Francisco Suárez, byname Doctor Eximius (born Jan. 5, 1548, Granada, Spain—died Sept. 25, 1617, Lisbon), Spanish theologian and philosopher, a founder of international law, often considered the most prominent Scholastic philosopher after St. Thomas Aquinas, and the major theologian of the Roman Catholic order, the Society of Jesus (Jesuits).
The son of a wealthy lawyer, Suárez began the study of law in Salamanca in 1561 but left to join the Jesuits in 1564. From 1571 he taught philosophy, in 1580 becoming a theology instructor at the Jesuit college in Rome and later at Alcalá. In 1593 King Philip II of Spain appointed him to teach, and he eventually served as a professor at Coimbra (1597–1616). Holder of a doctorate from Évora (1597), Suárez was an exceptionally erudite and methodical scholar whose works, even in the incomplete Paris edition (1856–78), fill 28 volumes.
His principal study in philosophy is the Disputationes Metaphysicae (1597), which was used for more than a century as a textbook at most European universities, Catholic and Protestant alike. In this work, which treats especially the problems of human will and the concept of general versus particular phenomena, Suárez drew upon Aristotle and Aquinas, although he took into consideration the criticisms of other Scholastic philosophers such as Duns Scotus (c. 1265–1308) of Britain and Luis de Molina (1535–1600) of Spain. His departures from Aquinas’ positions have been considered significant enough to warrant the separate designation of his system as Suárezianism.
At the request of Pope Paul V and others, he wrote apologetic works on the nature of the Christian state. Among them were De Virtute et Statu Religionis (1608–09) and Defensio Fidei Catholicae (1613), opposing Anglican theologians who defended the claim of kings to rule as God’s earthly representatives. This theory, the divine right of kings, was advanced in England at the time by James I, who subsequently burned Suárez’ Defensio on the steps of St. Paul’s Cathedral in London. On the question of man’s ability to effect his own salvation by his works, Suárez, in his De Vera Intelligentia Auxilii Efficacis (1605, pub. 1655), supported the view of the Congruist movement, which held that God gave man sufficient grace to achieve the virtuous conduct congruent to, or in harmony with, his own will.
Suárez expounded his political theory and philosophy of law in De Legibus (1612; “On Laws”) as well as in the Defensio. Having refuted the divine-right theory of kingly rule, he declared that the people themselves are the original holders of political authority; the state is the result of a social contract to which the people consent. Arguing for the natural rights of the human individual to life, liberty, and property, he rejected the Aristotelian notion of slavery as the natural condition of certain men. He criticized most of the practices of Spanish colonization in the Indies in his De Bello et de Indis (“On War and the Indies”). The islands of the Indies he viewed as sovereign states legally equal to Spain as members of a worldwide community of nations.