Aristotelianism, the philosophy of Aristotle and of those later philosophical movements based on his thought.
Assessment and nature of Aristotelianism
The extent to which Aristotelian thought has become a component of civilization can hardly be overestimated. To begin, there are certain words that have become indispensable for the articulate communication of thoughts, experiences, and problems. Some words still carry their Greek form, whereas others have become established in their more important meanings as Latin equivalents of Aristotle’s own words. The centuries-long impact of Aristotelian schooling lies at the root of the establishment of the following vocabulary: “subject” and “predicate” in grammar and logic; “form” (information, transform) and “matter” as expressing the two correlative aspects of something that has acquired or acquires something else that is possibly essential to it; “energy” as the active power inherent in a thing; “potential” for what is latent but can be released; “substance” and “essence,” “quantity” and “quality,” “accidental,” “relation,” “cause” (and the many meanings of “because” corresponding to the four causes), “genus” and “species” (general, special), “individual,” “indivisible” (atomic)—these constitute only a small sample of terms that still carry the mark of Aristotle’s philosophy.
Beyond language, features that cumulatively or severally characterize Aristotelianism include, in philosophical methodology, a critical approach to previous, contemporary, or hypothetical doctrines; the raising and discussing of doctrinal difficulties; the use of deductive reasoning proceeding from self-evident principles or discovered general truths; and syllogistic forms of demonstrative or persuasive arguments.
In epistemology, or the theory of knowledge, Aristotelianism includes a concentration on knowledge either accessible by natural means or accountable for by reason; an inductive, analytical empiricism, or stress on experience, in the study of nature—including the study of humans, their behaviour and organizations—leading from the perception of contingent individual occurrences to the discovery of permanent, universal patterns; and the primacy of the universal, that which is expressed by common or general terms.
In metaphysics, or the theory of the ultimate nature of reality, Aristotelianism involves belief in the primacy of the individual in the realm of existence; in the applicability to reality of a certain set of explanatory concepts (e.g., 10 categories; genus-species-individual, matter-form, potentiality-actuality, essential-accidental; the four material elements and their basic qualities; and the four causes—formal, material, efficient, and final); in the soul as the inseparable form of each living body in the vegetable and animal kingdoms; in activity as the essence of things; and in the primacy of speculative over practical activity.
In the philosophy of nature (see philosophy of biology; philosophy of physics), Aristotelianism denotes an optimistic position concerning nature’s aims and its economy; believing in the perfection and in the eternity of the heavenly, geocentric spheres, perceiving them as driven by intelligent movers, as carrying in their circular movements the stars, the Sun, the planets, and the Moon, and as also influencing the sublunary world; and holding that light bodies rise naturally away from the centre of the Earth, while heavy bodies move naturally toward it with a speed related to their weight.
In aesthetics, ethics, and politics, Aristotelian thought holds that poetry is an imitation of what is possible in real life; that tragedy, by imitation of a serious action cast in dramatic form, achieves purification (katharsis) through fear and pity; that virtue is a middle between extremes; that human happiness consists primarily in intellectual activity and secondarily in the exercise of the virtues; and that the state is a self-sufficient society, necessary for humans to achieve happiness.
History of Aristotelianism
Continuity of the Aristotelian tradition
Since Aristotle’s death there have been, without interruption until the present, schools and individuals who have cultivated the study of his works and fully or partly adopted and expounded his doctrines and methods. They have interpreted or misinterpreted, approved or condemned, and reshaped or utterly transformed them. The languages in which this interest was most forcibly expressed have changed in turn and over time from Greek to Latin; to Syriac, Arabic, and Hebrew; to Italian, French, English, and German. The main centres in which it appeared have been as far apart as Greece, North Africa, and Rome in the ancient world; Persia and Spain, Sicily and the British Isles in the Middle Ages; and Germany and North America in more recent times.
The main strand of the Aristotelian tradition has been the Greek line, which lasted 2,000 years, mainly in the area along the eastern Mediterranean Sea, and branched off at various stages between the 4th and 15th centuries, giving rise to (or strengthening) other traditions. The Latin branch originated in Rome in the 4th century and acquired a new impulse, probably from Athens, in the early 6th century. From these beginnings it was revived in the 9th century and again in the 12th, at which time a second and even stronger Aristotelian wave emerged from Constantinople, to be followed by a third, via the western Arabic schools, from Spain; and both branches spread to Italy, France, and the British Isles. The final direct contribution from the Greek to the Latin tradition came to Italy, once more from or through Constantinople, in the 15th century.
Shortly after the beginning of Latin Aristotelianism certain Armenian and Syrian members of the Greek schools of Athens and Alexandria in Egypt introduced Aristotelian teachings into their schools. The Armenian tradition was still alive in the 19th century in such places as Madras (now Chennai) and Venice; and the Syrian tradition, which never completely disappeared, was still powerful in the 14th century, after having given birth, in the 9th and 10th centuries, to an Arabic tradition. Arabic Aristotelianism was the product of Syrians, Persians, Turks, Jews, and Arabs who wrote and taught in their own countries as well as in Africa and Spain until the 12th century. Much of it and of what the Jews produced in Hebrew in the following two centuries passed into the Latin tradition between 1130 and 1550. Thus, all of the varied heritage that had derived ultimately from the Greek line and had been vastly enriched by other cultures came to be collected, through the Latin branch, by modern Western philosophical movements.