monasticism

Jainism

Jainism likely emerged about the 6th century bce in reaction to Brahmanic Hinduism. Along with Buddhism, Jainism is the only surviving religion to have begun as a purely monastic religion; the rules for the laity are derived from monastic rules. Mahavira and the semilegendary Parshvanatha, considered by many scholars to be the founders of Jainism (Jains believe that their religion had no founder), directed their instructions to monks and postulants exclusively. The vows of the monks are more numerous and more intensive, but the way of life enjoined on the laity was simply an abridged monastic rule allowing more dispensations and compromise.

The two main divisions of the Jain monks have traditionally received substantial support from the laity and derive their primary designation from the monastic setting, which is unique in India and the West. The Shvetambara (“White-Clad”) sect is so called because its monks wear a white robe and a white piece of cloth to cover the mouth (mukhavastrika), thereby preventing the inhalation and annihilation of microbes and insects. They also carry a broom with which they sweep the ground in front of them as they walk so as to clear away insects and other living beings that would be hurt or killed by being stepped on. The Digambara (“Sky-Clad”; i.e., nude) sect is so called because its monks used to go naked to signify their complete detachment from worldly things and social trappings. The Jain monks of both sects practice mendicancy, extreme austerity, and detachment.

Buddhism

The generic term for the Buddhist monastic order is the sangha; the terms denoting the order in all Buddhist countries are literal translations of the Indian word. Buddhism, far more than in other monastic traditions of the world—with the possible exception of Jainism—attaches central importance to the order, in part because the Buddha began every one of his sermons with the address bhikkhave (“O ye begging monks”). The recitation of the “threefold refuge” formula that makes a person a Buddhist, either lay or monastic, enacts a pledge of “taking refuge” in the Buddha, the dharma (“teaching”), and the sangha; most commentaries imply that the three elements are equally important. In later northern Buddhism (i.e., Mahayana), the role of the historical Buddha was reduced, and the order (sangha) acquired an even more exalted position.

The monastic discipline of the Buddhist clergy varies widely in the different parts of the Buddhist world. In principle, the rules are laid down in the vinaya (monastic rules) portion of the Buddha’s sermons, but monastic traditions and regulations have also been shaped by environmental and cultural conditions. Rules concerning distance from lay settlements, for example, had to be interpreted and implemented differently depending on whether tropical, moderate, or (as in the case of Tibet and Mongolia) subarctic climatic conditions prevailed. Although celibacy is postulated for the Buddhist clergy everywhere, there have always been notable exceptions. The married monks of pre-20th-century Ceylon (Sri Lanka) and those of some of the Japanese Buddhist orders are conspicuous examples. Since the vows of the Buddhist monk in principle are not permanent, the theoretical emphasis on celibacy became academic in many parts of Asia. In South and Southeast Asia, Buddhist monks were and still are teachers to the people—not only in religious matters but also in the realm of basic education—particularly in Myanmar. There appears to be a high degree of monastic involvement with lay society, and the provision of special amenities for monks who prefer a strictly contemplative life, as in Sri Lanka and Thailand, has been well defined in practice. Differences in living style between the northern (Mahayana, or “Greater Vehicle”) and the southern (Theravada, called Hinayana, or “Lesser Vehicle,” in derogation) monastic institutions are quite radical. The fundamental activity, however, remains meditation (Sanskrit dhyana, Pali jhana, from which is derived the schools of Buddhism known as Chan in China and Zen in Japan). The path of meditation leads positively toward the intuitive understanding of momentariness, the condition of existence—or, to state it negatively, toward the total rejection of all notions of permanence.

Although Chan or Zen remains by far the best-known branch of Mahayana Buddhism, China evolved other major schools, many of which spread to Japan. Tiantai Buddhism, originating with Zhiyi (538–597) at Mount Tiantai in China, aspired to incorporate other schools within a comprehensive vision. A Japanese pilgrim, Saichō (767–822), brought Tendai monasticism to Mount Hiei near Kyōto, Japan, where it has flourished ever since. Even more elaborate in its ceremonies is Vajrayana (Tantric or Esoteric) Buddhism, which under the name Zhenyan (“True Word”) thrived in 8th-century Tang-dynasty China and under the name Shingon (the Japanese pronunciation of Zhenyan) was taken to Mount Kōya in Japan by Kūkai (c. 774–835). As early as the 4th century ce, China produced Pure Land Buddhism, whose worship of the buddha Amitabha (Amida in Japanese) appealed above all to laypeople. Particularly in Japan, through the leadership of Hōnen, Shinran, and Ippen in the late 12th and 13th centuries, Pure Land Buddhism eventually dispensed with monastic obligations altogether. Moreover, since the late 19th century, monks in many Japanese traditions have been permitted to marry, and major Japanese temples now house married monastics.