life and death. From the square all requisite forms can be derived: the triangle, hexagon, octagon, circle etc. The architect calls this square the vastu-purusha-mandalavastu, the manifest, purusha, the Cosmic Being, and mandala. The vastu-purusha-mandala represents the manifest form of the Cosmic Being; upon which the temple is built and in whom the temple rests. The temple is situated in Him, comes from Him, and is a manifestation of Him. The vastu-purusha-mandala is both the body of the Cosmic Being and a bodily device by which those who have the requisite knowledge attain the best results in temple building. In order to establish the vastu-purusha-mandala on a construction site, it is first drafted on planning sheets and later drawn upon the earth at the actual building site. The drawing of the mandala upon the earth at the commencement of construction is a sacred rite. The rites and execution of the vastupurusha-mandala sustain the temple in a manner similar to how the physical foundation supports the weight of the building. Based on astrological calculations the border of the vastu-purusha-mandala is subdivided into thirtytwo smaller squares called nakshatras. The number thirty-two geometrically results from a repeated division of the border of the single square. It denotes four times the eight positions in space: north, east, south, west, and their intermediate points. The closed polygon of thirty-two squares symbolizes the recurrent cycles of time as calculated by the movements of the moon. Each of the nakshatras is ruled over by a Deva, which extends its influence to the mandala. Outside the mandala lie the four directions, symbolic of the meeting of heaven and earth and also represent the ecliptic of the sun-east to west and its rotation to the northern and southern hemispheres. The center of the mandala is called the station of Brahma, the creator of the universe. Surrounding Brahma are the places of twelve other entities known as the sons of Aditi, who assist in the affairs of universal management. The remaining empty squares represent akasha or pure space. The vastupurusha-mandala forms a diagram of astrological influences that constitute the order of the universe and the destinies of human lives. When placed on the building site, along with astrological calculations, can the auspicious time to begin temple construction be determined. The ground breaking ceremony. From the diagram of the vastu-purusha-mandala the architect proceeds to develop the vertical and horizontal dimensions of the temple. The plotting graphs of the temple are divided into two main sections-the ground plan and the vertical alignment. The square, the rectangle, the octagon and the pentagon are fundamental patterns in the horizontal or ground plan. In the vertical alignment the pyramid, the circle and the curve are most prominent. The subdivisions of the ground plan include the brahmasthana (the main shrine and smaller chapels) and the mandapam (balconies, assembly halls and auditoriums). The vertical plan consists of drawings for the gopuram, entrance ways, the vimana, the structure above the main shrine, and the prakara, walls. The brahmasthana is the principal location in a temple and is where the seat of the presiding Diety will be placed. At the base of the foundation of the brahmasthana, located at the station of Brahma on the vastu-purusha-mandala, a ritual called the garbhadhana is performed called. The ritual invites the soul of the temple to enter within the buildings confines. During this ritual, a golden box is placed in the earth as part of the ground-breaking ceremony. The interior of the box is divided into smaller units exactly resembling the vastu-purusha-mandala. All the units of the gold box are first partially filled with dirt. In the thirty-two units representing the nakshatras, the units of Brahma, and the twelve sons of Aditi, the priest places an appropriate mantra in written form to invoke the presence of the corresponding Devata. The sanskrit mantras chanted by the priest are as important as the actual mandala. The mantra infuses the mandala with spiritual powers. The mantras are the subtle form of the mandala and therefore the two are inseparable. In the unit of Brahma, Ananta, a golden serpent with many raised hoods is placed. It is then surrounded with nine precious jewels or navaratna. Ananta represents the energy of God in which the universe rests in space. The nine jewels invoke the astrological influence of the nine planets and are composed of a diamond, emerald, ruby, pearl, yellow sapphire, blue sapphire, red coral, cats-eye and jade. A gold lid with the seven continents of the earth engraved on it is placed on top of the box following which the agni-hotra, or sanctification ceremony. During the agni-hotra the priest offers clarified butter, the symbol of religious principles, into the fire, which represents the mouth of the Cosmic Being. Along with the offering of clarified butter five types of grains-rice, wheat, barley, rye and dhal, are also offered with the chanting of mantras. Temple Layout Ancient Scripts on Temple Construction in Hindu Shastras: The Shilpa text Shiva-prakasha in its chapter titled vastu-bhumi-bedha, describes sixteen (Shodasha) types of temple layouts: 1. Square (Chandura); 2. Rectangle (Agatra); 3. Trapezium ( with uneven sides – like a cart – shakata); 4. Circle (Vritta); 5. Elliptical (kritta vritta); 6. triangular (dwaja); 7. diamond or rhombus (vajra) ; 8. Arrow (shara);umbrella (chatra) ; 9. fish (meena); 10. back of a tortoise (kurma); 11. conch (shanka); 12. crescent (ardha-chandra); 13. pot (kumbha); 14. sword (khadga); 15. and lotus (kamala). South elevation plan of Kailash temple is Plate LXXX11 from the book “Cave temples of India” by Ferguson, James and James Burgess These layouts have specific applications; and are not to be used generally. For instance: the back of a tortoise (kurma), pot (kumbha), conch (shanka) and lotus (kamala) are recommended only for Vishnu and Shiva temples. Similarly the Square (Chandura), Rectangle (Agatra), fish (meena), diamond or rhombus (vajra) and sword (khadga) are recommended for Devi temples. The rest of the lay outs are for other (lesser) deities. But all texts generally agree that the square or the rectangular shape of layout are the best and most auspicious. Varaha-samhita calls such layouts as Siddha-bhumi, the best of all. In case the layout is rectangula, the North South dimension should be greater than East-west dimension. It is also said, it would be better if the elevation on the west or the South is slightly higher. The drawing of the court yard of the Shiva temple at Thiruvālangādu, by Tamil illustrator, best known for his detailed renditions of Tamil architecture and sculpture P.M. Sreenivasan (1919-1983), who adopted the name Silpi, Having determined the suitability of the land for constructing a temple, and having drawn up the Vastu Mandala of the town and identified the temple location ; the next stage is to draw up a construction plan. This specifies the location, the size and the orientation of the various temples to come up in the proposed complex. This again involves preparation of another Vastu Mandala. Pada Vinyasa: In Vastushastra (architecture means “scheme of plot- or disposition”). This is the name of secondary conceptual instruments, used in the art of ancient Hindu architecture (vāstuśāstra). This term is commonly used in literature such as the Mānasāra. It is a particular diagram (one only) traced on the building terrain during the padavinyāsa ceremony, before starting the construction. Each square of a diagram is assigned to a different deity. In certain texts, the compartments (koṣṭha) of the deposit casket are referred to by the names of deities associated with the plots of the site diagram. In the Kāśyapaśilpa there are the letters of the Sanskrit ‘alphabet’ and the names of the eight Vidyeśvaras assigned to or placed in the casket at the beginning of the ceremony, which serve as menas of identifying the compartments later on.1 Steps in Temple Construction: The procedure for building a temple is extensively discussed, and it could be expressed in short as "Karshanadi Pratisthantam", meaning beginning with "Karshana" and ending with "Pratistha". The details of steps involved vary from one Agama to another, but broadly these are the steps in temple construction: 1. Bhu pariksha: Examining and choosing location and soil for temple and town. The land should be fertile and soil suitable. 2. Sila pariksha: Examining and choosing material for image 3. Karshana: Corn or some other crop is grown in the place first and is fed to cows. Then the location is fit for town/temple construction. 4. Vastu puja: Ritual to propitiate vastu devata. 5. Salyodhara: Undesired things like bones are dug out. 6. Adyestaka: Laying down the first stone 7. Nirmana: Then foundation is laid and land is purified by sprinkling water. A pit is dug, water mixed with navaratnas, navadhanyas, navakhanijas is then put in and pit is filled. Then the temple is constructed. 8. Murdhestaka sthapana: Placing the top stone over the prakara, gopura etc. This again involves creating cavities filled with gems minerals seeds etc. and then the pinnacles are placed. 9. Garbhanyasa: A pot made of five metals (pancaloha kalasa sthapana) is installed at the place of main deity. 10. Sthapana: Then the main deity is installed. 11. Pratistha: The main deity is then charged with life/god-ness. Before the temple is opened for daily worship, there are some preparatory rituals to be done, like: Anujna: the priest takes permission from devotees and lord Ganesha to begin rituals Mrit samgrahana: Collecting mud Ankurarpana: Sowing seeds in pots of mud collected and waiting till they germinate Rakshabandhana: The priest binds a holy thread on his hand to take up the assignment. Punyahavacana: Purifying ritual for the place and invoking good omens Grama santi: Worship for the good of village and to remove subtle undesired elements Pravesa bali: Propitiation of various gods at different places in the temple, rakshoghna puja (to destroy asuric elements) and of specific gods like Kshetra palaka (devata ruling the town) Vastu Santi: Pacifying puja for vastu (this happens twice and this is the second time) Yagasala: Building the stage for homas, along with vedika. Kalasasthapana: Installing kalasam Samskara: Purifying the yaga sala Kalasa puja, yagarambha: Woshipping the kalasa as god and propitiating deities through fire Nayanonmeelana, Pratimadhivasa: Opening eyes of the god-image, installing it and giving it life. Then specific worship is done to deity, as prescribed. For instance in the case of Siva, this is followed by astabandhana and kumbhabhisheka. Temple Design From the proportions of the inner sanctum to the motifs carved into the pillars, the traditional temple takes its first form on the master sthapati's drawing board. The architect initially determines the fundamental unit of measurement using a formula called ayadhi. This formula, which comes from Jyotisha, or Vedic astrology, uses the nakshatra (birth star) of the founder, the nakshatra of the village in which the temple is being erected matching the first syllable of the name of the village with the seed sounds mystically associated with each nakshatra and the nakshatra of the main Deity of the temple. This measurement, called danda, is the dimension of the inside of the sanctum and the distance between the pillars. The whole space of the temple is defined in multiples and fractions of this basic unit. The Shastras are strict about the use of metals, such as iron in the temple structure because iron is mystically the crudest, most impure of metals. The presence of iron, sthapatis explain, could attract lower, impure forces. Only gold, silver, and copper are used in the structure, so that only the most sublime forces are invoked during the pujas. At especially significant stages in the temple construction (such as ground-breaking and placement of the sanctum door frame), pieces of gold, silver and copper, as well as precious gems, are ceremoniously embedded in small interstices between the stones, adding to the temple's inner-world magnetism. These elements are said to glow in the inner worlds and, like holy ash, are prominently visible to the Gods and Devas. The ground plan is described as a symbolic, miniature representation of the cosmos. It is based on a strict grid made up of squares and equilateral triangles which are imbued with deep religious significance. To the priest-architect the square was an absolute and mystical form. The grid, usually of 64 or 81 squares, is in fact a mandala, a model of the cosmos, with each square belonging to a deity. The position of the squares is in accordance with the importance attached to each of the deities, with the square in the center representing the temple deity; the outer squares cover the gods of lower rank. The Agamas are a collection of several Tantric literature and scriptures of Hindu schools. The term literally means tradition or "that which has come down", and the Agama texts describe cosmology, epistemology, philosophical doctrines, precepts on meditation and practices, four kinds of yoga, mantras, temple construction, deity worship and ways to attain sixfold desires.These canonical texts are in Tamil and Sanskrit. Agamas were predominant in South India but Sanskritized later. Agamas say that the temple architecture is similar to a man sitting - and the idol in garbagriha is exactly the heart-plexus, gopuram as the crown etc. The construction of the temple follows in three dimensional form exactly the pattern laid out by the mandala. The relationship between the underlying symbolic order and the actual physical appearance of the temple can best be understood by seeing it from above which was of course impossible for humans until quite recently. Another important aspect of the design of the ground plan is that it is intended to lead from the temporal world to the eternal. The principal shrine should face the rising sun and so should have its entrance to the east. Movement towards the sanctuary, along the east-west axis and through a series of increasingly sacred spaces is of great importance and is reflected in the architecture. A typical temple consists of the following major elements 1. an entrance, often with a porch 2. one or more attached or detached mandapas or halls 3. the inner sanctum called the garbagriha, literally 'womb chamber' 4. the tower build directly above the garbagriha. Significance of the number eight in temple design Vastu Shastra describes the inner sanctum and main tower as a human form, structurally conceived in human proportions based on the mystical number eight. According to Dr. V. Ganapati Sthapati, Senior Architect at the Vastu Government College of Architecture, the vibration of the spaceconsciousness, which is called time, is the creative element, since it is this vibratory force that causes the energetic space to turn into spatial forms. Therefore, time is said to be the primordial element for the creation of the entire universe and all its material forms. When these vibrations occur rhythmically, the resultant product will be an orderly spatial form. This rhythm of the time unit is traditionally called talam or layam. Since every unit of time vibration produces a corresponding unit of space measure, vastu science derives that time is equal to space. This rhythm of time and space vibrations is quantified as eight and multiples of eight, the fundamental and universal unit of measure in the vastu silpa tradition. This theory carries over to the fundamental adi talam (eight beats) of classical Indian music and dance. Applying this in the creation of a human form, it is found that a human form is also composed of rhythmic spatial units. According to the Vastu Shastras, at the subtle level the human form is a structure of eight spatial units devoid of the minor parts like the hair, neck, kneecap and feet, each of which measures one-quarter of the basic measure of the body and, when added on to the body's eight units, increases the height of the total form to nine units. Traditionally these nine units are applied in making sculptures of Gods. Since the subtle space within our body is part of universal space, it is logical to say that the talam of our inner space should be the same as that of the universe. But in reality, it is very rare to find this consonance between an individual's and the universal rhythm. When this consonance occurs, the person is in harmony with the Universal Being and enjoys spiritual strength, peace and bliss. Therefore, when designing a building according to vastu, the architect aims at creating a space that will elevate the vibration of the individual to resonate with the vibration of the built space, which in turn is in tune with universal space. Vastu architecture transmutes the individual rhythm of the indweller to the rhythm of the Universal Being. Small Hindu Temple of Kidel, Java- Marianne North Temple layout Sreeneevasan’s Blog It is the process under which the Mandala (architectural plan which represents the cosmos) is put to use in site planning and architecture - a method whereby any site can be divided into grids/ modules or pada. Depending on the position of the gods occupying the various modules, the zoning of the site and disposition of functions in a building are arrived at. A Mandala They are proportional relationships of the squares and the diagonals.The text first gives a list of thirty-two such schemes. sakala, whole; 2. pecaka, couch; 3. pīṭha, pedestal; 4. mahāpīṭha, great pedestal; 5. upapīṭha, low pedestal; 6. ugrapīṭha, high pedestal; 7. sthaṇḍila, altar; 8. caṇḍita, circumcised; 9. paramaśayika, primal rectiner; 10. āsana, seat; 11. sthānīya, local; 12. deśya, regional; 13. ubhayacaṇḍita; twice-circumcised; 14. bhadra, auspicious; 15. mahāsana, great seat; 16. padmagarbha; lotus-womb; 17. triyuta; thrice-yoked; 18. karṇāṣṭaka, eight-cornered; 19. gaṇita; computed; 20. sūryaviśālaka, extensive as the sun; 21. susaṃhita, well-endowed; 22. supratikānta, beautiful rival-spouse; 23. viśālaka, capacious; 24. vipragarbha, Brāhmaṇa-womb 25. viśveśa; lord of the world; 26. vipulahhoga, copious enjoyment; 27. viprakānta; Brāhmaṇa-spouse 28. viśālākṣa, large-eyed; 29. viprabhakti, Brāhmṇa’s portion; 30. viśveśasāra, essence of lord of the world, 31. īśvarakānta; lord’s spouse, 32. candrakānta, moon’s spouse. Among these thirty-two schemes, only seven are treated in more detail: sakala, single-plot (which does not have much detail, to begin with); pecaka, four-plot; pīṭha, nine-plot; mahapīṭha, sixteenplot; upapīṭha, twenty-five-plot; maṇḍuka, sixty-four-plot, and paramaśayika, eighty-one-plot, schemes. The further elaboration of these schemes inc1udes the assignment of deities to the plots. The padavinyāsa, placing (marking) of the plots and assigning deities on the floor of the pavilion and on the altar, is conducted next (see Mānasāra chapter 70). He marks either the sthaṇḍila of forty-nine squares or the pīṭha of nine squares with grain powder on the fioor of the pavilion. On the altar, he marks either the upapīṭha diagram of twenty-five plots or pīṭha of nine plots. He also marks two circles, one on the floor of the pavilion and the other on the altar. During padavinyāsa, ritual marking of the plots in the delineated site, the sthapati visualizes the form of vāstupuruṣa, man or “spirit” of the site (who “inhabits” it), as lying face down and stretched out across it, while reciting the mantra of obeisance to him. He also visualizes the vāstumaṇḍala, cluster of forty-five deities, who, in order to subjugate vāstupuruṣa, sit upon his limbs and thus occupy plots in the four quarters of the site. He invokes the deity corresponding to each plot and “situates” it thereupon by touching the plot and visualizing its form in all iconic detail and vocalizing its specifie venerational mantra. 2) Padavinyāsa scheme of plot-disposition”.—Chapter VII of the Mānasāra is titled Padavinyāsalakṣaṇam, “Characteristics of the Disposition of Plots”. The chapter outlines a number of schemes by which the delineated site is divided into plots. A typical scheme of plot-disposition is a conceptual instrument intended to “order” the delineated site. This tool is constructed out of geometrical and numerical principles of quadratic division. Therefore the number of plots in the scheme is always a perfect square. Land: The land considered suitable for the purpose of constructing the temple (vastu bhumi) and placed at the center (Brahma Sthana) of the Vastu mandala of the township must be in the shape of a rectangle or a square. The ratio between the breadth and the length of the area may be 4:8; 4:7; 4:6; or 4:5. (The square would be 4:4). Shapes of sites to be avoided are: 1. circular (vritta), 2. triangular (trikona), 3. rod shaped (dandakriti), 4. bow shaped (dhanur akara) 5. other irregular shapes. And, in case it becomes necessary to construct a temple on a land of such “un approved” shape, the area meant for the temple should be demarcated and rendered a square or a rectangle in shape. Buddhist and Jain temples too follow the same principles. Even the Sri Harmandir Sahib, the Golden Temple at Amritsar is structured in a square shape; with the Sanctum placed in the Brahma sthana. In case of a rectangular site, it must have north – south orientation. The depth of the site (Aaya-profit) should be more than its breadth (vyaya-loss). That is the reason we find our temple walls (prakara) on north-south shorter than the walls on east-west. The slope of the land surrounding the temple in the east and the north direction should be in the northeast corner. Fountains or lotus ponds of the temple should be in the northeast direction.In the open space surrounding the temple, Tulsi ( Basil) plants with raised bed should be in the east; the Jasmine, white Champak, Star Coral plants etc. should be in the northwest corner or the east. Four approach roads are much recommended. The preliminaries for construction of a shrine include preparations of a plan, Vastu Purusha Mandala, a Yantra, with unit cells (pada) of 64, 81 or 256 in number. The entire process is rich in symbolism. The square shape of the Mandala is symbolic of earth, signifying the four directions which bind and define it; and the Vastu is the extent of existence in its ordered site; Purusha being the source of existence. The ground plan, again, is symbolic and is the representation of cosmos in miniature. The Vastu Purusha represents terrestrial world with constant movements. The grid made up of squares and equilateral triangles is imbued with religious significance; with each cell belonging to a deity. The position of the deity is in accordance to the importance assigned to him .The central portion of the square (Brahma Sthana) is occupied by the presiding deity of the temple ; while the outer cells house deities of lower order. Another important aspect of the design of the ground plan is that it is intended to lead from the temporal world to the eternal. The principal shrine should face the rising sun and so should have its entrance to the east. Movement towards the sanctuary, along the east-west axis and through a series of increasingly sacred spaces is of great importance and is reflected in the architecture. This process of drawing the Mandala , known as Pada-vinyasa or Vastu mandala Vinyasa is essential not only for construction of the main temple but also for deciding upon the location, the orientation and the size of the sanctum; and for placement of retinue-divinities. Let us look at the following example of an 81 cell parama-saayika layout. The site-plan is to be regarded as the body of the Vastu-purusha whose height extends from Pitrah (in the bottom left corner) to Agni (top right corner). The Vastu purusha mandala is in some ways a development of the four pointed or cornered earth mandala having astronomical reference points. The mandala of 81 squares has 32 squares around the border representing the four cardinal points and the lunar constellations. It is the representation of all cyclical time; lunar and solar. Brahma is the God at the centre. The Manduka Mandala (8×8) the whole square would be divided by the two axes that go North-south and East-west. In the case of Parama Saayika Mandala (9×9)- the entire square would be unevenly divided. Angkor Wat is the prime example of the classical style of Khmer architecture—the Angkor Wat style—to which it has given its name. By the 12th century Khmer architects had become skilled and confident in the use of sandstone (rather than brick or laterite) as the main building material. Angkor Wat is a religious temple complex in Cambodia. At 402 acres, it is the largest religious monument in the world, and is considered to be the finest classical example of Khmer architecture, a building tradition that spanned the 9th and 15th centuries AD during the reign of the Khmer Empire. According to Maurice Glaize, a mid-20th-century conservator of Angkor, the temple "attains a classic perfection by the restrained monumentality of its finely balanced elements and the precise arrangement of its proportions. It is a work of power, unity and style." The most obvious and popular interesting fact about Cambodia is, of course, Angkor Wat. Angkor Wat is the main reason tourists flock in their numbers to Cambodia. It is the world's largest religious building and considered one of the wonders of the world. The sovereign state of Cambodia has a population of over 15 million. ... The kingdom is an elective constitutional monarchy with a monarch, currently Norodom Sihamoni, chosen by the Royal Council of the Throne as head of state. What is Cambodia Most Famous For? Angkor Wat. The Bayon. Ta Prohm. Tonlé Sap Lake. Apsaras Dance Performance. Tuol Sleng Genocide Museum & Choeng Ek Memorial. Phnom Penh Royal Palace & Silver Pagoda. Koh Rong. Art Styles Art historians studying the architectural and decorative styles of Khmer architecture over two hundred years have agreed upon a chronology of style dating back to the 4th century AD. Period Year Style Funan 300-450 Funan 450-540 Phnom Da Chenla 600-650 Prei Kuk 700-750 Prasat Andet 706-825 Kompong Preah Angkorian 802-875 Phnom Kulen 875-893 Preah Ko 893-925 Bakeng 921-945 Koh Ker 947-965 Pre Rup 946-1000 Banteay Srei 965-1010 Khleang 1010-1080 Bapuon 1100-1175 Angkor Wat 1177-1230 Bayon 1230-1431 Post-Bayon The architecture of the Indian rock-cut temples, particularly the sculptures, were widely adopted in South Indian, and Indianised architecture of Cambodian, Annamese (Khmer) and Javanese temples (of the Greater India). In any study of Angkorian architecture, the emphasis is necessarily on religious architecture, since all the remaining Angkorian buildings are religious in nature. During the period of Angkor, only temples and other religious buildings were constructed of stone. Non-religious buildings such as dwellings were constructed of perishable materials such as wood, and so have not survived. The religious architecture of Angkor has characteristic structures, elements, and motifs, which are identified in the glossary below. Since a number of different architectural styles succeeded one another during the Angkorean period, not all of these features were equally in evidence throughout the period. Indeed, scholars have referred to the presence or absence of such features as one source of evidence for dating the remains. Many temples had been built before Cambodia became a powerful Kingdom of Khmer Empire which dominated most of the Indochina region. At that time, Cambodia was known as Chenla kingdom, the predecessor state of Khmer empire. There are three pre-Angkorean architectural styles :[5] Sambor Prei Kuk style (610–650): Sambor Prei Kuk, also known as Isanapura, was the capital of the Chenla Kingdom. Temples of Sambor Prei Kuk were built in rounded, plain colonettes with capitals that include a bulb. Prei Khmeng style (635–700): Structures reveal masterpieces of sculpture but examples are scarce. Colonettes are larger than those of previous styles. Buildings were more heavily decorated but had general decline in standards. Kompong Preah style (700–800): Temples with more decorative rings on colonettes which remain cylindrical. Brick constructions were being continued. Scholars have worked to develop a periodization of Angkorean architectural styles. The following periods and styles may be distinguished. Each is named for a particular temple regarded as paradigmatic for the style. Kulen style (825–875): Continuation of pre-Angkorean style but it was a period of innovation and borrowing such as from Cham temples. Tower is mainly square and relatively high as well as brick with laterite walls and stone door surrounds but square and octagonal colonettes begin to appear. Preah Ko style (877–886): Hariharalaya was the first capital city of the Khmer empire located in the area of Angkor; its ruins are in the area now called Roluos some fifteen kilometers southeast of the modern city of Siem Reap. The earliest surviving temple of Hariharalaya is Preah Ko; the others are Bakong and Lolei. The temples of the Preah Ko style are known for their small brick towers and for the great beauty and delicacy of their lintels. Bakheng Style (889–923): Bakheng was the first temple mountain constructed in the area of Angkor proper north of Siem Reap. It was the state temple of King Yasovarman, who built his capital of Yasodharapura around it. Located on a hill (phnom), it is currently one of the most endangered of the monuments, having become a favorite perch for tourists eager to witness a glorious sundown at Angkor. Koh Ker Style (921–944): During the reign of King Jayavarman IV, capital of Khmer empire was removed from Angkor region through the north which is called Koh Ker. The architectural style of temples in Koh Ker, scale of buildings diminishes toward center. Brick still main material but sandstone also used. Pre Rup Style (944–968): Under King Rajendravarman, the Angkorian Khmer built the temples of Pre Rup, East Mebon and Phimeanakas. Their common style is named after the state temple mountain of Pre Rup. Banteay Srei Style (967–1000): Banteay Srei is the only major Angkorian temple constructed not by a monarch, but by a courtier. It is known for its small scale and the extreme refinement of its decorative carvings, including several famous narrative bas-reliefs dealing with scenes from Indian mythology. Khleang Style (968–1010): The Khleang temples, first use of galleries. Cruciform gopuras. Octagonal colonettes. Restrained decorative carving. A few temples that were built in this style are Ta Keo, Phimeanakas. Baphuon Style (1050–1080): Baphuon, the massive temple mountain of King Udayadityavarman II was apparently the temple that most impressed the Chinese traveller Zhou Daguan, who visited Angkor toward the end of the 13th century. Its unique relief carvings have a naive dynamic quality that contrast with the rigidity of the figures typical of some other periods. As of 2008, Baphuon is under restoration and cannot currently be appreciated in its full magnificence. Classical or Angkor Wat Style (1080–1175): Angkor Wat, the temple and perhaps the mausoleum of King Suryavarman II, is the greatest of the Angkorian temples and defines what has come to be known as the classical style of Angkorian architecture. Other temples in this style are Banteay Samre and Thommanon in the area of Angkor, and Phimai in modern Thailand. Bayon Style (1181–1243): In the final quarter of the 12th century, King Jayavarman VII freed the country of Angkor from occupation by an invasionary force from Champa. Thereafter, he began a massive program of monumental construction, paradigmatic for which was the state temple called the Bayon. The king's other foundations participated in the style of the Bayon, and included Ta Prohm, Preah Khan, Angkor Thom, and Banteay Chmar. Though grandiose in plan and elaborately decorated, the temples exhibit a hurriedness of construction that contrasts with the perfection of Angkor Wat. Post Bayon Style (1243–1431): Following the period of frantic construction under Jayavarman VII, Angkorian architecture entered the period of its decline. The 13th century Terrace of the Leper King is known for its dynamic relief sculptures of demon kings, dancers, and nāgas. History of the Decorative Styles: The history of the decorative styles is closely linked to the historical development of Cambodia The kingdom of Angkor dates from the beginning of the 9th century until the mid-15th century but its roots go much further back in time and are the subject of much controversy. Little is known of early Angkorian prehistory with only a handful of sites having been excavated. Therefore, our understanding of the emergence of the complex polities of Cambodia is limited. It is clear that the people who erected the temples in Cambodia inherited a sophisticated political and religious system, one that was, undoubtedly influenced by ideas from India. There can be no doubt that India and her culture had a profound effect on ancient Cambodia, but it is increasingly clear that the relationship between these ancient cultures was more symbiotic than previously assumed. Funan: The earliest recognised polity in the region is Funan, the Chinese name for the political power centred in the lower Mekong River region. It is unclear who the people of Funan were, they may have been Khmer but the evidence is far from conclusive. Whatever their ethnicity the polity prospered as traders from both China and those coming from India were obligated by the monsoon winds to stop in areas controlled by Funan. Once in the region traders would take advantage of the natural products of Southeast Asia and stock supplies for the rest of the voyage. These factors helped make Funan powerful and Chinese accounts indicate that the 'kingdom' controlled settlements as far away as the Isthmus of Kra. By the 3rd century the king of Funan was sending ambassadors to the Chinese court. The cultural inspiration appears to have been derived from India as the rulers are noted to have been Brahman and much of the art of the period celebrates Hindu deities. Based on the surviving literary sources and more recent archaeological work it appears that Funan was very prosperous prior to the 4th century. Even if trade were the driving force of Funan, agriculture played a major role as well. This agricultural exploitation may have been the basis for the political organisation and the following territorial expansion of the Funanese. Aerial photographs attest the complexity of the system imposed. A huge web of interconnecting canals stretch from the Bassac River to the sea. It is possible that as well as providing transportation routes the canals helped to drain the land for agriculture and may have aided in desalinising the soil. Central to this network of canals were the population hubs, which must have been the important trade centres. The Chinese records indicate that the Funanese cities were surrounded by walls and a moat. Most of the evidence we have of Funan comes from a site called Oc-Eo. Here limited archaeological work has revealed to us the structure of the settlement and some very important artefacts. Most of the buildings at Oc-Eo were built on piles, the remains of which can be seen is some places as post moulds. Some buildings at Oc-Eo were made of more durable material and it is likely that these were used as religious sanctuaries. Óc Eo or 'Glass Stream' or 'Crystal Stream' is an archaeological site in Thoại Sơn District in southern An Giang Province, Vietnam, in the Mekong River Delta. Óc Eo may have been a busy port of the kingdom of Funan between the 2nd century BC and 12th century AD. Scholars use the term "Óc Eo Culture" to refer to the archaeological culture of the Mekong Delta region that is typified by the artifacts recovered at Óc Eo through archeological investigation. Óc Eo is also one of the modern day communes of Vietnam. This map shows the locations of archeological sites associated with Óc Eo culture. It is located at the Museum of Vietnamese History, Ho Chi Minh City. Excavation at Óc Eo began on February 10, 1942, after French archaeologists had discovered the site through the use of aerial photography. The first excavations were led by Louis Malleret, who identified the place as the Cattigara of Roman merchants in the first centuries of the Roman empire. The site covers 450 ha. Óc Eo is situated within a network of ancient canals that crisscross the low flatland of the Mekong Delta. One of the canals connects Óc Eo to the town's seaport while another goes 68 kilometres (42 mi) north-northeast to Angkor Borei. Óc Eo is longitudinally bisected by a canal, and there are four transverse canals along which pile-supported houses were perhaps ranged. Archaeological sites reflecting the material culture of Óc Eo are spread throughout southern Vietnam, but are most heavily concentrated in the area of the Mekong Delta to the south and west of Ho Chi Minh City. The most significant site, aside from Óc Eo itself, is at Tháp Muời north of the Tien Giang River, where among other remains a stele with a 6th-century Sanskrit text has been discovered. Aerial photography in 1958 revealed that during the Funan period a distributary of the Mekong entered the Gulf of Thailand in the vicinity of Ta Keo, which was then on the shore but since then become separated by some distance from the sea as a result of siltation. At that time, Ta Keo was connected by a canal with Oc Eo, allowing it access to the Gulf.[4] The distributary of the Mekong revealed in the aerial photography was probably the Saenus mentioned in Ptolemy’s Geography as the western branch of the Mekong, which Ptolemy called the Cottiaris.[ The Cattigara in Ptolemy's Geography could be derived from a Sanskrit word, either Kottinagara (Strong City) or Kirtinagara (Renowned City). The remains found at Óc Eo include pottery, tools, jewelry, casts for making jewelry, coins, and religious statues.[7] Among the finds are gold jewellery imitating coins from the Roman Empire of the Antonine period. This.statue of Visnu, Hindu deity of Indian-origin religion, from the 6th or 7th century AD was found in Óc Eo and is now housed in the Museum of Vietnamese History. Roman golden medallions from the reign of Antoninus Pius, and possibly his successor Marcus Aurelius, have been discovered at Óc Eo, which was near Chinese-controlled Jiaozhou and the region where Chinese historical texts claim the Romans first landed before venturing further into China to conduct diplomacy in 166.[10] Many of the remains have been collected and are on exhibition in Museum of Vietnamese History in Ho Chi Minh City. Among the coins found at Óc Eo by Malleret were eight made of silver bearing the image of the hamsa or crested argus, apparently minted in Funan. The archeological site of Gò Cây Thị, Ba Thê Óc Eo Óc Eo has been regarded as belonging to the historical kingdom of Funan (扶南) that flourished in the Mekong Delta between the 2nd century BC and the 12th century CE. The kingdom of Funan is known to us from the works of ancient Chinese historians, especially writers of dynastic histories, who in turn drew from the testimony of Chinese diplomats and travellers, and of foreign (including Funanese) embassies to the Chinese imperial courts. Indeed, the name "Funan" itself is an artifact of the Chinese histories, and does not appear in the paleographic record of ancient Vietnam or Cambodia. From the Chinese sources, however, it can be determined that a polity called "Funan" by the Chinese was the dominant polity located in the Mekong Delta region. As a result, archeological discoveries in that region that can be dated to the period of Funan have been identified with the historical polity of Funan. The discoveries at Óc Eo and related sites are our primary source for the material culture of Funan. The Vietnamese archaeologist believe that with knowledge we have now, it is impossible to demonstrate the existence of a Funan culture, widely spread from the Mekong Delta through the Chao Praya delta to Burma, with Óc Eo as the typical representative: the presence of similar artefacts such as jewelry and seals from sites in those areas was simply the result of trade and exchange, while each of the sites bore the signs of their own separate cultural development. He supported the view of Claude Jacques that, in view of the complete lack of any Khmer records relating to a kingdom by the name of Funan, use of this name should be abandoned in favour of the names, such as Aninditapura, Bhavapura, Shresthapura and Vyadhapura, which are known from inscriptions to have been used at the time for cities in the region and provide a more accurate idea of the true geography of the ancient Khmer territory. Hà Văn Tấn argued that, from the late neolithic or early metal age, Óc Eo gradually emerged as an economic and cultural centre of the Mekong Delta and, with an important position on the Southeast Asian sea routes, became a meeting place for craftsmen and traders, which provided adequate conditions for urbanization, receiving foreign influences, notably from India, which in turn stimulated internal development.[ Funan was part of the region of Southeast Asia referred to in ancient Indian texts as Suvarnabhumi, and may have been the part to which the term was first applied. The Swedish yachtsman and writer Bjorn Landström also concluded, from the sailing directions given by the ancient merchant and seafarer Alexander, that Cattigara lay at the mouth of the Mekong. The "father of Early Southeast Asian History", George Coedès, has said: "By the middle of the 3rd century Fu-nan had already established relations with China and India, and it is doubtless on the west coast of the Gulf of Siam that the furthest point reached by Hellenistic navigators is to be found, that is the harbour of Kattigara mentioned by Ptolemy".[ A.H. Christie said in 1979 that "the presence of objects, however few in number, from the Roman Orient" added some weight to the conjecture that Óc-eo was the Ptolemaic Kattigara. The distinguished German classical scholar, Albrecht Dihle, supported this view, saying: From the account of the voyage of Alexander referred to by Ptolemy, Kattigara can actually be located only in the Mekong delta, because Alexander went first along the east coast of the Malacca peninsula, northward to Bangkok, from thence likewise only along the coast toward the south east, and so came to Kattigara. We hear nothing of any further change of course. In addition, at Óc Eo, an emporium excavated in the western Mekong delta, in the ancient kingdom of Fu-nan, Roman finds from the 2nd century after Christ have come to light. Angkor Wat is a religious temple complex in Cambodia. At 402 acres, it is the largest religious monument in the world, and is considered to be the finest classical example of Khmer architecture, a building tradition that spanned the 9th and 15th centuries AD during the reign of the Khmer Empire.King Suryavarman II began the construction after ascending to the throne in 1113. It is not known who the architects or designers were. Originally, it was built as a Hindu temple of the god Vishnu. Reflecting this, the temple faces west in contrast with many of the other temples at Angkor. However, towards the end of the 12th century it was transformed into a Buddhist temple. Angkor Wat Angkor Wat is a religious temple complex in Cambodia. At 402 acres, it is the largest religious monument in the world, and is considered to be the finest classical example of Khmer architecture, a building tradition that spanned the 9th and 15th centuries AD during the reign of the Khmer Empire. King Suryavarman II began the construction after ascending to the throne in 1113. It is not known who the architects or designers were. Originally, it was built as a Hindu temple of the god Vishnu. Reflecting this, the temple faces west in contrast with many of the other temples at Angkor. However, towards the end of the 12th century it was transformed into a Buddhist temple. Over the course of the 20th century, Angkor Wat became more well-known globally as a symbol of Cambodia, and today it is the country’s main tourist attraction. Design and construction The temple complex is surrounded by a 190m-wide moat forming a 1.5km by 1.3km rectangle. A sandstone causeway crosses the moat on its western side. The stylistic elements of the complex are characteristic of Khmer architecture and include the ogival, lotus bud-shaped towers, half-galleries, axial galleries, connecting enclosures and cruciform terraces. The main pyramid takes the form of three stepped terraces with covered galleries bordering all sides of each step. The corners of the second and third steps are punctuated by towers, the highest of which rises to 55m. At the time of its construction, Khmer architects were proficient in the use of sandstone as a building material, and the complex was constructed using 5-10 million sandstone blocks, each weighing up to 1.5 tons. These blocks were quarried from the mountain of Phnom Kulen, more than 50km away, and were floated on rafts down the Siem Reap River. Inscriptions record that the construction involved 300,000 workers and 6,000 elephants. The sandstone blocks form the most visible elements of the structure, while a type of clay local to the area, laterite, was used for the outer wall and concealed structural elements. The precise binding agent for the blocks is unknown, although it is believed to be natural resin or slaked lime. Internally, the smooth stones were laid with very tight joints without mortar, held together instead by mortise and tenon joints, or by dovetails and gravity. It is believed the blocks were assembled using a combination of elephants, coir ropes and pulleys, and bamboo scaffolding. Angkor Wat is famous for its vast array of symbolic detailing. Nearly 2,000 sq.m of bas reliefs are intricately carved into the sandstone,as well as extensively carved lintels, friezes and pediments, and nearly 2,000 depictions of apsaras (celestial dancers). Post-construction After King Suryavarman II’s death, the temple was converted to Buddhist use by King Jayavarman VII. Western interest in the temple only really began with the writings of the French naturalist Henri Mouhot in the 1860s. Conservation work was started by the French in the early-20th century and continued over the decades in an attempt to preserve the structure from damage. Ancient builders had used brick, sandstone, laterite and wood as their materials. The ruins that remain are of brick, sandstone and laterite, the wood elements having been lost to decay and other destructive processes. Brick The earliest Angkorian temples were made mainly of brick. Good examples are the temple towers of Preah Ko, Lolei and Bakong at Hariharalaya. Decorations were usually carved into a stucco applied to the brick, rather than into the brick itself. This because bricks being softer material do not lend itself to sculpting as opposed to stones of different kinds such as the SandStones or the Granites. However, the tenets of the Sacred Architecture as enunciated in the Vedas and the Shastras, require no adhesives to be used while building blocks are assembled one over the other to create the Temples, as such bricks have been used only in relatively smaller temples such as Lolei and The Preah Ko. Besides, strength of bricks is much lesser as compared to the stones (mentioned here-in) and the former degrade with age. Angkor's neighbor state of Champa was also the home to numerous brick temples that are similar in style to those of Angkor. The most extensive ruins are at Mỹ Sơn in Vietnam. A Cham story tells of the time that the two countries settled an armed conflict by means of a tower-building contest proposed by the Cham King Po Klaung Garai. While the Khmer built a standard brick tower, Po Klaung Garai directed his people to build an impressive replica of paper and wood. In the end, the Cham replica was more impressive than the real brick tower of the Khmer, and the Cham won the contest. Sandstone The only stone used by Angkorian builders was sandstone, obtained from the Kulen mountains. Since its obtainment was considerably more expensive than that of brick, sandstone only gradually came into use, and at first was used for particular elements such as door frames. The 10th-century temple of Ta Keo is the first Angkorian temple to be constructed more or less entirely from Sandstone. Laterite Angkorian builders used laterite, a clay that is soft when taken from the ground but that hardens when exposed to the sun, for foundations and other hidden parts of buildings. Because the surface of laterite is uneven, it was not suitable for decorative carvings, unless first dressed with stucco. Laterite was more commonly used in the Khmer provinces than at Angkor itself. Because the water table in this entire region is well high, Laterite has been used in the underlying layers of Angkor Wat and other temples (especially the larger ones), because it can absorb water and help towards better stability of the Temple. Preah Ko, completed in 879 CE, was a temple made mainly of brickTa Keo, a massive unfinished mountain temple built in the 10th century, was constructed more or less entirely from sandstone Prasat Prang Ku in Sisaket, Thailand, was built with laterite Central sanctuary The central prang of Angkor Wat temple symbolizes the mount Meru. The central sanctuary of an Angkorian temple was home to the temple's primary deity, the one to whom the site was dedicated: typically Shiva or Vishnu in the case of a Hindu temple, Buddha or a bodhisattva in the case of a Buddhist temple. The deity was represented by a statue (or in the case of Shiva, most commonly by a linga). Since the temple was not considered a place of worship for use by the population at large, but rather a home for the deity, the sanctuary needed only to be large enough to hold the statue or linga; it was never more than a few metres across.[11] Its importance was instead conveyed by the height of the tower (prasat) rising above it, by its location at the centre of the temple, and by the greater decoration on its walls. Symbolically, the sanctuary represented Mount Meru, the legendary home of the Hindu gods. Prang The prang is the tall finger-like spire, usually richly carved, common to much Khmer religious architecture. Enclosure Khmer temples were typically enclosed by a concentric series of walls, with the central sanctuary in the middle; this arrangement represented the mountain ranges surrounding Mount Meru, the mythical home of the gods. Enclosures are the spaces between these walls, and between the innermost wall and the temple itself. By modern convention, enclosures are numbered from the centre outwards. The walls defining the enclosures of Khmer temples are frequently lined by galleries, while passage through the walls is by way of gopuras located at the cardinal points. Gallery A gallery is a passageway running along the wall of an enclosure or along the axis of a temple, often open to one or both sides. Historically, the form of the gallery evolved during the 10th century from the increasingly long hallways which had earlier been used to surround the central sanctuary of a temple. During the period of Angkor Wat in the first half of the 12th century, additional half galleries on one side were introduced to buttress the structure of the temple. Gopura A gopura leads into the 12th-century temple compound at Ta Prohm. Many of the gopuras constructed under Jayavarman VII toward the end of the 12th century, such as this one at Angkor Thom, are adorned with gigantic stone faces of Avalokiteshvara. A gopura is an entrance building. At Angkor, passage through the enclosure walls surrounding a temple compound is frequently accomplished by means of an impressive gopura, rather than just an aperture in the wall or a doorway. Enclosures surrounding a temple are often constructed with a gopura at each of the four cardinal points. In plan, gopuras are usually cross-shaped and elongated along the axis of the enclosure wall. If the wall is constructed with an accompanying gallery, the gallery is sometimes connected to the arms of the gopura. Many Angkorian gopuras have a tower at the centre of the cross. The lintels and pediments are often decorated, and guardian figures (dvarapalas) are often placed or carved on either side of the doorways. Hall of Dancers A Hall of Dancers is a structure of a type found in certain late 12th-century temples constructed under King Jayavarman VII: Ta Prohm, Preah Khan, Banteay Kdei and Banteay Chhmar. It is a rectangular building elongated along the temple's east axis and divided into four courtyards by galleries. Formerly it had a roof made of perishable materials; now only the stone walls remain. The pillars of the galleries are decorated with carved designs of dancing apsaras; hence scholars have suggested that the hall itself may have been used for dancing. The West Gopura – Gateway to Angkor Wat The importance of the West Gopura structure cannot be understated: this is the gateway to Angkor Wat. Its west facade may have been the only part of the the temple that the vast majority of the public ever saw. But even that statement assumes too much. Privileged visitors crossing the rainbow bridge approach this building, which offers access to Angkor Wat’s garden paradise within through three porticos (for those pilgrims on foot) and two “elephant gates” at the north and south (for elephants and vehicles). West Gopura devata portraits are numbered from south to north. (In this photo, west is at the top) Whatever Angkor Wat represented was promoted first and foremost by the West Gopura.Which brings us to the devata, the women of Angkor Wat’s West Gopura. There are 259 women on this entrance structure: 124 on the outside wall, 119 on the inside wall, and 8 in each elephant gate entry chamber at the north and south.Logically, the women featured on this prominent structure must be quite extraordinary for some reason. For nearly 1,000 years they have seen every visitor to the temple. Are they protecting the structure and the Temple of Heaven that lies within? or adorning the structure with their beauty? Or are they being glorified by exhibiting their images in such an auspicious place? House of Fire House of Fire, or Dharmasala, is the name given to a type of building found only in temples constructed during the reign of late 12th-century monarch Jayavarman VII: Preah Khan, Ta Prohm and Banteay Chhmar. A House of Fire has thick walls, a tower at the west end and south-facing windows. Scholars theorize that the House of Fire functioned as a "rest house with fire" for travellers. An inscription at Preah Khan tells of 121 such rest houses lining the highways into Angkor. The Chinese traveller Zhou Daguan expressed his admiration for these rest houses when he visited Angkor in 1296 CE. Another theory is that the House of Fire had a religious function as the repository the sacred flame used in sacred ceremonies. Library Structures conventionally known as "libraries" are a common feature of Khmer temple architecture, but their true purpose remains unknown. Most likely they functioned broadly as religious shrines rather than strictly as repositories of manuscripts. Freestanding buildings, they were normally placed in pairs on either side of the entrance to an enclosure, opening to the west. Unusually, the libraries at Angkor Wat open to both the East and the West. Srah and baray Srahs and barays were reservoirs, generally created by excavation and embankment, respectively. It is not clear whether the significance of these reservoirs was religious, agricultural, or a combination of the two. The two largest reservoirs at Angkor were the West Baray and the East Baray located on either side of Angkor Thom. The East Baray is now dry. The West Mebon is an 11th-century temple standing at the center of the West Baray and the East Mebon is a 10th-century temple standing at the center of the East Baray The baray associated with Preah Khan is the Jayataka, in the middle of which stands the 12th-century temple of Neak Pean. Scholars have speculated that the Jayataka represents the Himalayan lake of Anavatapta, known for its miraculous healing powers. Bakong as a Temple mountain The Bakong is the earliest surviving Temple Mountain at Angkor. The dominant scheme for the construction of state temples in the Angkorian period was that of the Temple Mountain, an architectural representation of Mount Meru, the home of the gods in Hinduism. The style was influenced by South indian temple architecture. Enclosures represented the mountain chains surrounding Mount Meru, while a moat represented the ocean. The temple itself took shape as a pyramid of several levels, and the home of the gods was represented by the elevated sanctuary at the center of the temple. The first great temple mountain was the Bakong, a five-level pyramid dedicated in 881 by King Indravarman I. The structure of Bakong took shape of stepped pyramid, popularly identified as temple mountain of early Khmer temple architecture. The striking similarity of the Bakong and Borobudur in Java, going into architectural details such as the gateways and stairs to the upper terraces, strongly suggests that Borobudur might have served as the prototype of Bakong. There must have been exchanges of travelers, if not mission, between Khmer kingdom and the Sailendras in Java. Transmitting to Cambodia not only ideas, but also technical and architectural details of Borobudur, including arched gateways in corbelling method. Other Khmer temple mountains include Baphuon, Pre Rup, Ta Keo, Koh Ker, the Phimeanakas, and most notably the Phnom Bakheng at Angkor. According to Charles Higham, "A temple was built for the worship of the ruler, whose essence, if a Saivite, was embodied in a linga... housed in the central sanctuary which served as a temple-mausoleum for the ruler after his death...these central temples also contained shrines dedicated to the royal ancestors and thus became centres of ancestor worship." PART II The Quincunx of the Phnom Bakheng In fact the entire stretch of South East Asia from Indonesia to Cambodia is strewn with remains of Indian influence. Travelers would not have missed that Bangkok’s airport is called Suvarnabhoomi and the entrance of the airport depicts Amrit Manthan, the churning of the sea by devas to extract the elixir of life. The Indian influence in Indonesia –whose tourist haven of Bali is a Hindu majority province, is something that is fairly well know. Phnom Bakheng is a symbolic representation of Mount Meru, home of the Hindu gods, a status emphasized by the temple's location atop a steep hill 65 m above the surrounding plain. The temple is built in a pyramid form of seven levels, representing the seven heavens. At the top level, five sandstone sanctuaries, in various states of repair, stand in a quincunx pattern—one in the center and one at each corner of the level's square. Originally, 108 small towers were arrayed around the temple at ground level and on various of its tiers; most of them have collapsed. A quincunx (/ˈkwɪn.kʌŋks/) is a geometric pattern consisting of five points arranged in a cross, with four of them forming a square or rectangle and a fifth at its center. It forms the arrangement of five units in the pattern corresponding to the five-spot on six-sided dice, playing cards, and dominoes. It is represented in Unicode as U+2059 ⁙ FIVE DOT PUNCTUATION or (for the die pattern) U+2684 ⚄ DIE FACE-5. ORIGIN A quincunx coin////Portuguese shield The quincunx was originally a coin issued by the Roman Republic c. 211–200 BC, whose value was five twelfths (quinque and uncia) of an as, the Roman standard bronze coin. On the Roman quincunx coins, the value was sometimes indicated by a pattern of five dots or pellets. However, these dots were not always arranged in a quincunx pattern. The Oxford English Dictionary (OED) dates the first appearances of the Latin word in English as 1545 and 1574 ("in the sense 'five-twelfths of a pound or as'"; i.e. 100 old pence). The first citation for a geometric meaning, as "a pattern used for planting trees", dates from 1606. The OED also cites a 1647 reference to the German astronomer Kepler for an astronomical/astrological meaning, an angle of 5/12 of a whole circle. Jackson (1821) states that the word refers to the pattern of trees in an orchard, but then uses it more abstractly for a version of the orchard-planting problem involving patterns of points and lines in the plane (for which the quincunx pattern provides the optimal solution for five points). Quincunx patterns occur in many contexts: The flag of the Solomon Islands features a quincunx of stars./A quincuncial map/12th-century Cosmatesque mosaic in the Cappella Palatina, Palermo, Sicily Drawn by Timothy M Ciccone following Claude Jacques, Michael Freeman, and Jean Laur.of thr Bakeng Phnom Bakheng as a quincunx In heraldry, groups of five elements (charges) are often arranged in a quincunx pattern, called in saltire in heraldic terminology. The flag of the Solomon Islands features this pattern, with its five stars representing the five main island groups in the Solomon Islands. Another instance of this pattern occurred in the flag of the 19th-century Republic of Yucatán, where it signified the five departments into which the republic was divided. Quincunxes are used in modern computer graphics as a pattern for multisample anti-aliasing. Quincunx antialiasing samples scenes at the corners and centers of each pixel. These five sample points, in the shape of a quincunx, are combined to produce each displayed pixel. However, samples at the corner points are shared with adjacent pixels, so the number of samples needed is only twice the number of displayed pixels. In numerical analysis, the quincunx pattern describes the two-dimensional five-point stencil, a sampling pattern used to derive finite difference approximations to derivatives. In architecture, a quincuncial plan, also defined as a "cross-in-square", is the plan of an edifice composed of nine bays. The central and the four angular ones are covered with domes or groin vaults so that the pattern of these domes forms a quincunx; the other four bays are surmounted by barrel vaults. In Khmer architecture, the towers of a temple, such as Angkor Wat, are sometimes arranged in a quincunx to represent the five peaks of Mount Meru A quincunx is one of the quintessential designs of Cosmatesque inlay stonework. A quincuncial map is a conformal map projection that maps the poles of the sphere to the centre and four corners of a square, thus forming a quincunx. The points on each face of a unit cell of a face-centred cubic lattice form a quincunx. The quincunx as a tattoo is known as the five dots tattoo. It has been variously interpreted as a fertility symbol, a reminder of sayings on how to treat women or police, a recognition symbol among the Romani people, a group of close friends, standing alone in the world, or time spent in prison (with the outer four dots representing the prison walls and the inner dot representing the prisoner). Thomas Edison, whose many inventions included an electric pen which later became the basis of a tattooing machine created by Samuel O'Reilly, had this pattern tattooed on his forearm. The first two stages of the Saturn V super heavy-lift rocket had engines in a quincunx arrangement. A baseball diamond forms a quincunx with the four bases and the pitcher's mound. Early African American scientist Benjamin Banneker describes a dream in which he is asked to measure the shape of the soul after death. The answer is "quincunx". Research locates his ancestry in Senegal, where the quincunx is a common religious symbol.[16] Place des Quinconces in Bordeaux, France, one of the largest public squares in Europe, is named for its trees, which were formerly arranged in quincunx patterns. Various literary works use or refer to the quincunx pattern for its symbolic value: The English physician Sir Thomas Browne in his philosophical discourse The Garden of Cyrus (1658) elaborates upon evidence of the quincunx pattern in art, nature and mystically as evidence of "the wisdom of God". Although Browne wrote about quincunx in its geometric meaning, he may have been influenced by English astrology, as the astrological meaning of "quincunx" (unrelated to the pattern) was introduced by the astronomer Kepler in 1604. James Joyce uses the term in "Grace", a short story in Dubliners of 1914, to describe the seating arrangement of five men in a church service. Lobnerargues that in this context the pattern serves as a symbol both of the wounds of Christ and of the Greek cross. Lawrence Durrell's novel sequence The Avignon Quintet is arranged in the form of a quincunx, according to the author; the final novel in the sequence is called Quinx, the plot of which includes the discovery of a quincunx of stones. The Quincunx is the title of a lengthy and elaborate novel by Charles Palliser set in 19th-century England, published in 1989; the pattern appears in the text as a heraldic device, and is also reflected in the structure of the book. In the first chapter of The Rings of Saturn, W. G. Sebald's narrator cites Browne's writing on the quincunx. The quincunx in turn becomes a model for the way in which the rest of the novel unfolds. Séamus Heaney describes Ireland's historical provinces as together forming a quincunx, as the Irish word for province cúige (literally: "fifth part") also explicates. The five provinces of Ireland were Ulster (north), Leinster (east), Connacht (west), Munster (south) and Meath (center, and now a county within Leinster). More specifically, in his essay Frontiers of Writing, Heaney creates an image of five towers forming a quincunx pattern within Ireland, one tower for each of the five provinces, each having literary significance. The Polish historian Feliks Koneczny used the term 'quincunx' to describe five categories of human life which define civilisations, these categories including truth and good on the spiritual side, well-being and health on the physical side and beauty encompassing both sides. Bhutanese thangka of Mount Meru and the Buddhist universe, 19th century, Trongsa Dzong, Trongsa, Bhutan//The MahaBodhi Temple, a famous Buddhist temple at Bodhgaya, India, representing Mount Meru Mount Meru : मेरु, also recognized as Sumeru, Sineru or Mahāmeru, is the sacred five-peaked mountain of Hindu, Jain, and Buddhist cosmology and is considered to be the centre of all the physical, metaphysical and spiritual universes. Many famous Buddhist, Jain, and Hindu temples have been built as symbolic representations of this mountain. The "Sumeru Throne" style base is a common feature[ of Chinese pagodas. The highest point (the finial bud) on the pyatthat, a Burmese-style multi-tiered roof, represents Mount Meru. Etymologically, the proper name of the mountain is Meru (Pāli Meru), to which is added the approbatory prefix su-, resulting in the meaning "excellent Meru" or "wonderful Meru". Meru is also the name of the central bead in a mālā. In other languages, Mount Meru is pronounced: Burmese: ([mjɪ̰ɴ mò tàʊɰ̃]) Chinese: 須彌山 (Xūmíshān) Japanese: 須弥山 (Shumisen) Javanese: (Semeru) Kannada: ಮೇರು ಪರ್ವತ Khmer: ភ្នំព្រះសុមេរុ (Phnom Preah Someru) or (Phnom Preah Somae) Korean: 수미산 (Sumisan) Malayalam: മഹാമേരു പർവ്വതം (Mahameru Parvatham) Pāli: Sineru Tamil: மகா மேரு மலை Telugu: మేరు పర్వతం Tibetan: ཪི་རྒྱལ་པོ་རི་རབ་ Thai: เขาพระสุเมรุ (Khao phra sumen) Vietnamese: Núi Tu-di GEOGRAPHY; The dimensions attributed to Mount Meru — which all refer to it as a part of the Cosmic Ocean, along with several other statements that describe it in geographically vague terms (e.g., "the Sun along with all the planets circle the mountain") — make the determination of its location most difficult, according to most scholars. Some researchers identify Mount Meru or Sumeru with the Pamirs, northwest of Kashmir. The Suryasiddhanta mentions that Mt. Meru lies in the middle of the Earth ("bhuva-madhya") in the land of the Jambunad (Jampudvīpa). Narapatijayacharyasvarodaya, a ninth-century text, based on mostly unpublished texts of Yāmal Tantr, mentions: "Sumeruḥ Prithvī-madhye shrūyate drishyate na tu" (Su-meru is heard to be in the middle of the Earth, but is not seen there). Several versions of cosmology can be found in existing Hindu texts. In one of them, cosmologically, the Meru mountain was also described as being surrounded by Mandrachala Mountain to the east, Suparshva Mountain to the west, Kumuda Mountain to the north and Kailasa to the south Yuan dynasty 1271–1368) Chinese mandala depicting Mount Meru as an inverted pyramid topped by a lotus. According to Buddhist cosmology, Mount Meru (or Sumeru) is at the centre of the world, and Jambūdvīpa is south of it. It is 80,000 yojanas wide and 80,000 yojanas high according to the Abhidharmakośabhāṣyam and 84,000 yojanas high according to the Long Āgama Sutra. Trāyastriṃśa is on its peak, where Śakra resides. The Sun and the Moon revolve around Mount Meru, and as the Sun passes behind it, it becomes nighttime. The mountain has four faces — each one made of a different material; the northern face is made of gold, the eastern one is made of crystal, the southern one is made of lapis lazuli, and the western one is made of ruby In Vajrayāna, maṇḍala offerings often include Mount Meru, as they in part represent the entire universe.It is also believed that Mount Meru is the home of the buddha Cakrasaṃvara Tibetan Cakrasaṃvara sand mandala with Mount Meru in the centre. / Tibetan Buddhist embroidery representing Mount Sumeru. The study of the astronomical practices, celestial lore, mythologies, religions and world-views of all ancient cultures we call archaeoastronomy. You may already know that many of the great monuments and ceremonial constructions of early civilizations were astronomically aligned. The accurate cardinal orientation of the Great Pyramid at Giza in Egypt or the Venus alignment of the magnificent Maya Palace of the Governor at Uxmal in Yucatan are outstanding examples. We learn much about the development of science and cosmological thought from the study of both the ancient astronomies and surviving indigenous traditions around the world.Some define it as- ‘The contemporary scientific study and theorization of surviving memorials constructed prior to telescopes by students of the night skies planet-wide. Such memorials might include writings and symbols engraved in stone or primitive megalithic alignments for observing and celebrating Mother Earth's seasonal rhythms. Intercontinentally, ancient seamen and expert navigators curated databases aware of equinox, solstice and cross-quarter moments. This field interprets how ancients grasped: A— the Sun, stars and constellations with the placement or carving of paired gnomon and target alignments, B— comets, rhythms of the 5 visible planets, lunar eclipses, phases and standstills, or C— an anomaly such as a localized total solar eclipse, a planetary occlusion by the Moon, a planetary conjunction, a supernova, an asteroid, a meteor or an unidentifiable object. ‘ In An introductory view on archaeoastronomy, Daniel Brown,(Journal of Physics: Conference Series-Journal of Physics: Conference Series, Volume 685, Modern Archaeoastronomy: From Material Culture to Cosmology 23 June 2014, Portsmouth, UK considers the subject still a marginalised topic in academia and described by the Sophia Centre, the only UK institution offering a broader MA containing this field, as 'the study of the incorporation of celestial orientation, alignments or symbolism in human monuments and architecture'. The history of Indian astronomy begins with the Vedic period, Lagadha and composition of Vedanga Jyotisha (1400 BCE - 1200 BCE). Astronomical knowledge in India reached an early peak in the 5th century CE, with the Āryabhaṭīya. Its author, Aryabhata, mentions that when he turned 23 years of age, 3600 years had passed since the beginning of Kali Yuga. This date has become traditional and is still widely cited in Hindu literature to suggest the date of Kurukshetra War. Modern authors attempted to date the Vedic period based on archaeoastronomical calculations. In the 18th century William Jones who tried to show, based on information gathered from Varaha Mihira, that Parashara muni lived at 1181 BCE.[1] Hermann Jacobi has argued that in the Rigveda and Atharvaveda the sun was in Phalguni, and in the Sankhayana and Gobhila Grhyasutra the Full moon was in Bhadrapada during the summer solstice, which would have occurred at 4500-2500 BCE. Jacobi and Tilak have both argued that the names of the nakṣatras: Mūla (root), Viśṛtau (two dividers) and Jyeṣṭha (oldest) suggest that these names originated from a time when Mula marked the beginning of the year, i.e. about 4500-2500 BCE.[3] Tilak has also noted that the two week long pitrs period after the full moon in Bhadrapada occurred at the beginning of the pitryana, which would have been true at about 4500-2500 BC The traditional Hindu system of astrology, also known as Hindu astrology, Indian astrology and more recently Vedic astrologyJyotisha or Jyotishya- "light, heavenly body". The term Hindu astrology has been in use as the English equivalent of Jyotiṣa since the early 19th century, whereas Vedic astrology is a relatively recent term, entering common usage in the 1970s with self-help publications on Āyurveda or yoga. Jyotisha developed independently although it may have interacted with Greek astrology. Following a judgement of the Andhra Pradesh High Court in 2001 which favoured astrology, some Indian universities now offer advanced degrees in Hindu astrology. The scientific consensus is that astrology is a pseudoscience Be as it may, in my 2 papers-THE STORY OF ASTROLOGY IN ANGKOR WAT & OTHER KHEMER TEMPLES & The Role of Astronomy at Angkor Wat, I habe shown the great influence yielded by thse 2 Hindu ‘sciences’ on the architecture and kingship of the Angkor creations The golden age of Khemer architecture began with Jayavarman II. In his long reign of 67 years he built 3 capitals. Probably( and I think definitely so) he got inspiration from his Javanese ancestors who had built the magnificent Prambanan temples. Indrapura the Capital already exited when he came, it was followed by building of Hariharalaya. The next capital was amarendrapura 100 miles to North – West of Angkor Thom.Shiva and Buddha were combined in the architecture of bantey Chamar which he built.The 3 rd and last work of jayavarman II was. Mahendraparavata or Phnom Kueon.2 Hindu traditions dominated Angkor civilization up to the 13th century even if some sovereigns of this period had Buddhist leanings, or were even devout Buddhists. At the time of the monumental construction there was the problem of finding a suitable site vast enough to enable the construction of an edifice worthy of his greatness and living up to his aspirations. Whatever the layout of the city of Angkor was at this time, including the area of ancient Yasodharapura and of the future Angkor Thom, the constructions of the 10th and 11th century occupied a considerable part of the available land. Some of the earliest astrological works uncovered include Jataka Parijata and Sarvartha Chintamani, both remnants of young Hindu astrology. Astrology that ascended from Indian roots is still widely-received, respected, and referred to today in Hindu culture. The earliest and most ancient scriptures are still able to produce accurate predictions and subsequently, have managed to evolve with the modern age. Today’s Western astrology is a diverse combination of the eerie science’s origins; elements from Indian, Chinese, Mayan, and Greek astrology have come together to form the contemporary wheel that sections of the Gregorian calendar into the zodiac signs most mentioned currently. As a result, Suryavarman chose the southeast corner of Yasodhapura, a space evidently free of buildings of durable materials, yet one where he could take advantage of the network of canals laid out by Yasovarman for his capital. King Suryavarman II (1113-1150), the builder of Angkor Wat was a devotee of Lord Vishnu. The philosophical understanding behind cremation in Hinduism is that the body made of five basic elements- Earth, Water, Air, Space and Fire, returns to those elements after the migration of the soul.Which means they are to be cast into a river( at least most of them). In the Hindu tradition, no one ever builds a funerary temple or mausoleum – so there is more to the site than that.Either, that it is a mausoleum but more so- a construction that cried out for an appropriate site to fit into. No, the answer to understanding the Angkor is ancient Astronomy, Angkor Wat, City built with astronomic measurements to mimic the Gods in the Universe. It is plainly evident that the most appropriate access route to the site of Angkor Wat temple was from the west. Attributing unsubstantiated explanations or meaning to a fact of purely physical constraint is unwarranted. 1 Instead of calling the region where the temples of Angkor Wat are located as South East Asia, which is an American term, Lawrence Palmer Briggs suggests we call it Indo China for the people living there were neither Hindus nor Buddhists but autochtshonous . I don’t know what auto auto it is but definitely they were Hindus and the Buddhist period lasted hardly a few centuries more after the Hindu one.2 In his erudite paper-Time, Space, and Astronomy in Angkor Wat,Subhash Kak 3 elucidates: ______________________________________________________________________________ 1.Monuments of Civilization: Ancient Cambodia,Donatella Mazzeo,Chiara Silvi Antonini, Han Suyin (Contributor), 1983 , Smithmark Publishers (first published October 1st 1978) 2..Sarton, G. (1951). [Review of The Ancient Khmer Empire, by L. P. Briggs]. Isis, 42(3), 263–265. http://www.jstor.org/stable/226582 3.https://www.researchgate.net/publication/2889330_Time_Space_and_Astronomy_in_Angkor_Wat These according to him, correspond to the periods of 432,000; 864,000; 1,296,000; 1,728,000 years for the Kali, Dvapara, Treta, and Krta yuga, respectively. “ The most impressive aspect of this representation is that it occurs both at the level of the part as well as the whole in a recursive fashion, mirroring the Vedic idea of the microcosm symbolizes the macrocosm at various levels of expressions. This is done not only in the domain of numbers and directions, but also using appropriate mythological themes, and historical incidents. The mythological scenes skillfully use the oppositions and complementarities between the gods, goddesses, asuras, and humans dened over ordinary and sacred time and space. Furthermore he points out that the various lengths and circumferences of units representing the motion of the moon may equal ; 27, 28, 29 (naksatras or daysof the month) , 354 (days of the lunar year), or 360 (tithis of the lunar year). Other lengths represent the solar year (360, 365, or 366) or larger time cycles. According to him the west-east axis represents the periods of the yugas. The width of the moat is 439.78 cubit; the distance from the first step of the western entrance gateway to balustrade wall at the end of causeway is 867.03 cubit; the distance from the first step of the western entrance gateway to the first step of the central tower is 1,296.07 cubit; and the distance from the first step of bridge to the geographic center of the temple is 1,734.41 cubit. In the central tower, the topmost elevation has external axial dimensions of 189.00 cubit east-west, and 176.37 cubit north-south, with the sum of 365.37. This division of the almost exact length of the solar year into unequal halves remained a mystery for some time until it was found to be connected with the Satapatha Brahman.-a numbers for the asymmetric motion of the sun. All these are, however, astrological terms also which underlines the fact that astrological advanvces were so great that they linked this knowledge to astronomy. To understand this let us study the connection between the two. 2 picture composition: Aspara in Moon light/ To RIGHT Central tower of Angkor Wat, Cambodia with full Moon. Credit: Astronomy club Toutatis/S. Lamoureux The Wat was built by the Khmer King Suryavarman II in the early 12th century in Yasodharapura present-day Angkor, the capital of the Khmer Empire, as his state.temple. Breaking from the Shaivism tradition of previous kings, Angkor Wat was instead dedicated to Vishnu. As the best-preserved temple at the site, it is the only one to have remained a significant religious center since its foundation. The Khmer's adhered to the Indian belief that a temple must be built according to a mathematical system in order for it to function in harmony with the universe. Distances between certain architectural elements of the temple reflect numbers related to Indian mythology and cosmology. The scale of Angkor Wat enabled the Khmer to give full expression to religious symbolism. The sheer size of the place leaves visitors in awe and the complex designs illustrate the skills of long gone priest architects. Every spare inch has been carved with intricate works of art. It is, above all else, a microcosm of the Hindu universe. As a brilliant example of the synthesis of astronomy and architecture at Angkor Wat, the solar axes of the temple lead directly to the central sanctuary, a sanctum sanctorum devoted to the supreme solar god, Lord Vishnu. Vishnu manifests as one of the solar months, and the sun itself is thought to be his emanation. Although the Sun gains stature through its conjunction with the center of Angkor Wat, Vishnu, and the king, it is worth noting that lunar alignments are also recorded along the western and eastern axis of the temple. As the measurements of solar and lunar time cycles were built into the sacred space of Angkor Wat, this divine mandate to rule was anchored to consecrated chambers and corridors meant to perpetuate the king's power and to honour and placate the deities manifest in the heavens above. The solar and lunar alignments at Angkor Wat were alignments with the gods, alignments that tied the nation to the heavens above, and alignments that imbued the king with the power to rule by divine association. Here are concrete astronomical observations you can see at Angkor Wat: 1. The rising sun aligning on equinox days with the western entrance of the state temple, Angkor Wat. 2. The movements of the moon can be observed from a variety of positions within the temple, and lunar cycles may have been recorded in the three sets of libraries in the interior court. 3. The bas reliefs of the third gallery can be understood in relation to the movements of the sun, which establish their counterclockwise direction. 4. The measurements of the temple appear proportional to calendric and cosmological time cycles. These temples are inshort an Observatory.When you settle your feet at a specific location, the Universe, in a sense revolves around you. With some patience and time you can start to notice patterns and Recursions that you can calculate and even predict. “In conclusion for me, the most amazing aspects of the ancient Khmer Civilization was their understanding of their place in the cosmos, and how the placement of the temples mirrored so many of the celestial movements. A real ancient observatory with it's knowledge embedded on it's self. Through stone and art, they kept it all to be discovered again and again. “1 Mount Meru, in Hindu mythology, a golden mountain that stands in the centre of the universe and is the axis of the world. It is the abode of gods, and its foothills are the Himalayas, to the south of which extends Bhāratavarṣa (“Land of the Sons of Bharata”), the ancient name for India. The roof tower crowning the shrine in a Hindu temple represents Meru. As the world axis, Mount Meru reaches down below the ground, into the nether regions, as far as it extends into the heavens. All of the principal deities have their own celestial kingdoms on or near it, where their devotees reside with them after death, while awaiting their next reincarnation. The International Council on Monuments and Sites (ICOMOS) and the International Astronomical Union (IAU) jointly published a thematic study on heritage sites of astronomy and archaeoastronomy to be used as a guide to UNESCO in its evaluation of the cultural importance of archaeoastronomical sites around the world, which discussed sample sites and provided categories for the classification of archaeoastronomical sites. The editors, Clive Ruggles and Michel Cotte, proposed that archaeoastronomical sites be considered in four categories: 1) Generally accepted; 2) Debated among specialists; 3) Unproven; and 4) Completely refuted. In Cambodia there are only 2: Angkor Wat Phnom Bakheng, According to Jean Filliozat of the École Française, the center tower represents the axis of the world and the 108 smaller ones represent the 4 lunar phases each with 27 days. http://linksthroughspace.blogspot.com/2014/02/cambodia-2014-ancient-astronomy-angkor.html.. Angkor wat procession and scene of battles. Overview of Context and Significance The Bakheng temple-complex, constructed on the summit of a phnom (hill) in the center of the Angkor site, is one of the most important and symbolic 10th century monuments at Angkor. Consecrated in 907 AD Bakheng is part of an unparalleled architectural and religious legacy of a group of monuments spanning five hundred years from the 10th to the 14th century. It is a dramatic expression of the genius of the Khmer people and their king Yasovarman, with its integration of a symbolic form with the natural landscape to create a physical manifestation of a Hindu cosmological template of a perfect universe. Yasovarman named his new city Yasodharapura, which remained the official name of the capital until the end of the Angkor period. Yasovarman built the Eastern Baray soon after establishing his capital Yasodharapura. The Eastern Baray (1.8 x 7 km) was part of the cosmic vision of the Khmer religion. The waters of the river coming down from the Phnom Kulen once gathered in this enormous reservoir, replenishing the city. Although the water harvesting system has a functional aspect, not to be underestimated is the religious significance in the context of setting and ultimately spatial planning, which is balanced masterfully through building masses, landscape elements and open space. Overview of Issues Phnom Bakheng is one of the most threatened temple complexes in Angkor and the last of the key monuments to benefit from international aid. It is under many pressures, all interconnected and very challenging: water infiltration, hydraulic erosion, structural instability, stone degradation, tourist pressures and poor interpretation and visitor orientation. The disappearance of many of Bakheng s towers was caused in part by 16th century efforts to use the towers sandstone to build a large seated Buddha. The encroachment of the forest followed, significantly destabilizing the temple-complex structures before being cleared completely in the 1920s. In the 1970s, during Cambodia s prolonged civil conflict, the site was commandeered by the military and used as a heavy-gun emplacement and a military encampment, and the surrounding area was extensively landmined. The current infrastructure to welcome visitors compromises the overall historic setting of the phnom. The present parking and market facilities are located over the central axis of the historic eastern plaza. The temporary vehicular pull off and parking areas impinge on the historical and natural heritage landscape Phnom Bakheng was the first significant temple built at Yasodharapura, the city which came be known as Angkor. It was constructed in the late 9th, early tenth centuries as the state temple of King Yasovarman I, who moved the capital here from Roluos, about 13 kilometers to the southeast. The site was selected because the hill upon which the temple stands towers 70 meters above the otherwise flat countryside. From here, Yasovarman could gaze upon his capital city which covered at least four square kilometers, bounded by earthen walls. The layout of the temple strongly resembles Bakong temple in Roluos, employing the same temple-mountain motif with five ascending terraces. One significant innovation is that the uppermost towers are arranged in a quincunx arrangement (like the five dots on a dice)--the first time this design was employed by the Khmers. It would later be reused in numerous temples including Angkor Wat. As at Bakong, Phnom Bakheng included a number of subsidiary shrines spaced around it, although they were much more numerous at Bakheng (109 in all). Most of these have succumbed to the elements and today only a handful of the larger subsidiary shrines remain in relatively good condition. The chief deity worshipped at the temple was Yasodharesvara, the "Lord of the One Who Bears Glory", in the form of a linga image. It was dedicated in 907 before the temple was fully completed. Although the temple was abandoned relatively soon--in 928--it was briefly reoccupied by Jayavarman V in 968. In the following millennium the temple suffered significant damage, including the dismantling of the uppermost towers by Buddhist converts and the more recent trepidations of warring parties in the Cambodian civil war who found the hilltop temple an excellent position from which to launch artillery. From 2009 to the present (2014 at the time of this writing) the temple has been undergoing restoration.1 Phnom Bakheng , Prasat Phnum Bakhêng, pronounced [pʰnum baːkʰaeŋ]) is a Hindu and Buddhist temple in the form of a temple mountain in Siem Reap Province, Cambodia. Dedicated to Shiva, it was built at the end of the 9th century, during the reign of King Yasovarman (889-910). Located atop a hill, it is nowadays a popular tourist spot for sunset views of the much bigger temple Angkor Wat, which lies amid the jungle about 1.5 km to the southeast. The large number of visitors makes Phnom Bakheng one of the most threatened monuments of Angkor.[3] Since 2004, World Monuments Fund has been working to conserve the temple in partnership with APSARA. Constructed more than two centuries before Angkor Wat, Phnom Bakheng was in its day the principal temple of the Angkor region, historians believe. It was the architectural centerpiece of a new capital, Yasodharapura, that Yasovarman built when he moved the court from the capital Hariharalaya in the Roluos area located to the southeast. An inscription dated 1052 AD and found at the Sdok Kak Thom temple in present-day Thailand states in Sanskrit: "When Sri Yasovardhana became king under the name of Yasovarman, the able Vamasiva continued as his guru. By the king's order, he set up a linga on Sri Yasodharagiri, a mountain equal in beauty to the king of mountains.” ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------https://www.wmf.org/sites/default/files/article/pdfs/Phnom_Bakheng_Conservation_Master_Plan_Vol_1.pdf Scholars believe that this passage refers to the consecration of the Phnom Bakheng temple approximately a century and a half earlier.Phnom Bakheng is one of 3 hilltop temples in the Angkor region that are attributed to Yasovarman's reign. The other two are Phnom Krom to the south near the Tonle Sap lake, and Phnom Bok, northeast of the East Baray reservoir. Surrounding the mount and temple, labor teams built an outer moat. Avenues radiated out in the four cardinal directions from the mount. A causeway ran in a northwest–southeast orientation from the old capital area to the east section of the new capital's outer moat and then, turning to an east–west orientation, connected directly to the east entrance of the temple. Later in its history, Phnom Bakheng was converted into a Buddhist temple. A monumental Sitting Buddha, now lost, was created on its upper tier. Across its west side, a Reclining Buddha of similar scale was crafted in stone. The outlines of this figure are still visible. Hindu cosmology The cosmic tortoise, and Mount Meru/ Painting of Mount Meru from Jain cosmology from the Samghayanarayana Mount Meru of Hindu traditions is described as 84,000 yojanas high, about 1,082,000 km (672,000 mi), which would be 85 times the Earth's diameter. The Sun, along with all the planets in the Solar System, revolve around Mt. Meru as one unit. One yojana can be taken to mean about 11.5 km (9 miles), though its magnitude seems to differ over time periods — e.g., the Earth's circumference is 3,200 yojanas according to Varahamihira and slightly less so in the Aryabhatiya, but is said to be 5,026.5 yojanas in the Suryasiddhānta. The Matsya Purana and the Bhagvata Purana, along with some other Hindu texts, consistently give the height of 84,000 yojanas to Mount Meru, which translates into 672,000 miles or 1,082,000 kilometers. Mount Meru was said to be the residence of King Padamja Brahma in antiquity. According to Charles Allen, Mount Kailash is identified with Mount Meru. One description in the Vishnu Purana of the mountain states that its four faces are made of crystal, ruby, gold, and lapis lazuli.[23] It is a pillar of the world and is located at the heart of six mountain ranges symbolizing a lotus.[23] Jain cosmology According to Jain cosmology, Mount Meru (or Sumeru) is at the centre of the world surrounded by Jambūdvīpa, in form of a circle forming a diameter of 100,000 yojans. There are two sets of sun, moon and stars revolving around Mount Meru; while one set works, the other set rests behind Mount Meru. Every Tirthankara is taken to the summit of Meru by Indra shortly after his birth, after putting the Tirthankara child's mother into deep slumber. There, he was bathed and anointed with precious unctions. Indra and other Devas celebrated his birth. Javanese Legends: This mythical mountain of gods was mentioned in the Tantu Pagelaran, an Old Javanese manuscript written in the 15th-century Majapahit period. The manuscript describes the mythical origin of the island of Java, as well as the legendary movement of portions of Mount Meru to Java. The manuscript explains that Batara Guru (Shiva) ordered the gods Brahma and Vishnu to fill Java with human beings. However, at that time, Java island was floating freely on the ocean, always tumbling and shaking. To stop the island's movement, the gods decided to nail it to the Earth by moving the part of Mahameru in Jambudvipa (India) and attaching it to Java. The resulting mountain is Mount Semeru, the tallest mountain on Java. Mount Semeru, a large active volcano on Java, is named after the mount. The five central towers of Angkor Wat, before a Hindu and later a Buddhist temple in Siem Reap, Cambodia, symbolize the peaks of Mount Meru. The concept of a holy mountain surrounded by various circles was incorporated into ancient Hindu temple architecture with a Shikhara (Śikhara) — a Sanskrit word translating literally to "mountain peak." Early examples of this style can be found at the Harshat Mata Temple and Harshnath Temple from the 8th century CE in Rajasthan, Western India. This concept also continued outside India, such as in Bali, where temples feature Meru towers. In Buddhist temples, the Mahabodhi Temple in Bodh Gaya is the earliest example of the 5th- to 6th-century depiction. Many other Buddhist temples took on this form, such as the Wat Arun in Thailand and the Hsinbyume Pagoda in Myanmar. Prang of Wat Phutthaisawan, a Buddhist temple in Samphao Lom, Thailand, representing Mount Meru A Buddhist prang in Wat Arun, Bangkok, representing Mount Sumeru Hsinbyume Pagoda in Mandalay, Myanmar, representing Mount Sumeru The meru of Pura Ulun Danu Bratan is dedicated to Shiva and his consort Parvathi Depiction of Mount Meru at Jambudweep, a Jain temple in Uttar Pradesh Jean Filliozat of the Ecole Francaise, a leading western authority on Indian cosmology and astronomy, interpreted the symbolism of the temple. The temple sits on a rectangular base and rises in five levels and is crowned by five main towers. One hundred four smaller towers are distributed over the lower four levels, placed so symmetrically that only 33 can be seen from the center of any side. Thirty-three is the number of gods who dwelt on Mount Meru. Phnom Bakheng's total number of towers is also significant. The center one represents the axis of the world and the 108 smaller ones represent the four lunar phases, each with 27 days. The seven levels of the monument represent the seven heavens and each terrace contains 12 towers which represent the 12-year cycle of Jupiter. According to University of Chicago scholar Paul Wheatley, it is "an astronomical calendar in stone."[ Following Angkor's rediscovery by the outside world in the mid-19th century, decades passed before archeologists grasped Phnom Bakheng's historical significance. For many years, scholars' consensus view was that the Bayon, the temple located at the center of Angkor Thom city, was the edifice to which the Sdok Kak Thom inscription referred. Later work identified the Bayon as a Buddhist site, built almost three centuries later than originally thought, in the late 12th century, and Phnom Bakheng as King Yasovarman's state temple Sun set of Phnom Bakheng The view of the Angkor Wat from the top of Phnom Bakheng is featured in the movie Tomb Raider (when Lara Croft looks through the binoculars upon arriving in Cambodia). Phnom Bakheng/Angkor Wat seen from Phnom Bakheng at sunset General view Upper terrace Stone tower and Angkor Wat far afield Bas-relief in Phnom Bakheng What was Phnom bakheng used for? Phnom Bakheng is a symbolic representation of Mount Meru, home of the Hindu gods, a status emphasized by the temple's location atop a steep hill 65 m above the surrounding plain. The temple is built in a pyramid form of seven levels, representing the seven heavens. Who built bakheng? King Yasovarman It is possible to see: the five towers of Angkor Wat in the west, Phnom Krom to the southwest near the Grand Lake, Phnom Bok in the northeast, Phnom Kulen in the east, and the West Baray. Phnom Bakheng was built in late ninth to early tenth century by King Yasovarman dedicated to Siva (Hindi). Why is Prasat kravan unusual? Kravan is an unusual arrangement of five towers in a row on one terrace. They are built of brick; the lintels and columns are of sandstone. This is the only tower with recessed tiers intact, which are visible on the interior. The columns are octagonal, with four bare sides and sandstone rings. Phnom Bakheng (Bhnaṃ Pākhaeṅ): These sources of the inscriptions have indicated the place name vakoṅ, which is located around the Siem Reap province, and possibly make sense with regard to the origin of the modern name Bakong. On the other hand, the old Khmer place name vakoṅ is now still the name of the village near the Bakong temple, namely “Phum Vakong.” This temple, which not long ago was called by the local inhabitants “Bayon,” has the same name as the Bayon located at the center of Angkor Thom. Phnom Bakheng (Bhnaṃ Pākhaeṅ): In sum, the modern name of Phnom Bakheng used to be Vnaṃ Kanṭāl (Phnom Kandal, Central Mountain) in the ancient period, which mountain was located in the center of Yaśodharapura (the city of Yaśovarman). It was also called Yaśodharagiri (the mountain of Yaśovarman) wherein was installed the linga on the top of the mountain, named Yaśodhareśvara (the lord of king Yaśovarman). Hence, the meaning of the modern name Bakheng has the same sense as installing the Royal Linga,and it means “force, power, or the male reproductive organ.” It was also a symbol of the king’s power at that time. This temple is located on the top of the natural mountain ‘Phnom Bakheng,’ along the road between Angkor Wat and Angkor Thom. It was built in the beginning of the 10th century, during the reign of king Yashovarman I, who accepted Brahmanism under the posthumous name Paramaśivaloka. The present name of Bakheng is a Khmer word meaning “force, or power,” and it also means the “male reproductive organ that is effective.” Perhaps this word indicates the Shiva Linga, which was adapted by the local people in memory of the 10th century royal Linga of Yaśodharapura, namely Yaśodhareśvara (the lord of Yaśovarman). The word “Kheng, or Khaeṅ” has rarely been used in the Khmer language, but it is currently used in the Thai language. However, the word Kheng is found in the Khmer Rāmakerti, in the scene of the giant Kūkhan, “ri Kūkhan khaeṅ mohhimā rūp rū pabbatā”, “Kūkhan force, colossal, form similar to a mountain…” and “khluon khloh khlāmṅ kheṅ beñ bāl, “youthful, force, power.” Bakheng could be equivalent to the old Khmer vraḥ kheṅ, if the two particles braḥ and pā are interchanged for writing as place names. We can say that braḥ which is equivalent to pā, indicates a sacred vocabulary, and it could be equal to the word “khaeṅ”, or it may have the meaning of the Linga. There are several names of Phnom Bakheng in the ancient period, which are found in the inscriptions. In the inscription of Sdok Kak Thom, it is clearly affirmed that Yaśodharapura (the name of the ancient city of Angkor) was established on the top of Phnom Bakheng by the king Yashovarman I (889-910 AD). The name of this mountain was also Yaśodharagiri (mountain ofYaśovarman), Indrādri, and Madhyādri in the 12th century, and it was also called by the old Khmer name Vnaṃ Kanṭāl (central mountain). The inscription of Sdok Kak Thom mentioned the following: “ … vraḥ pāda paramaśivaloka oy vraḥ liṅga dvihasta saṃnal=ti sthāpanā āy vnaṃ kanṭāl gi [t]i sthāpanā āy bhadrapattana… which mean “The majesty king-Paramashivaloka gives (him) two cubits high of unused (stone) from construction at Vnaṃ Kanṭāl for establishing royal Linga at Bhadrapattana.” Paramashivaloka established the royal city of Śri Yaśodharapura, and took the Devarāja from Hariharālaya to this city, and he subsequently established the Vnaṃ Kanṭāl (Central Mountain) and installed a Linga in the center.56 The Phnom Bakheng inscription, K. 684,57 informs us of the purchase of a piece of land for two people (loñ) who were the devotees (pādamūla) of Vnaṃ Kanṭāl: “ (8)　loñ prāṇa pādamūla kamrateṅ (9) jagat vnaṃ kanṭāl ti vraḥ kamrateṅ” The name of Vnaṃ Kanṭāl (Central Mountain) moreover clearly indicates the representative Mount Meru, if we study the Sanskrit text. The temple itself that was built on the top of the mountain (Phnom), presents the symbol of the mountain in the center of the world, Meru or Sumeru of Indian cosmology. IN BUDDHISM Mount Meru (also Sumeru (Sanskrit) or Sineru (Pāli) or Kangrinboqe) is the name of the central world-mountain in Buddhist cosmology. Etymologically, the proper name of the mountain is Meru (Pāli Meru), to which is added the approbatory prefix su-, resulting in the meaning "excellent Meru" or "wonderful Meru". The concept of Sumeru is closely related to the central Mount Meru of Hindu cosmology, but it differs from the Hindu concept in several particulars. Yuan dynasty (1271–1368) Chinese mandala depicting Mount Meru as an inverted pyramid topped by a lotus. According to Vasubandhu's Abhidharmakośabhāṣyam (philosophical writings), Sumeru is 80,000 yojanas tall. The exact measure of one yojana is uncertain, but some accounts put it at about 24,000 feet, or approximately 4-1/2 miles, but other accounts put it at about 7-9 miles. It also descends beneath the surface of the surrounding waters to a depth of 80,000 yojanas, being founded upon the basal layer of Earth. Sumeru is often used as a simile for both size and stability in Buddhist texts. Sumeru is said to be shaped like an hourglass, with a top and base of 80,000 yojanas square, but narrowing in the middle (i.e., at a height of 40,000 yojanas) to 20,000 yojanas square. Sumeru is the polar center of a mandala-like complex of seas and mountains. The square base of Sumeru is surrounded by a square moat-like ocean, which is in turn surrounded by a ring (or rather square) wall of mountains, which is in turn surrounded by a sea, each diminishing in width and height from the one closer to Sumeru. There are seven seas and seven surrounding mountain-walls, until one comes to the vast outer sea which forms most of the surface of the world, in which the known continents are merely small islands. The known world, which is on the continent of Jambudvipa, is directly south of Sumeru. The dimensions stated in the Abhidharmakośabhāṣyam are shown in the table below: Name Width Height/Depth Sumeru (Sineru) mountain 80,000 yojanas 80,000 yojanas Sea 80,000 yojanas 80,000 yojanas Yugandhara mountains 40,000 yojanas 40,000 yojanas Sea 40,000 yojanas 40,000 yojanas Iṣadhara (Isadhara) mountains 20,000 yojanas 20,000 yojanas Sea 20,000 yojanas 20,000 yojanas Khadiraka (Karavīka) mountains 10,000 yojanas 10,000 yojanas Sea 10,000 yojanas 10,000 yojanas Sudarśana (Sudassana) mountains 5,000 yojanas 5,000 yojanas Sea 5,000 yojanas 5,000 yojanas Aśvakarṇa (Assakaṇṇa) mountains 2,500 yojanas 2,500 yojanas Sea 2,500 yojanas 2,500 yojanas Vinadhara (Vinataka) mountains 1,250 yojanas 1,250 yojanas Sea 1,250 yojanas 1,250 yojanas Nimindhara (Nemindhara) mountains 625 yojanas 625 yojanas Outer Sea 32,000 yojanas relatively shallow Cakravāḍa (Cakkavāḷa) mountains (circular edge of the world) 312.5 yojanas 312.5 yojanas The 80,000 yojana square top of Sumeru constitutes the Trāyastriṃśa "heaven" (devaloka), which is the highest plane in direct physical contact with the earth. The next 40,000 yojanas below this heaven consist of sheer precipice, narrowing in like an inverted mountain until it is 20,000 yojanas square at a heigh of 40,000 yojanas above the sea. From this point Sumeru expands again, going down in four terraced ledges, each broader than the one above. The first terrace constitutes the "heaven" of the Four Great Kings and is divided into four parts, facing north, south, east and west. Each section is governed by one of the Four Great Kings, who faces outward toward the quarter of the world that he supervises. 40,000 yojanas is also the height at which the Sun and Moon circle Sumeru in a clockwise direction. This rotation explains the alteration of day and night; when the Sun is north of Sumeru, the shadow of the mountain is cast over the continent of Jambudvīpa, and it is night there; at the same time it is noon in the opposing northern continent of Uttarakuru, dawn in the eastern continent of Pūrvavideha, and dusk in the western continent of Aparagodānīya. Half a day later, when the Sun has moved to the south, it is noon in Jambudvīpa, dusk in Pūrvavideha, dawn in Aparagodānīya, and midnight in Uttarakuru. The next three terraces down the slopes of Sumeru are each longer and broader by a factor of two. They contain the followers of the Four Great Kings, namely nāgas, yakṣas, gandharvas, and kumbhāṇḍas. The names and dimensions of the terraces on the lower slopes of Sumeru are given below: Name Height above the sea Breadth Length (on one side) Cāturmahārājika 40,000 yojanas 2,000 yojanas 24,000 yojanas Sadāmada 30,000 yojanas 4,000 yojanas 32,000 yojanas Mālādhara 20,000 yojanas 8,000 yojanas 48,000 yojanas Karoṭapāni 10,000 yojanas 16,000 yojanas 80,000 yojanas Below Sumeru, in the seas around it, is the abode of the Asuras who are at war with the Trāyastriṃśa gods. Certain traditional Buddhist ideas about the world are incompatible with modern science and have been abandoned by numerous modern Buddhists. One of the most well known of these ideas is Mount Meru. According to Donald S. Lopez Jr., "the human realm that Buddhist texts describe is a flat earth, or perhaps more accurately a flat ocean, its waters contained by a ring of iron mountains. In that ocean is a great central mountain, surrounded in the four cardinal directions by island continents." As Lopez notes, as early as the 18th century, Buddhist scholars like Tominaga Nakamoto (1715–1746) began to question this classical Buddhist cosmography, holding that they were adopted by the Buddha from Indian theories, but that they were incidental and thus not at the heart of Buddha's teaching. While some traditional Buddhists did defend the traditional cosmology, others like Shimaji Mokurai (1838–1911) argued that it was not foundational to Buddhism and was merely an element of Indian mythology. Others like Kimura Taiken (1881–1930), went further and argued that this traditional cosmography was not part of original Buddhism. The issue of Mount Meru was also discussed by modern Buddhist intellectuals like Gendun Chopel and the 14th Dalai Lama. According to Choepel, the Meru cosmology is a provisional teaching taught in accord with the ideas of ancient India, but not appropriate for the modern era. Similarly, the 14th Dalai Lama writes that "my own view is that Buddhism must abandon many aspects of the Abhidharma cosmology". The Dalai Lama sees the falsehood of this traditional cosmology as not affecting the core of Buddhism (the teaching of the four noble truths and liberation) since it is "secondary to the account of the nature and origins of sentient beings BAUPHON as MOUNT MERU Just northwest of Bayon Temple lies an elevated platform connected to a walkway leading to the Baphuon Temple. The platform sits next to the Elephant Terrace and both the Temple and its elevated 200-meter sandstone causeway lie just outside the royal enclosure of Angkor Thom. Baphuon Temple was located on the cardinal axis of the ancient city of Yasodharapura, sacked by the Chams in 1177. When Angkor Thom was rebuilt, Baphuon was located just south of the Royal Enclosure, as can be seen on the map. Originally built as a temple to Shiva in the 11th Century, it was the most imposing structure of the ancient city -- renowned for its bronze tower that earned it the title of the “Tower of Gold. At 120 metres long, 100 metres wide and 34 metres tall, the main temple structure is roughly the same size as its famous neighbour, but in a worse state of repair, which may partially explain the comparative lack of popularity. Being at the end of a 225-metre-long elevated walkway – entirely exposed to the hot Cambodian sun – may also be a factor, putting off temple explorers who have already been worn out by The Bayon. Baphuon Temple - one of the highlights of 5 Great Angkor Temples in 3 Days and 10 Must-See Temples in Siem Reap (Read all about Siem Reap here) .”The temple sits within 3 successive enclosures and is constructed of 5 levels of equal size, giving it the appearance of a mountain -- in this case, the sacred Hindu Mt. Meru. This top of the tower held a Shiva linga. In the 15th century, it was converted into a Buddhist temple, and the tower was disassembled, with many of the stones used to begin construction of an unfinished, reclining Buddha on the west side of the rectangular structure. History of Baphuon Temple The triple-tiered temple mountain of the Baphuon Temple was the state temple of King Udayadityavarman II. Its pyramid shape represents the mythical Hindu Mount Meru and marks the centre of the city that was here before Angkor Thom. It is immediately to the south of the royal palace of Phimeanakas, and the old walls of the palace can be seen in the shade of the trees north of the temple, making for a pleasant route to walk back towards the main road along. Contemporary sources say that a striking 8-metre-tall tower once stood on top of the temple, probably made of wood gilded with bronze. This is thought to have been demolished in the late-15th century when the temple was converted from being dedicated to the Hindu God Shiva to Buddha. A reclining Buddha statue – 9 metres tall and 70 metres long – was added to the second tier on the west-facing side. Sadly, even by this time, it is thought that much of the temple’s structure had already collapsed, due to the fact that it was hastily built on land filled with sand. You can find Baphuon Temple slightly northwest of Bayon Temple. Photographing it in the morning will give you the best light on the temple. Ta Keo called 'Hemasringagiri' or 'the mountain with golden peaks,' meaning Mount Meru—is enormous, rising over 21.6 meters, making it one of the tallest buildings at Angkor with a base of 122 by 106 meters, while the outer moat stretched 255 by 195 meters. It was the state temple of Jayavarman V, who ruled from 968 to 1001. Around the year 975, work was begun on Ta Keo temple in the center of the new capital. Where the kinghad taken up residence on the east side of the East Baray. It is unfinished as the king was subjugated in year 1001. The mountain of Meru (or ‘Sumeru’) The mountain of Meru (or ‘Sumeru’) has been a prominent geographic feature in several Hindu, Buddhist and Jain mythologies. The ‘Meru Parvat’ is considered to be the centre of ‘Jambu dwipa’(peninsula) and abode of Brahma and other Gods. Ancient Indian texts described to be about 84,000 ‘yojana’ high or so. However, if you examine the geography or atlas of India you will not find any ‘Meru’ mountain in the present Indian subcontinent!. Meru Peak is a mountain that lies in the Garwhal Himalayas , in the Uttarakhand region of India . It lies between Thalay Sagar and Shivling , and has some highly challenging routes. It is 6,660 metres (21,850 ft) high. It was the site of the world's highest. [1] Let’s look for Meru upon the pages of Mahabharata and let’s see what this great epic has to say about this topographical entity. It may be noted that we have already, though cursorily, proposed the Bhubaneswar Model of Meru Parvata in the Article “Scenario : The Sida River of Buddha Era”, one of the series “Easternization and The Brown Arya”. So, our findings on Meru upon the pages of Mahabharata would have to be seen with reference to this Meru Model as well. Firstly, we shall lay down the actual Mahabharata-Meru findings one by one along with some collateral classical and/or plausibly-historical information, and short remarks, if necessary, which will be later reflected upon and analyzed in steps, in order to elicit surer historical implications and inferences. [2] In Mahabharata Khanda-1 / Adi Parva / Adhyaya-17 / Sloka-5-6, Ugrashrava replies Saunaka’s certain question thus : “There is a radiant mountain, named Meru, shining uniquely, reflecting sun’s rays upon own bright golden peaks. This mountain, that thus looks to be adorned with golden ornaments, is inhabited by Devas and Gandharvas. Its extents are immeasurable and happens to be a region where no impious person can really stay on.” In Sloka-7-8, he further tells Saunaka about this mountain : “Snakes and divine medicinal plants are plentiful in this region. The latter adds to its beauty. The Meru Mountain covers (includes) Svarga. It remains unthinkable (unreachable) for common men. This tract is crossed by several rivers and endowed with thick plantations. Its natural beauty includes great flocks of twittering birds of numerous species.” In Sloka-9 he further adds : “Its peaks are ingrained with jewels.” [3] In Mahabharata Khanda-1 / Adi Parva / Adhyaya-62 / Sloka-48, Mahabharata is being extolled as the receptacle of gem-like matters through analogies which describe Ocean and Meru as great sources of gems. It is a revelation about Meru’s status with respect to wealth. [4] In Mahabharata Khanda-1 / Adi Parva / Adhyaya-85 / Sloka-7-10, King Yayati is seen romancing with Visvachi, an Apsaras (race). The Alaka Puri (palace) and the mount on the northern part of Meru were their favorite meeting places. It may be noted that Yayati was an ancestor of the Pandavas. [5] In Mahabharata Khanda-1 / Adi Parva / Adhyaya-99 / Sloka-5-7, Ganga tells Santanu, her husband that Vasistha, aka Apava, son of Varuna had his Ashram upon Meru, the Mountain King. She also describes the attractive characteristics of the Ashram. These were abundance of deers, variegated birds, all-season flowers, fruits, roots and water. It may be noted that Vasistha “is one of the oldest and most revered Vedic rishis. He is one of the Saptarishis (seven great Rishis) of Ancient India. Vasishtha is credited as the chief author of Mandala 7 of Rigveda. Vasishtha and his family are mentioned in Rigvedic verse 10.167.4 and in other Rigvedic mandalas and in many Vedic texts. … Yoga Vasishtha, Vasishtha Samhita, as well as some versions of the Agni Purana and Vishnu Purana are attributed to him” [wikipedia]. [6] In Mahabharata Khanda-1 / Adi Parva / Adhyaya-175 / Sloka-45, Vasishtha is seen jumping off the peak of Meru in a suicidal bid, though the rocky fall-point turns as soft as cotton for him. Vasishtha had acceded to such a severe mental state following death of his sons at the hand of King Visvamitra. It may be noted that “Brahmarshi Vishvamitra is one of the most venerated rishis or sages of ancient India. He is also credited as the author of most of Mandala 3 of the Rigveda, including Gayatri Mantra. … Vishvamitra was originally a king, also called Kaushika (descendant of Kusha) and belonged to Amavasu Dynasty. He was the Chandravanshi (Somavanshi) King of Kanyakubja. He was a valiant warrior and the great-grandson of a great king named Kusha (a brainchild of Brahma, father of Kushabhadra and grandfather of Gaadhi.” [wikipedia] [7] In Mahabharata Khanda-3 / Vana Parva / Adhyaya-82 / Sloka-111, Pulastya tells Bhishma about Vinasana Tirtha, where River Sarasvati flows upon the breast/ surface of Meru (Meru-Prishtha) “latently”. This fact about this great river contradicts and undoes the rumor that “Sarasvati dried up in a desert”. In Sloka-112, the narration on Sarasvati is extended to include the facts that the Tirthas of Chamasodveda, Shivodveda and Nagodveda are situated upon this river. In Sloka-113, Nagodveda Tirtha has been connected to Nagaloka insofar as ablution at his site situated upon Sarasvati would facilitate a believer’s accession to Naga-Loka. Consideration of this possible connection is important in view of the fact that Naga-Loka is likely to emerge through further discussion as a real geographical site of historical importance. The other mentions about Sarasvati in the same Parva need to be noted as these are too important clues to Meru’s topology. Sloka-60-61 of the same Parva talks about the Tirtha incident at the confluence of Sarasvati and Sagara (Ocean). This Tirtha has been connected to Svarga-Loka. Like Naga-Loka, Svarga-Loka too is likely to emerge through further discussion as a geographical locality of great historical importance. Slokas-114-116 describe the Shashayana Tirtha on Sarasvati which gathers special importance on Kartika Purnima (Kartika Fullmoon Day). The story of Puskara Tirtha is interlaced with this one inasmuch as the believers tend to be reminded of the outline of Puskara by the marks on the full moon they witness at Shashayana on Karika Purnima. Sloka-126 returns to Sarasvati Samgama, the confluence of Sarasvati and Sagar (Ocean), a Tirtha, which is connected to special worship of Kesava (Krishna) in general and is related to a special Tithi (calendar day), viz. Chaitra Sukla Chaturdashi (the 14th day of Bright Fortnight of the month of Chaitra). We are noting down these bits of information for possible future use in settling Meru-Sarasvati topology with respect to Bhubaneswar Model of Meru Parvata (Meru Mountain). The following excerpts represent short classical descriptions of these two giant topological elements of the ancient-most part of Modern India. “Sarasvati River was one of the rivers mentioned in the Rig Veda and later Vedic and post-Vedic texts. The Sarasvati River played an important role in Hinduism since Vedic Sanskrit. The first part of the Rig Veda is believed to have originated when the Vedic people lived on its banks.” [wikipedia] “Mount Meru is the sacred five-peaked mountain of Hindu, Jain, and Buddhist cosmology and is considered to be the center of all the physical, metaphysical and spiritual universes.” [wikipedia] Coming back to the Parva-82, the sequence of the numerous Tirthas that Pulastya reckons one by one and narrates before Bhishma couldn’t include ones separated by very great distances. The style of narration implies that these Tirthas could belong to one geographical domain of a diameter not exceeding a hundred miles or so. We may take this opportunity to note down these Pulastya-enumerated Tirthas for future reference. These are : Puskara, Jambumarga, Tandulika-ashram, Agastya Sarovara, Kanva-ashram, Dharmaranya, Yayati-patana, Mahakala-tirtha, Koti-tirtha, Bhadra-vata, Narmada River, Dakshina Samudra, Charmanvati River, Arbuda aka Himalaya-putra, Vasishtha-ashram, Pinga-tirtha, Prabhasa-tirtha, Sarasvati Samgama aka Varuna-tirtha (Samudra/Ocean), Varadana-tirtha, Dvaraka, Pindaraka-tirtha, Sindhu Samgama aka Varuna-tirtha, Dami-tirtha, Vasudhara-tirtha, Sindhuttama-tirtha, Bhadratunga-tirtha, Shakra-Kumarika-tirtha, Renuka-tirtha, Pancha-Nada-tirtha, Yoni-tirtha, Vimala-tirtha, Vitasta-tirtha, Vadava-tirtha aka Sapta-Charu-tirtha, Maniman-tirtha, Devika-tirtha, Kama-tirtha, Dirgha-Satra-tirtha, Vinasana-tirtha, Chamasodveda, Shivodveda, Nagodveda, Shashayana, Kumarakoti-tirtha, Rudrakoti-tirtha. Tracking down geographical locations of these Tirthas individually would help us improve accuracy of positioning of erstwhile Meru upon Indian topography. Out of this cluster of Tirthas, as many as six Tirthas, viz. Vinasan, Chamasodveda, Shivodveda, Nagodveda, Shashayana and Sarasvati Samgama, fall along the length of Sarasvati intercepted by Meru. Multilateral interlacing of the other Tirthas lurks in the finer details, when available. Could the whole lot form a single cluster superposing Meru locality? The two Tithis (calendar days of ceremonial observance), viz. Kartika Purnima (Fullmoon of the month of Kartika) and Chaitra Sukla Chaturdasi (14th day of the bright fortnight of the month of Chaitra), that we came across in the narrations about the various Tirthas are too noteworthy. These could serve as clues in our endeavor to finetune the identity of Meru. The Bhunaneswar Meru Model is heavily supported by at least the Kartika Purnima legacy. The features of Meru that have surfaced in this section of our discussion invites Kuakhai-Daya River of Bhubaneswar, a distributary of Mahanadi-Kathajodi River of Modern Odisha, to be the erstwhile Sarasvati in the Bhubaneswar Model of Mount Meru. We are not in a haste to conclude anything now. We shall continue to gather evidences. Authors-DR Uday DOKRAS Dr. Uday Dokras B.Sc., B.A. (Managerial Economics), LL.B., Nagpur University, India Certificat'e en Droit, Queen’s University. Ontario, Canada, Ph.D. Stockholm University, Sweden, Management and Efficacy Consultant, India Reviews of the Book PROJECT HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT The authors highlight the benefits of paying attention to human resources and offer success and failure factors guideline for a variety of potential practitioners and students in global project marketplace. Ms.Ylva Arnold, Head HR- Norstedts Publishers, Stockholm SWEDEN From the Newspaper Times of India March 24, 2018 Iceland Sweden both countries use the English Text SPOTLIGHT-one of the lessons in which is about Dr Uday Dokras Prof. S.Deshpande,President of the Indian Instituye of Architects, New Delhi INDIA releasing the book of Dr Dokras HINDU TEMPLES on the web in CARONA gimes( May 2010) Some of my books Cv of the author DR… UDAY DOKRAS Dr.Uday Dokras is Ranked as #1 in the world in five categories for having written the highest number of books and research papers on Dhamma, Angkor Watr, Borobudur, Prambanan and Design elements of the ancient Kingdom of Dvaravati (DWARKA) in Vietnam. He was Group Vice -President of MZI Group in New Delhi and has anchored Human Relations in Go Air and Hotel Holiday Inn; was General Manager-Health Human Resources at the Lata Mangeshkar Hospital and Medical college. He has been a senior management person in India and abroad, having studied in Nagpur for B. Sc. B.A.(Economics) LLB. He has a Phd, Stockholm University, Sweden. He has done his Graduate Studies from Canada at the Queen's University, Kingston. Apart from that he has done a Management Training Program in Singapore. Is currently Consultant in Vastu Shastra and Hindu Astrology. In Sweden he anchored HR in Stadbolaget RENIA, SSSB. A scholar of the Swedish Institute for 5 years, he has been an Edvard Cassel Fund and Wineroth Fund Awardee. In 1984 he was involved with the Comparative Labour Law Project of the University of California, Los Angeles, U.S.A. He was also visiting lecturer there. In 1985 he was invited by the President of Seychelles to do a study of the efficacy of the labour laws of Seychelles. He is Director Technical of the Mahakali Temple being built in Bangkok THAILAND Author of thousands of research papers and almost 600 + books, his brief life sketch is part of the English study text book of 7 th Class Students in Sweden -“Studying English. SPOTLIGHT 7”- and 8th Class students in Iceland - “SPOTLIGHT 8- Lausnir.” His books adorn many International Libraries and the US Library of Congress has awarded him a copyright. Dr Dokras has his family in Gurugram, Australia and NewJersey. 630 BOOKS & 2600 RESEARCH PAPERS- in academia.edu. Reeaders- 2 million consolidate as on 3 APRIL, 2024. 5 WORLD RECORDS of DR Uday Dokras as World #1 Highest number of Literary ventures in Hindu Temple Architecture and Vastu ///Highest number of Literary ventures in the world 2000 books and research Papers, Seen here with Ms. Mansse Bhandari, COO FUN and FOOD Village Nagpur, Delhi and Uzbekisthan #1 ENDORSEMENTS / certifications AND endorsements from WORLD AGENCIES as highest writings in the world in following categories AGENCY TITLE Largest Number of Religious Research papers written by an individual-world-record https://www.worldwideworldrecords.com/post/largest-number-of-religious-research-papers-written-by-an-individual-world-record-by-uday-dokras MOST ARTICLES ON DHAMMA https://www.uniqueworldrecords.com/records/posts/most-articles-on-dhamma Maximum number of books written on Hindu Temples by an Individual https://www.worldwideworldrecords.com/post/maximum-number-of-books-written-on-hindu-temples-by-an-individual-world-record-by-dr-uday-dokras#:~:text=The%20World%20Record%20For%20Maximum,The%20Worldwide%20Book%20Of%20Records. Highest number of articles and books written on Hindu Buddhist Temples of Indonesia( Including Borobudur and Prambanan) Highest number of Research Papers/ Books (Literary endeavours) published by an Individual- UNIQUE Book of world records Maximum sociocultural research papers uploaded by an individual on a single website INDIA BOOK of RECORDS recordsmanagement@indiabookofrecords.in Bahujan Hitai Sangh award for writing highest number of books and Research on BOROBUDUR https://www.academia.edu/110112500/Bahujan_Hitai_Sangh_Fetes_dr_Uday_for_highest_number_of_Books_and_Research_papers_written_on_BOROBUDUR Jain Foundation The Jain Foundation presented the Jaina Achiever Trophy to Dr Uday Dokras for his prolific writings on historiography of Jainism and Jain religious structures and contributing erudite articles to numerous Jain Journals such as Nagabharana: Recent Trends in Jainism Studies and SWASTIKA: Epigraphy, Numismatics, Religion and Philosophy https://www.academia.edu/110112203/Jaina_award_to_Dr_Uday_Dokras Economic Times (20 July 2022) mentions acknowledgment of Dr. Uday’s contribution to design of New Parliament House of India vis-a-vis Dwarpals or door guardians. https://www.academia.edu/109139672/Design_components_of_the_new_Parliament_complex_of_INDIA_inspired_by_the_author_Dr_Uday_Dokras_work https://www.worldwideworldrecords.com/post/largest-number-of-religious-research-papers-written-by-an-individual-world-record-by-uday-dokras Maximum n0. of books written on Hindu Temples by an Individual-https://www.worldwideworldrecords.com/post/maximum-number-of-books-written-on-hindu-temples-by-an-individual-world-record-by-dr-uday-dokras#:~:text=The%20World%20Record%20For%20Maximum,The%20Worldwide%20Book%20Of%20Records. https://www.uniqueworldrecords.com/records/posts/most-articles-on-dhamma Highest number of articles and books written on Hindu Buddhist Temples of Indonesia( Including Borobudur and Prambanan Highest number of Research Papers/ Books (Literary endeavours) published by an Individual………….FREE UNIQUEBook of world records Maximum sociocultural research papers uploaded by an individual on a single website INDIA BOOK of RECORDS recordsmanagement@indiabookofrecords.in https://www.academia.edu/109139672/Design_components_of_the_new_Parliament_complex_of_INDIA_inspired_by_the_author_Dr_Uday_Dokras_work https://www.academia.edu/110112203/Jaina_award_to_Dr_Uday_Dokras DIRECTOR (Technical)- https://smkfoundation.com/our-team/ ABOUT THE AUTHOR DR UDAY DOKRAS Author-DR Uday DOKRAS Dr. Uday Dokras B.Sc., B.A. (Managerial Economics), LL.B., Nagpur University, India Certificat'e en Droit, Queen’s University. Ontario, Canada, Ph.D. Stockholm University, Sweden, Vastu,Temple Construction and Management and Efficacy Consultant, India/Bangkok Reviews of the Book PROJECT HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT The authors highlight the benefits of paying attention to human resources and offer success and failure factors guideline for a variety of potential practitioners and students in global project marketplace. Ms.Ylva Arnold, Head HR- Norstedts Publishers, Stockholm SWEDEN From the Newspaper Times of India March 24, 2018 Iceland & Sweden- both countries use the English Text SPOTLIGHT-one of the lessons in which is about Dr Uday Dokras Prof. S.Deshpande,President of the Indian Institute of Architects, New Delhi INDIA releasing the book of Dr Dokras HINDU TEMPLES on the web in CARONA times( May 2020) Also a good thinking = A good house plan = Optimal use of your investment to build your house Also a good thinking = A good house plan = Optimal use of your investment to build your house Top of Form Bottom of Form 111

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