Iraq

Iraq from c. ad 600 to 1055

Hugh Kennedy, The Prophet and the Age of the Caliphates (1986), is a general history of the Middle East in the early Islamic period. A masterly discussion of the geography, religion, and society of late Sāsānian and early Islamic Iraq may be found in Michael G. Morony, Iraq After the Muslim Conquest (1984). G. Le Strange, The Lands of the Eastern Caliphate (1905, reprinted 1993), offers a readable description of Iraq in this period based on the ancient Arab geographers. Fred McGraw Donner, The Early Islamic Conquests (1981), examines 6th- and 7th-century Iraq and Syria. Important evidence on the agricultural economy is presented in Robert McC. Adams, The Land Behind Baghdad: A History of Settlement on the Diyala Plains (1965).

Works on the ʿAbbāsid Caliphate include Jacob Lassner, The Shaping of ʿAbbāsid Rule (1980); Hugh Kennedy, The Early Abbasid Caliphate: A Political History (1981); David Waines, “The Third Century Internal Crisis of the Abbasids,” Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient, 20(3):282–306 (October 1977); and, on later ʿAbbāsid administration, Dominique Sourdel, Le Vizirat ‘abbāsside de 749 à 936 (132 à 324 de l’hégire), 2 vol. (1959–60).

A full account of Būyid rule can be found in Heribert Busse, Chalif und Grosskönig: Die Buyiden im Iraq (945–1055) (1969). Roy P. Mottahedeh, Loyalty and Leadership in an Early Islamic Society, rev. ed. (2001), discusses the Būyids, their subjects, and their social structure. Studies of cultural life in the 10th century include the classic by Adam Mez, The Renaissance of Islam (1937, reissued 1975; originally published in German, 1922); and the more recent Joel L. Kraemer, Humanism in the Renaissance of Islam: The Cultural Revival During the Buyid Age, 2nd rev. ed. (1992).

Iraq from 1055 to 1534

ʿAbbās Al-ʿAzzāwl, Tāʾrīkh al-ʿIrāq bayn Iḥtilālayn, 8 vol. (1935–56), remains the only comprehensive work on the history of Iraq during the period 1055–1534, though it is outdated and inaccessible to the non-Arabophone world. On dynasties and ruling groups, the most useful reference is Clifford Edmund Bosworth, The Islamic Dynasties: A Chronological and Genealogical Handbook, enlarged and updated ed. (1996). Economic aspects are examined in E. Ashtor, A Social and Economic History of the Near East in the Middle Ages (1976). An important study, W. Barthold (V.V. Bartol’d), Turkestan down to the Mongol Invasion, 4th ed. (1977; originally published in Russian, 2 vol., 1898–1900), also furnishes much information on the later Seljuq and Khwārezm-Shah periods. The remarkable career of the ʿAbbāsid caliph al-Nāṣir in chronicled in Angelika Hartmann, An-Nasir li-Din Allah (1180–1225): Politik, Religion, Kultur in der späten ʿAbbasidenzeit (1975). David Morgan, The Mongols (1986), provides a survey of the empire. A number of chapters in The Cambridge History of Iran, vol. 5 (1968), and vol. 6 (1986), though not dealing directly with Iraq, are nevertheless valuable for its history of the region during the Seljuq, Mongol, Timurid, and Turkmen periods. John E. Woods, The Aqquyunlu: Clan, Confederation, Empire, rev. and expanded ed. (1999), is another treatment of the Turkmen period.

Ottoman Iraq (1534–1918)

The most comprehensive history of Ottoman Iraq available in English is found in Stephen Hemsley Longrigg, Four Centuries of Modern Iraq (1925, reprinted 1968), but it is essentially a political narrative. Less detailed and with a wider geographic focus is P.M. Holt, Egypt and the Fertile Crescent, 1516–1922: A Political History (1966). For viewing Iraq within the Ottoman context, the best general study of Ottoman history and institutions is Halil Inalcik, The Ottoman Empire: The Classical Age, 1300–1600, trans. from Turkish (1973, reissued 2000). Stanford Shaw, History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey, 2 vol. (1976–77), is chronologically broader and factually detailed. The eight essays in the section entitled “The Central Islamic Lands in the Ottoman Period,” The Cambridge History of Islam, part 3, vol. 1 (1970, reissued 1980), by P.M. Holt, Ann K.S. Lambton, and Bernard Lewis (eds.), pp. 293–523, provide a brief but reliable survey of Ottoman history with some attention paid to the empire’s Arab provinces. Roderic H. Davison, Reform in the Ottoman Empire, 1856–1876 (1963, reissued 1973), gives an excellent account of 19th-century Ottoman reforms, including information on Midhat Paşa’s role in their implementation in Iraq. Meir Litvak, Shi‘i Scholars of 19th Century Iraq: ʿUlamaʾ of Najaf and Karbala (1998), is the best historical account of the Iraqi Shīʿites, charting developments within the Shīʿite religious establishment and its relations with the Ottoman authorities.

Eighteenth-century political, economic, and social developments in the Arab provinces are treated in some detail in Sir Hamilton Gibb and Harold Bowen, Islamic Society and the West, 1 vol. in 2 (1950–57). The last decades of Mamlūk rule are the subject of Tom Nieuwenhuis, Politics and Society in Early Modern Iraq: Mamlūk Pashas, Tribal Shayks, and Local Rule Between 1802 and 1831 (1982). Landholding is examined in two articles by Albertine Jwaideh, “Midhat Pasha and the Land System of Lower Iraq,” in Middle Eastern Affairs, 3:106–136 (1963), and “The Sannīyeh Lands of Sultan Abdul Hamid II in Iraq,” in George Makdisi (ed.), Arabic and Islamic Studies in Honor of Hamilton A.R. Gibb (1965), pp. 326–336. Other economic topics are treated in substantial articles included in M.A. Cook (ed.), Studies in the Economic History of the Middle East (1970); and in Charles Issawi (ed.), The Economic History of the Middle East, 1800–1914 (1966, reissued 1975).

Iraq since 1918

Stephen Hemsley Longrigg, Iraq, 1900 to 1950 (1953, reissued 1968), is a comprehensive study of that period. The British mandate is adequately treated in Philip Willard Ireland, ʿIraq: A Study in Political Development (1937, reprinted 1970); and also Peter Sluglett, Britain in Iraq, 1914–1932 (1976), based on British documents.

A study of the political development of Iraq after independence is covered in considerable detail in Majid Khadduri, Independent Iraq, 1932–1958: A Study in Iraqi Politics, 2nd ed. (1960), Republican Iraq: A Study in Iraqi Politics Since the Revolution of 1958 (1969), and Socialist Iraq: A Study in Iraqi Politics Since 1968 (1978). Uriel Dann, Iraq Under Qassem: A Political History, 1958–1963 (1969), may also be consulted. Mohammad A. Tarbush, The Role of the Military in Politics: A Case Study of Iraq to 1941 (1982), focuses on the political interventions of the Iraqi officer class between the two world wars. The political and class history of a more recent period may be found in Hanna Batatu, The Old Social Classes and the Revolutionary Movements of Iraq: A Study of Iraq’s Old Landed and Commercial Classes and of Its Communists, Baʿthists, and Free Officers (1978). Yitzhak Nakash, The Shiʿis of Iraq (1994), provides a history of the first half of the 20th century. Reeva S. Simon, Iraq Between the Two World Wars (1986), gives an account of the development of pan-Arab ideology. Michael Eppel, The Palestine Conflict in the History of Modern Iraq: The Dynamics of Involvement, 1928-48 (1994), discusses the interrelations between Iraqi domestic affairs and the Palestine question.

The Iran-Iraq War is analyzed by several prearmistice works: Majid Khadduri, The Gulf War: The Origins and Implications of the Iraq-Iran Conflict (1988); Shahram Chubin and Charles Tripp, Iran and Iraq at War (1988); Kaiyan Homi Kaikobad, The Shatt-al-Arab Boundary Question: A Legal Appraisal (1988), a detailed legal view of the Iran-Iraq river boundary dispute; and Edgar O’Ballance, The Gulf War (1988), which includes a detailed chronology and maps. Postarmistice publications include Hanns W. Maull and Otto Pick (eds.), The Gulf War: Regional and International Dimensions (1989). Both the Iran-Iraq War and the First Persian Gulf War are described well by Anthony Cordesman and Abraham Wagner, The Lessons of Modern War, vol. 2 (1991), and “The Persian Gulf War” in The Lessons of Modern War, vol. 4 (1996).