Judaism

Main lines of development

From the beginning of Jewish mysticism in the 1st century ce to the middle of the 12th century, only the ecstatic and contemplative types existed. It was not until the second half of the 12th century that esoterism became clearly discernible; from then on, Jewish mysticism developed in various forms up to very recent times.

Early stages to the 6th century ce

The centuries following the return from the Babylonian Exile were marked by increasingly widespread and intense reflection on various themes: the intermediary beings between humans and God; the divine appearances, whose special place of occurrence had formerly been the most sacred part of the Jerusalem Temple; the creation of human beings; and the creation and organization of the universe. None of these themes was absent from the Bible, which was held to be divinely revealed, but each had become the object of constant theological readjustment that also involved the adoption of concepts from outside and reactions against them. The speculative taste of Jewish thinkers between the 2nd century bce and the 1st century ce took them in many different directions: angelology (doctrine about angels) and demonology (doctrine about devils); mythical geography and uranography (description of the heavens); contemplation of the divine manifestations, whose background was the Jerusalem Temple worship and the visions of the moving “throne” (merkava, “chariot”) in the prophecy of Ezekiel; reflection on the double origin of human beings, who are formed of the earth but are also the “image of God”; and speculation on the end of time (eschatology), on resurrection (a concept that appeared only toward the end of the biblical period), and on rewards and punishments in the afterlife.

This ferment was crystallized in writings such as the First Book of Enoch. Almost none of it was retained in Pharisaic (rabbinical) Judaism, which became the normative Jewish tradition after the Roman conquest of Jerusalem and the destruction of the Second Temple. The Talmud and the Midrash (rabbinical legal and interpretative literature) touched these themes only with great reserve, often unwillingly, and more often in a spirit of negative polemic.

As early as the 1st century ce and probably even before the destruction of the Second Temple, there were sages or teachers recognized by the religious community for whom meditation on the Scriptures—especially the creation narrative, the public revelation of the Torah on Mount Sinai, the Merkava vision of Ezekiel, and the Song of Solomon—and reflection on the end of time, resurrection, and the afterlife were not only a matter of the exegesis of texts recognized to be of divine origin but also a matter of inner experience. However, speculation on the invisible world and the search for the means to penetrate it were probably carried on in other circles. It is undeniable that there was a certain continuity between the apocalyptic visions (i.e., of the cataclysmic advent of God’s kingdom) and documents of certain sects (Dead Sea Scrolls) and the writings, preserved in Hebrew, of the “explorers of the supernatural world” (yorde merkava). The latter comprise ecstatic hymns, descriptions of the “dwellings” (hekhalot) located between the visible world and the ever-inaccessible Divinity, whose transcendence is paradoxically expressed by anthropomorphic descriptions consisting of inordinate hyperboles (Shiʿur qoma, “Divine Dimensions”). A few documents have been preserved that attest to the initiation of carefully chosen persons who were made to undergo tests and ordeals in accordance with psychosomatic criteria borrowed from physiognomy (the art of determining character from physical, especially facial, traits). Some theurgic efficacy was attributed to these practices, and there was some contamination from Egyptian, Hellenistic, or Mesopotamian magic. (A curious document in this respect, rich in pagan material, is the Sefer ha-razim, the “Treatise on Mysteries,” which was discovered in 1963.)

The similarities between concepts reflected in unquestionably Jewish texts and those expressed in documents of contemporary non-Jewish esoterism are so numerous that it becomes difficult, sometimes impossible, to distinguish the giver from the receiver. Two facts are certain, however. On the one hand, gnosticism never ceases to exploit biblical themes that have passed through Judaism (such as the tale of creation and the speculation on angels and demons), whatever their original source may have been; on the other hand, though Jewish esoterism may borrow this or that motif from ancient gnosis or syncretism and may even raise a supernatural entity such as the angel Metatron—also known as “little Adonai” (i.e., little Lord or God)—to a very high rank in the hierarchy of being, it still remains inflexibly monotheistic and rejects the gnostic concept of a bad or simply inferior demiurge who is responsible for the creation and governing of the visible world. Finally, during the centuries that separate the Talmudic period (2nd–5th centuries ce) from the full resurgence of Jewish esoterism in the middle of the 12th century, the texts that were preserved progressively lose their density and affective authenticity and become reduced to the level of literary exercises that are more grandiloquent than substantial.

Sefer yetzira

In the ancient esoteric literature of Judaism, a special place must be given to the Sefer yetzira (“Book of Creation”), which deals with cosmogony and cosmology. Creation, it affirms with a clearly anti-gnostic insistence, is the work of the God of Israel and took place on the ideal, immaterial level and on the concrete level. This was done according to a complex process that brings in the 10 numbers (sefirot, singular sefira) of decimal notation and the 22 letters of the Hebrew alphabet. The 10 numbers are not understood merely as arithmetical symbols: they are cosmological factors—the first of which, signified by the multiply ambiguous term ruaḥ, is the spirit of God, while the nine others seem to be the archetypes of the three elements (air, water, fire) and the spatial dimensions (up, down, and the four cardinal points). After having been manipulated either in their graphic representation or in combination, the letters of the alphabet, which are considered transcriptions of the sounds of the language, are in turn instruments of creation. The basic idea of all this speculation is that speech (that is, language composed of words, which are in turn composed of letters or sounds) is not only a means of communication but an operational agent destined to produce being; it has an ontological value. This value, however, does not extend to every language; it belongs to the Hebrew language alone.

The Sefer yetzira does not proceed entirely from biblical data and rabbinical reflection upon them; Greek influences are discernible, even in the vocabulary. What is important, however, is its influence on later Jewish thought, down to the present time: philosophers and esoterists have vied with one another over its meaning, pulling it in their own direction and adjusting it to their respective ideologies. Even more important is the fact that Kabbala borrowed a great deal of its terminology from the Sefer yetzira (e.g., sefira), making semantic adaptations as required.

The speculation traced above developed during the first six centuries of the Common Era, both in Palestine and in Babylonia. Babylonian Judaism had its own social and ideological characteristics, which put it in opposition to Palestinian Judaism with regard to esoterism and other manifestations of the life of the spirit. The joint doctrinal influence of the two centres spread from the mid-8th to the 11th century among the Jews of North Africa and Europe; mystical doctrines also filtered in, but very little is known about the circumstances and means of their penetration.

The Arabic-Islamic influence (7th–13th century)

Arabic Islamic culture was another important influence on Jewish mystical development. A considerable part of Jewry, which had fallen under Muslim domination in the 7th and 8th centuries, participated in the new Arabic-Islamic civilization; the Jews of Asia, Africa, and Spain soon adopted Arabic, the language of culture and communication. Arabic-language culture introduced elements of Greek philosophy and Islamic mysticism into Judaism and contributed to the deepening of certain theological concepts that were of Jewish origin but had become the common property of the three religions of the Book: affirming the divine unity, purging anthropomorphism from the idea of God, and following a spiritual path to the divine that leads through an ascetic discipline (both physical and intellectual) to a detachment from this world and a freeing of the soul from all that distracts it from God. Greek philosophy and Islamic mysticism moreover raised serious questions that threatened traditional beliefs about the creation of the world, the providential action of God, miracles, and eschatology. Even in the Christian West, where cultural contacts between the majority society and the Jewish minority were far from reaching the breadth and intensity of Judeo-Arab relations, Jewish intellectuals were unable to remain impervious to the incursions of the surrounding civilization. (Jewish biblical scholars were at times sought out by Christian theologians for help in understanding the Hebrew Scriptures.) Moreover, at the beginning of the 12th century if not earlier, European Judaism received part of the intellectual Arabic and Judeo-Arab heritage through translations or adaptations into Hebrew, its only cultural language.

The making of Kabbala (c. 1150–1250)

Under these circumstances, starting around 1150, manifestations of markedly theosophic ideologies appeared in southern France (in the regions of Provence and Languedoc). The two types that can be distinguished at the outset are very different in appearance, form, and content.

Sefer ha-bahir

The first type is represented in fragmentary, poorly written, and badly assembled texts that began to circulate in Provence and Languedoc during the third quarter of the 12th century. Their inspiration, however, leaves no doubt as to the community of their origin. They were in the form of a Midrash—that is, an interpretation of Scripture with the help of a particular interpretative method, full of sayings attributed to ancient rabbinical authorities. This body of texts, probably imported from the Middle East (Syria, Palestine, Iraq), is known as the “Midrash of Rabbi Nehunya ben Haqana” (from the name of a 1st-century rabbi) or Sefer ha-bahir (“Book of Brightness,” from a characteristic word of the first verse of Scripture to be elucidated in the work). The authorities cited are all inauthentic (as was often the case in late works). The content of this Midrash may be characterized as a form of gnosticism that successfully tries to escape any ontological dualism.

The object of the Sefer ha-bahir is to present the origin of things and the course of history centred on the chosen people, with vicissitudes caused in turn by obedience to God and by sin, as conditioned by the manifestation of divine powers. These “powers” are not “attributes” derived and defined by philosophical abstraction, though that is one of the terms used to designate them: they are hypostases (essences or substances). They are inseparable from God, but each one is clothed in its own personality, each operates in its own manner, leaning toward severity or mercy, in dynamic correspondence with the behaviour of human beings, especially of Jews, in the visible world. They are ranked in a hierarchy, which is not as fixed as it would become starting with the second generation of Kabbalists in Languedoc and Catalonia. The rich nomenclature used to designate the “powers” exploits the resources of both the Bible and the rabbinical tradition, of the Sefer yetzira, of some ritual observances, and also of the letters of the Hebrew alphabet and the signs that can be added to them to indicate the vowels.

Thus, according to the Sefer ha-bahir, the universe is the manifestation of hierarchically organized divine powers, and the power that is at the bottom of the hierarchy has special charge of the visible world. This entity is highly complex. Undoubtedly there are survivals of gnostic speculation on Sophia (“Wisdom”), who is involved, sometimes to her misfortune, in the material world. This power is also the divine “Presence” (Shekhina) of rabbinical theology, though it is profoundly transformed: it has become a hypostasis. By a bold innovation, it is characterized as a feminine being and thus finds itself, while remaining an aspect of the Divinity, in the position of a daughter or a wife, who owns nothing herself and receives all from the father or the husband. It is also identified with the “Community of Israel,” another radical innovation that was facilitated by ancient speculation based on the allegorical interpretation of the Song of Solomon, which represents the relationship of God to the chosen nation in terms of the marriage bond. Thus, a theosophical equality is established between the whole of the people chosen by God, constituted into a kind of mystical body, and an aspect of the Divinity—whence the solidarity and linked destiny of the two. A comparable relationship between the “Presence” and Israel was not totally foreign to ancient rabbinical theology. In this light, the obedience or disobedience of Israel to its particular vocation is a determining factor of cosmic harmony or disruption and extends to the inner life of the Divinity. This is the essential and definitive contribution of the Sefer ha-bahir to Jewish theosophy. The same document evinces the resurgence of a notion that older theologians had attempted to combat—that of metensōmatōsis, the reincarnation into several successive bodies of a soul that has not attained the required perfection in a previous existence.

School of Isaac the Blind

Another theosophic tendency in Languedoc developed concurrently with—but independently of—the Sefer ha-bahir. The two movements would take only about 30 years to converge, constituting what may conveniently (though not quite precisely) be called classical Kabbala. The second school flourished in Languedoc during the last quarter of the 12th century and crossed the Pyrenees into Spain in the first years of the 13th century.

The most eminent spokesman of this school was Isaac ben Abraham, known as Isaac the Blind, whose extant works include a very obscure commentary on the Sefer yetzira. In the view of the eminent Kabbala scholar Gershom G. Scholem (1897–1982), Isaac’s general vision of the universe proceeds from the link he discovers between the hierarchical orders of the created world and the roots of all beings implanted in the world of the sefirot. A Neoplatonic influence is evident in the reflections of Isaac—e.g., the procession of things from the one and the corresponding return to the heart of the primordial undifferentiatedness, which is the fullness of being and at the same time every conceivable being. This return is not merely eschatological and cosmic but is realized in the life of prayer of the contemplative mystic—though it is not, indeed, a transforming union by which the human personality blends completely into the Deity or becomes one with it.

The synthesis of the themes of the Bahir and the cosmology of the Sefer yetzira, accomplished by Isaac or by others in the doctrinal environment inspired by his teachings, was and remains the foundation of Kabbala, whatever adjustments, changes of orientation, or radical modifications the composite may subsequently have undergone.

The 10 sefirot

It is also in this environment that the nomenclature of the 10 sefirot became more or less fixed, though variant terminologies and even divergent conceptions of the nature of these entities may exist elsewhere—e.g., as internal powers of the divine organism (gnostic), as hierarchically ordered intermediaries between the infinite and the finite (Neoplatonic), or simply as instruments of the divine activity, neither partaking of the divine substance nor being outside it. The classical list of the sefirot is

1. keter ʿelyon, the supreme crown (its identity or nonidentity with the Infinite, Ein Sof, the unknowable Deity, remains problematic)
2. ḥokhma, wisdom, the location of primordial ideas in God
3. bina, intelligence, the organizing principle of the universe
4. ḥesed, love, the attribute of goodness
5. gevura, might, the attribute of severity
6. tif’eret, beauty, the mediating principle between the preceding two
7. netzaḥ, eternity
8. hod, majesty
9. yesod, foundation of all the powers active in God
10. malkhut, kingship, identified with the Shekhina (“Presence”)

School of Gerona (Catalonia)

The gnosticizing theosophy of the Sefer ha-bahir and the contemplative mysticism of the masters of Languedoc became one in the hands of the Kabbalists in Catalonia, where the Jewish community of Gerona was a veritable seat of esoterism during the first half of the 13th century. To the school of Gerona belong, among others, masters such as Ezra ben Solomon, Azriel of Gerona, Jacob ben Sheshet, and Moses ben Naḥman (or Naḥmanides), the famous Talmudist, biblical commentator, and theologian. Their influence on the subsequent course of Jewish mysticism is of fundamental importance, though none of them left a complete synthesis of his theosophy. They expressed themselves, with more or less reserve, by means of commentaries, sermons, polemic or apologetic treatises, and brief summaries (at most) for the noninitiated. It is not impossible, however, to discover through these texts their vision of the world and to compare it with the views of the Jewish thinkers who attempted to harmonize the biblical-rabbinical tradition with Greco-Arab philosophy, whether of Neoplatonic or Aristotelian inspiration.

At the base of the Kabbalistic view of the world there is an option of faith: it is by a voluntary decision that the unknowable Deity—who is “nothing” or “nothingness” (nonfinite) because he is a fullness of being totally inaccessible to any human cognition—sets into motion the process that leads to the visible world. This concept radically separates Kabbala from the determinism from which the philosophy of the period could not, without contradiction, free the principle of being. In addition, it offers a solution consistent with faith to the problem of creation ex nihilo (out of nothing). The paradoxical reinterpretation of the concept of the “nothing” eliminates the original matter coeternal with God and solves the opposition between divine transcendence (remoteness from the world) and immanence (presence in the world); issuing from the unfathomable depth of the Deity and called to return to it, the world, visible as well as invisible, is radically separated from God, who is at the same time constantly present. The correspondence between the sefirot and all the degrees of being gives meaning to the structure of the world and to the history of humanity centred on the revelation given to the chosen people, a revelation that is a rule of life for this people and the criterion of merit and sin, or good and evil. Thus, from the top to the bottom of the ladder, there are corresponding realities that control one another. Contrary to the opinion of the philosophers, evil is also a reality since it is the rupture of the universal harmony. It is also the consequence of this rupture, in the form of punishment. From this perspective, scrupulous observance of the Torah, both in the written text and the oral tradition, is the essential factor for the maintenance of the universe. The “rational” motivation of the commandments, which raises insurmountable difficulties for the theologians of philosophical orientation, is in the eyes of the Kabbalists a false problem; the real problem is the fundamental nature of the Torah. Kabbala brings more than one solution to it, whereas philosophy has trouble providing a single coherent and comprehensive solution.

It follows from this general concept that the Jewish faith, with its implications—the conviction of holding the undiluted truth, the faithful preservation of ritual practices, and the eschatological expectation—is safeguarded from all the doubts that either philosophical speculation or the rival religious doctrines of Christianity and Islam could evoke in the minds of Jewish believers. Kabbala, already at the stage it had reached at Gerona, may be said to be a significant factor in the survival of Judaism, which was exposed everywhere in medieval society to a wide range of perils.

Besides the Gerona school and the doctrinal descendants of Isaac the Blind in Languedoc, there was another school of Jewish esoterism in southern Europe during the first half of the 13th century. Members of this school preferred to remain anonymous and therefore published their writings, such as the Sefer ha-ʿiyyun (“Book of Speculation”), either without an author’s name or with an attribution to a fictitious authority. Their speculation was directed to the highest levels of the divine world, where it discerned aspects beyond the 10 sefirot and attempted to give an idea of them by resorting to the symbolism of light, as well as to the primordial causes and the archetypes contained in the Deity or directly issuing from it. The sometimes-striking similarity between these speculations and those of the Christian theologian John Scotus Erigena (810–c. 877), whose work was revived in the 12th and 13th centuries, suggests not only a kinship of themes between this Kabbalistic current and Latin-language Christian Neoplatonism but also a concrete influence of the latter upon the former. The same may be true of Isaac the Blind and the school of Gerona, but certain knowledge is lacking.

Sefer ha-temuna

The anonymous writer of the Sefer ha-temuna (“Book of the Image”) provided literary expression for another manifestation of Jewish mysticism in this period. This very obscure document claims to explain the figures of the letters of the Hebrew alphabet. The speculation of this treatise bears on two themes that were not foreign to the school of Gerona, but it develops them in a personal manner that decisively influenced the future of Jewish theosophy. On the one hand, it deals with a theory of the different cycles through which the world must travel from the time of its emergence to its reabsorption into the primordial unity. On the other hand, it addresses various readings that correspond to these cycles in the divine manifestation that is constituted by the Scriptures. In other words, the interpretation and consequently the message of the Torah vary according to the cycles of existence; the passage to a cycle other than that under whose governance humanity is presently living could thus entail the modification, even the abrogation, of the rule of life to which the chosen people are presently subject, an explosive notion that threatened to overthrow the Jewish tradition.

Medieval German (Ashkenazic) Hasidism

The period during which Kabbala was established in the south of France and in Spain is no less important for the shaping of Jewish mysticism in the other branch of European Judaism, which was situated in northern France (and England) and in the Rhine and Danube regions of Germany. Unlike medieval Kabbala, which experienced a broad and varied development starting in the second half of the 13th century, the movement designated as German, or Ashkenazic (from a biblical place-name conventionally used to designate Germany), Hasidism hardly survived as a living and independent current beyond the second quarter of the 13th century (it has no connection with modern Hasidism). Franco-German Judaism experienced a certain continuity of mystical tradition, based on the Sefer yetzira and the hekhalot (see above Sefer yetzira); certain elements of theurgy and magic of Babylonian origin may also have reached it through Italy; and apparently the gnosticizing current that was crystallized in the Sefer ha-bahir did not pass without leaving traces in Germany. The intellectual atmosphere of Franco-German Judaism, however, differed greatly from that reigning in Spain or even Provence and Languedoc. It was characterized by an almost exclusively Talmudic culture, less intellectual contact with the non-Jewish environment than in the countries of Muslim civilization, and a very limited knowledge of Jewish theology in Arabic from the Middle East, North Africa, and Spain. This situation did not change until the last third of the 12th century; until then, the “philosophical” equipment of the Franco-German Jewish scholar consisted essentially of a Hebrew paraphrase, dating perhaps from the 11th century, of the treatise Beliefs and Opinions by Saʿadia ben Joseph (the great 9th–10th-century Babylonian Jewish scholar and philosopher) and the commentary on the Sefer yetzira written in Hebrew in 946 by the Italian physician Shabbetai Donnolo (born 913). Even when the cultural influence of Spanish Judaism came to be felt more strongly in France, England, and Germany, speculative Kabbala hardly penetrated there. Franco-German Jewish thinkers who inclined toward theological speculation had their own problems—notably the persecutions that began during the First Crusade—which resulted in a mysticism strongly imbued with asceticism.

The main speculative problem for medieval Hasidic thinkers was that of the relationship between God and his manifestations in creation, including his revelation and communication with inspired men and women. Reflection on this problem led to the elaboration of various supernatural hierarchies between the inaccessible God and the created universe or the recipient of divine communication. Data on angels taken from the Bible and rabbinical and mystical traditions, as well as speculation on the Shekhina, were used as material for these hierarchies and also gave a peculiar coloration to liturgical practice. The latter was marked, moreover, by a concern for spiritual concentration by means of fixing attention on the words and even the letters of the synagogue prayers. These speculations, however, had no great repercussions on the subsequent course of Jewish esoterism; the only exception is the mysticism of prayer and demonology, which was sometimes influenced by the beliefs of the Christian environment and was fully developed in Hasidic circles. On the other hand, the ascetic morality of the movement, which was expressed in the literary works of Eleazar ben Judah of Worms (c. 1160–1238) and in the two recensions of the “Book of the Pious” (Sefer ḥasidim), was to mark Jewish spirituality, esoteric or not, from then on.

The making of the Zohar (c. 1260–1492)

Once the marginal episode of German Hasidism was finished, almost all creative activity in Jewish mysticism occurred in Spain, up to the expulsion of the Jews in 1492.

After the flowering of the schools described above came to an end about the year 1260, two other currents appeared. The first assumed a gnostic bent through its emphasis on the problem of evil. The texts that illustrate this tendency do not place evil in a state of dependence on the “attribute of judgment” within the structure of the sefirot set up by the previous Kabbalists but locate it outside the Divinity, constructing a parallel system of “left-hand sefirot” and a corresponding exuberant demonology. The second movement, whose main representative was the visionary and adventurer Abraham ben Samuel Abulafia (born 1240), justified itself by appeal to inner “prophetic” experiences encouraged by training methods akin to those of Yoga, Byzantine Hesychasm (mystical, quietist monasticism), and Sufism. Moreover, an important place was given to speculations on the letters and vocalic signs of the Hebrew script. Unlike the protagonists of other mystical schools of Spain, Abulafia actively promoted his ideas, worrying Jewish leaders and prompting even non-Jewish authorities to pursue him. His numerous writings later stimulated a few minds among the Kabbalists.

The work of Moses de León (1250–1305) marked one of the most important turning points in the development of Jewish mysticism. He was the author of several esoteric works, which he signed with his own name. In order to better spread his ideas and to more effectively combat philosophy, which he considered a mortal danger to the Jewish faith, he composed pseudepigrapha (writings ascribed to other authors, usually in past ages) in the form of Midrashim on the Pentateuch, the Song of Solomon, the Book of Ruth, and Lamentations; only the names of the Talmudic authorities were even partially authentic, a procedure already used by the Sefer ha-bahir. In its most finished version (for there were several of them), the plot of the tales centred around Rabbi Simeon ben Yoḥai, a sage of the 2nd century, about whom the Talmud already related some curious anecdotes, most of them semilegendary. Moses de León thus produced over a period of about 30 years the Midrash ha-neʿelam (“The Mystical Midrash”), an allegorical work written mainly in Hebrew, and then the Sefer ha-zohar (“Book of Splendour”)—or, more briefly, the Zohar—a larger work written in artificial Aramaic, whose content is theosophic. The Zohar culminates in a long speech in which Simeon ben Yoḥai, on the day of his death, supposedly exposes the quintessence of his mystical doctrine. The book inspired nearly contemporary imitations that were incorporated into it or appended to it but were sometimes of a markedly different theological orientation: the Raʿya mehemana (“Faithful Shepherd”—i.e., Moses the prophet), the particular subject of which is the interpretation and theosophic justification of the precepts of the Torah; and the Tiqqune zohar, consisting of elaborations in the same vein bearing upon the first word of the book of Genesis (bereshit, “in the beginning”).

The works of Moses de León were not immediately accepted as authentic by all the esoterists and still less by scholars outside the theosophic movement. It took half a century or more for the Zohar and imitations of it to be recognized as authoritative ancient works, and even then it was not without some reluctance. Although critics were never fully silenced and the authenticity of the Zohar was already questioned in the 15th century, the myth created by Moses de León and his imitators became a spiritual reality for the majority of believing Jews, and it still retains this character among many “traditional” Jews. The Zohar, believed to be based on supernatural revelations and reinterpreted in diverse ways, served as a support and reference for all Jewish theosophies in later centuries.

In matters of doctrine, the Zohar and its appendices develop, amplify, and exaggerate speculation and tendencies that already existed rather than offer any radical innovation. The main lines of the Zohar—the springing forth of being from the depth of the divine “nothing,” the solidarity between the visible world and the world of the sefirot (complicated by the introduction of four ontological levels, at each of which the schema of the 10 sefirot is reproduced), the indispensable contribution to universal harmony by the people (i.e., the Jews) who observe the biblical and rabbinical precepts in their slightest details—were ideas that had been accepted for a long time in Jewish theosophy. But all of these themes were largely organized and enhanced by the use—or rather the unscrupulous appropriation—of materials taken from rabbinical tradition and ancient esoterism as well as from more recent currents of theological and philosophical thought (the speculations of the Sefer ha-temuna on the cosmic cycles and the “Prophetic Kabbala” of Abulafia were tacitly set aside).

Despite the lack of esteem that the writers of the Zoharic corpus felt—and sought to make others feel—toward works created by Gentiles, the method of symbolic representation used in the Zoharic writings was supported by a system of interpretation based on the originally Christian concept of the fourfold meaning of Scripture: literal, moral, allegorical (philosophical), and mystical. The symbolism that was thus established boldly made use of an exuberant anthropomorphic and even erotic imagery whose function was to convey the manifestation of the levels of the sefirot to each other and to the extra-divine world. The myth of the primordial man (Adam Qadmon), a virtually divine being, reappeared here under a new form, and it remained in the subsequent development of Kabbala.

The Zohar thus claims to provide a complete explanation of the world, humankind, history, and the situation of the Jews; on a higher level, it purports to justify the biblical revelation and rabbinical tradition down to the slightest detail, including the messianic expectation, and thereby to neutralize philosophy. But, while portraying itself as the defender of the traditional religion regulated by the Talmud and its commentaries, the Zohar places itself above tradition by boisterously proclaiming the incomparable value of the theosophic teaching of Rabbi Simeon ben Yoḥai and the superiority of the esoteric doctrine over Talmudic studies. There was in this attitude—which was more accentuated in the Raʿya mehemana than in the Zohar proper—a revolutionary potential and a threat to the primacy of Torah practice and study. The future would show that this danger was not completely unreal.

The Lurianic Kabbala

After the establishment of the Zoharic corpus, no major changes took place in Jewish esoterism until the middle of the 16th century, when a religious centre of extreme importance for Judaism, mainly inspired by teachers coming from families expelled from Spain, was established in Safed (in Upper Galilee, Palestine; present-day Ẕefat, Israel). Kabbalistic literary output had been abundant in Spain until the expulsion in 1492 and in Italy and the Middle East during the following two generations, but it was primarily a matter of systematizing or even popularizing the Zohar or of extending the speculation already developed in the 13th century. There were also some attempts at reconciling philosophy and Kabbala.

The expulsion from Spain and the forced conversions to Christianity in both Spain and Portugal were profound tragedies. These events accentuated the existing pessimism caused by the dispersal of the Jews among the nations and intensified messianic expectation. This expectation most likely contributed to the beginnings of the printed transmission of Kabbala; the first two printed editions of the Zohar date from 1558. All these factors, joined with certain internal developments of speculative Kabbala in the 15th century, prepared the ground for the new theosophy inaugurated by the teaching of Isaac ben Solomon Luria (1534–72), who was born in Jerusalem, educated in Egypt, and died in Safed. Although his teaching is traditionally associated with Safed, he spent only the last three years of his life there. Luria wrote very little; his doctrine was transmitted, amplified, and probably somewhat distorted through the works of his disciples, especially Ḥayyim Vital (1543–1620), who wrote ʿEtz ḥayyim (“Tree of Life”), the standard presentation of Lurianic Kabbala.

The theosophy of Luria, whose novelty was proclaimed by its creator, was perfectly realized by the esoterists who held to the Zoharistic Kabbala, which was organized and codified precisely in Safed during the lifetime of Luria by Moses ben Jacob Cordovero (1522–70). Although its details are extremely complex, it is basically an attempt to reconcile divine transcendence with immanence and to solve the problem of evil, which the believer in the divine unity can recognize neither as a power existing independently of God nor as an integral part of him.

The vision of Luria is expressed in a vast mythical construct, which is typologically akin to certain gnostic and Manichaean (3rd-century dualistic) systems but which strives at all costs to avoid dualism. The essential elements of this myth include the withdrawal (tzimtzum) of the divine light, which originally filled all things, in order to make room for the extra-divine; the sinking, as a result of a catastrophic event that occurred during this process, of luminous particles into matter (qelippot, “shells,” a term already used in Kabbala to designate the evil powers); and the consequent need to save these particles and return them to their origin, by means of “repair” or “restoration” (tiqqun). This must be the work of the Jews who not only live in complete conformity to the religious duties imposed on them by tradition but who dedicate themselves, in the framework of a strict asceticism, to a contemplative life founded on mystical prayer and directed meditation (kawwana) on the liturgy, which is supposed to further the harmony (yiḥud, “unification”) of the innumerable attributes within the divine life. The successive reincarnations of the soul, a constant theme of Kabbala that Lurianism developed, are also invested with an important function in the work of “repair.” In short, Lurianism proclaims the absolute requirement of an intense mystical life with an unceasing struggle against the powers of evil. Thus, it presents a myth that symbolizes the world’s origin, fall, and redemption. It also gives meaning to the existence and hopes of the Jews, not merely exhorting them to a patient surrender to God but moving them to a redeeming activism, which is the measure of their sanctity. Such requirements make the ideal of Lurianism possible only for a small elite; ultimately, it is realizable only through the exceptional personage of the “just”—the ideal holy Jew.

Shabbetaianism

For 60 years after the death of Luria, his version of the Kabbala, together with accretions from the other mysticisms of Safed, spread through the Jewish Diaspora and deeply permeated its spiritual life, liturgy, and devotional practices. It emphasized the need for “repair” of a world in which Jewish uneasiness continued to grow; despite certain favourable factors—the relative tolerance of the Ottoman Empire and the peaceful establishment of an important Marrano (Iberian Jewish, or Sephardic) community in Amsterdam—there was no overall solution to the problem of the conversos who had remained in the Iberian Peninsula. The Ashkenazim also experienced a serious crisis: its most prosperous and dynamic section, the Jewish population of Poland, was sorely tried, almost totally ruined, and in large part forced to move back toward the west because of the massacres and the destruction that took place during the Cossack uprising of 1648.

These ideological and historical data may provide the necessary context for understanding the astonishing though short-lived success of Rabbi Shabbetai Tzevi of Smyrna (1626–76), who proclaimed himself messiah in 1665. Although the “messiah” was forcibly converted to Islam in 1666 and ended his life in exile 10 years later, he continued to have faithful followers. A sect was thus born and survived, largely thanks to the activity of Nathan of Gaza (c. 1644–90), an unwearying propagandist who justified the actions of Shabbetai Tzevi, including his final apostasy, with theories based on the Lurian doctrine of “repair.” Tzevi’s actions, according to Nathan, should be understood as the descent of the just into the abyss of the “shells” in order to liberate the captive particles of divine light.

The Shabbetaian crisis lasted nearly a century, and some of its aftereffects lasted even longer. It led to the formation of sects whose members were externally converted to Islam—e.g., the Dönme (Turkish: “Apostates”) of Salonika, whose descendants still live in Turkey—or to Roman Catholicism—e.g., the Polish supporters of Jacob Frank (1726–91), the self-proclaimed messiah and Catholic convert (in Bohemia-Moravia, however, the Frankists outwardly remained Jews). This crisis did not discredit Kabbala, but it did lead Jewish spiritual authorities to monitor and severely curtail its spread and to use censorship and other acts of repression against anyone—even a person of tested piety and recognized knowledge—who was suspected of Shabbetaian sympathies or messianic pretensions.

Modern Hasidism

Although the messianic movement centred around Shabbetai Tzevi produced only disillusionment and could have led to the destruction of Judaism, it answered both the theosophic aspirations of a small number of visionary scholars and the affective need of the Jewish masses that was left unsatisfied by the dry intellectualism of the Talmudists and the economic and social oppression of the ruling classes (both Jewish and non-Jewish). This was the case especially in Poland, which before the partition of the Polish kingdom (1772–95) included Lithuanian, Belarusian, and Ukrainian territories. It was there that the Hasidic movement originated around the middle of the 18th century (it was in no way connected with medieval German Hasidism). While maintaining the Lurian Kabbala as a theoretical basis of speculation, the movement also made adjustments and transformations that continue to the present day.

Modern Hasidism may be regarded as a mass movement having a minimum of organization and relying on itinerant teachers and preachers. According to legend, it was founded by Israel ben Eliezer (c. 1700–60), known as Baʿal Shem Ṭov (“Master of the Good Name”; that is, a possessor—he was not the only one of his kind—of the secret of the ineffable name of God, which bestows an infallible power to heal and perform other miracles). Although relatively untrained according to the norms of the rabbinical Judaism of his time, he was a spiritual person of exceptional quality and was able to win to his ideas not only the common people but also many representatives of the intellectual elite. The mist of legend that surrounds him makes it impossible to reconstruct his entire doctrine, which he probably never systematized. Inspired by the methods of the itinerant preachers whose activity was becoming more intense among eastern European Jews in the 18th century, his teaching took the form of homiletic interpretations of sacred texts based on fables and parables borrowed from daily life and from folklore. Although this method remained constant in Hasidism, it is a mistake to conclude, as did Martin Buber, that the tale and the anecdote are the most authentic expression of the doctrine and spirituality of Hasidism. Indeed, the thought of the Hasidic “rabbis” is best expressed in doctrinal works, most of which took the form of sermons on the weekly sections of the Pentateuch and other liturgical lessons. It is a very diversified thought, for there are as many bodies of doctrine in Hasidism as there were creative spirits during the first three generations of the movement. It is possible nevertheless to point to a few traits that are fundamental and common to Hasidism as a whole.

In theory, Hasidism remains rooted in the Lurianic Kabbala, and nothing essential separates it at this point from the traditional Judaism of eastern Europe. It is unique, however, because it made devequt, “being-with-God,” an object of aspiration and even a constant duty for all Jews and in all circumstances of life, even those seemingly most profane. In other words, it demands a total spiritualization of Jewish existence. This requirement entails a reevaluation, less new in its principle than in its concrete application, of the speculative concepts of Kabbala. Emphasis is placed on the inner life of the believer, and it is on this level that the supercosmic drama (whose stage is in the universe of the sefirot, according to bookish theosophy) is played out. According to several teachers, the same emphasis on inwardness holds for messianic redemption. Hasidism also transforms into social reality a requirement that was part of the Lurian doctrine of “repair,” though it was unfortunately distorted by Shabbetaianism: it puts the inspired leader—an indispensable guide and unquestioned authority endowed with supernatural powers, the “just” (tzaddiq), the “miracle-working rabbi” (Wunder-rebbe)—at the centre of the group’s organization and religious life. Hasidism thus produced, wherever it triumphed, an undeniable spiritual renewal. On the other hand, it was plagued by the cult of personality, by competition between “dynasties” of “rabbis,” and by the social and economic consequences of its obstinate insistence on isolating the Hasidic community from the surrounding society.

From its very beginnings, Hasidism encountered strong resistance from official Judaism, which had been sensitized to the anarchism of the Shabbetaians and which at the same time was solicitous toward the prerogatives of the community leaders and rabbis. The behaviour of the followers of Hasidism, though irreproachable in its rigorous observance of ritual rules, displayed several traits that were distasteful to its adversaries (besides the unconditional submission to the tzaddiq, who often doubled as the rabbi of the official congregation): desertion of the general communal synagogues, meetings in small conventicles, modifications of the liturgy, excessively formal dress during prayer, and preference given to mystical meditation rather than to the dialectical study of the Talmud, which required serious intellectual concentration. Nevertheless, the conflict between the Hasidim and the “Opponents” (Mitnaggedim) did not finally degenerate into schism; after three generations, a tacit compromise was established between the two tendencies—Hasidic and Mitnaggedic—though awareness of their differences was never erased. The compromise was somewhat to the advantage of Hasidism, but not without a few concessions on its part, notably on the question of education.

The strong organization of the Hasidic groups allowed them to survive the dislocation of eastern European Judaism as a result of the events of World War II, but its vital centres are today in the United States rather than in Palestine, partly for economic reasons and partly because of the more or less reserved, and sometimes hostile, attitude of the Hasidic “rabbis” toward political Zionism and the State of Israel. The best-known of the U.S.-based groups is the very active Lubavitchers (named after Lyubavichi, Russia, seat of a famous school of Hasidism), whose headquarters are in the Crown Heights district of Brooklyn, New York.