pacifism

Early religious and philosophical movements

In the ancient world, war was taken for granted as a necessary evil by some societies, while in others it was not even regarded as an evil. Individual voices in various lands decried the evils of war, but the first genuinely pacifist movement known came from Buddhism, whose founder (the Buddha) demanded from his followers absolute abstention from any act of violence against their fellow creatures. In India the great Buddhist-influenced king Ashoka in the 3rd century bce definitely renounced war, but he was thinking primarily of wars of conquest. In succeeding ages Buddhism does not seem to have been very successful in restraining the rulers of countries in which it was adopted from making war. This may be because the Buddhist rule of life, as generally understood, served as a counsel of perfection which comparatively few could be expected to follow in its entirety.

In classical antiquity, pacifism remained largely an ideal in the minds of a few intellectuals. The Greek conceptions of peace—including Stoicism—were centred on the peaceful conduct of the individual rather than on the conduct of whole peoples or kingdoms. In Rome the achievement of pax, or peace, was defined as a covenant between states or kingdoms that creates a “just” situation and that rests upon bilateral recognition. This judicial approach was applicable only to the “civilized world,” however. Thus, the Pax Romana of the 1st and 2nd centuries ce was not really universal, because it was always regarded as a peace for the civilized world alone and excluded the barbarians. And since the barbarian threat never ended, neither did the wars Rome waged to protect its frontiers against this threat.

Christianity, with its evangelical message, offered considerations in support of individual nonviolence as well as of collective peacefulness. Jesus’ spoken words as recorded in the New Testament could be interpreted as a kind of pacifism and in fact were so interpreted by many of Jesus’ early radical followers. As a rule, however, the “peace” that Jesus spoke of was only open to minorities or to sects that practiced a rigorous ethics, while the Christian church itself had to compromise with worldly necessities. “The question of soldiers”—the inconsistency between the pursuit of peace and fighting in wars—was disturbing to Christians from the time of Jesus. However, in the early 3rd century, certain passages in the Gospels were interpreted to indicate that armies were not only acceptable but necessary in order to fight against demons. In the early 5th century, St. Augustine wrote De civitate Dei (The City of God), which presented a distinction between worldly and supraworldly peace. He felt that worldly peace was acceptable only if it was in accord with Christian law, and it was the duty of the worldly state to serve the church and to defend itself against those who wished to undermine the church’s authority. These ideas prevailed throughout the Middle Ages and were often tied with the myth of an eschatological emperor who would suppress nonbelievers and lead the world to peaceful times. Like the Roman pax, Christian peace needed to be perpetually defended. There was a never-ending threat posed by non-Christians, who were viewed as demonic.

Political influences

Since the European Renaissance, Western concepts of pacifism have been developed with varying degrees of political influence. A great deal of pacifist thought in the 17th and 18th centuries was based on the idea that a transfer of political power from the sovereigns to the people was a crucial step toward world peace, since wars were thought of as arising from the dynastic ambitions and power politics of kings and princes. Thus was propagated the view that monarchies tended toward wars because the sovereigns regarded their states as their personal property and that compared to this, a republic would be peaceful.

The offshoot of these theories was the creation of pacifist organizations in 19th-century Europe in which such ideas as general disarmament and the instigation of special courts to hear international conflicts were entertained. The theme of pacifism thereby caught the public interest and inspired an extensive literature. Some of these ideas were later realized in the Court of Arbitration (a precursor of the International Court of Justice) in The Hague, the League of Nations, the United Nations, and disarmament conferences and treaties such as the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT) and the Strategic Arms Reduction Talks (START) between the Soviet Union and the United States from the 1970s to the early 21st century. Pacifist ideals also played a significant role in the Indian independence movement led by Mohandas K. Gandhi, the U.S. civil rights movement, the worldwide movement to abolish nuclear weapons, and the student movements in the United States and Europe in the 1960s and ’70s.