miracle, extraordinary and astonishing happening that is attributed to the presence and action of an ultimate or divine power.
Nature and significance
A miracle is generally defined, according to the etymology of the word—it comes from the Greek thaumasion and the Latin miraculum—as that which causes wonder and astonishment, being extraordinary in itself and amazing or inexplicable by normal standards. Because that which is normal and usual is also considered as natural, miracles have occasionally been defined as supernatural events, but this definition presupposes a very specific conception of nature and natural laws and cannot, therefore, be generally applied. The significance of a miraculous event is frequently held to reside not in the event as such but in the reality to which it points (e.g., the presence or activity of a divine power); thus, a miracle is also called a sign—from the Greek sēmeion (biblical Hebrew ot)—signifying and indicating something beyond itself. Extraordinary and astonishing occurrences become specifically religious phenomena when they express, reveal, or signify a religious reality, however defined.
Belief in miraculous happenings is a feature of practically all religions, and the incidence of miracles (i.e., of belief in and reports regarding miracles) is universal, though their functions, nature, purpose, and explanations vary with the social and cultural—including theological and philosophical—context in which they appear. However inexplicable, all miracles have an explanation in the sense that they are accounted for in terms of the religious and cultural system that supports them and that, in turn, they are meant to support. Without such an accompanying—explicit or implicit—theory (e.g., the presence, activity, and intervention of such realities as gods, spirits, or magical powers), there would be no miracles in the aforementioned sense but only unexplained phenomena.
Types and functions of miracles
There is no general rule determining the types of occurrences that can be classified as miracles; they vary according to the cultural matrix of beliefs and assumptions. The mythological accounts of the origins of the gods and their activities in the primeval past, as well as accounts of the activities of other primeval beings, such as first ancestors and culture heroes, should, perhaps, not be classed as miracles, and the term is better reserved for outer, objective events—as distinct from such phenomena as inner experiences and visions—that can be regarded as divine interventions or as manifestations of divine or supernatural powers. In many cultures, primitive as well as some that were more highly developed, such as the ancient classical and Oriental civilizations, the operation of extraordinary forces was taken for granted and was integrated into the total world picture and into the procedures and the modes of action—e.g., magic, oracles, divination, and shamanism—of ordinary life. There were certain kinds of divine or spirit action and of cosmic operation that were considered to be a part of the normal order of things, even though it was generally admitted that priests and shamans would frequently resort to deception in their diverse activities, which included such manifestations as prophecy, oracles, healing, magic, and judgment by ordeal.
Revelation and signification
The purpose of a miracle may be in the direct and immediate result of the event—e.g., deliverance from imminent danger (thus, the passage of the children of Israel through the Red Sea in the Old Testament book of Exodus, chapter 14), cure of illness, or provision of plenty to the needy. Nevertheless, the ultimate purpose frequently is the demonstration of the power of the god or of the saint, the “man of God” through whom the god works, to whom the miracle is attributed. Thus, the crossing of the Red Sea by the Israelites is described not solely in terms of salvation from great danger but as a revelation of the saving presence of God and of the consequent obligation to serve and obey him; according to the account in Exodus: “and Israel saw the great work which the Lord did against the Egyptians, and the people feared the Lord; and they believed in the Lord and in his servant Moses.” The purpose of a miraculous occurrence is thus often to reveal a divine reality or numinous dimension. The occurrence may be an event concerned with natural needs or situations, such as illness, hunger, or distress, or a specifically religious event that effects some form of salvation or revelation, such as the theophany on Mt. Sinai in which God gave to Moses the Ten Commandments, the Resurrection of Jesus Christ, or the revelation of the Qurʾān to Muḥammad. Even in these specifically religious events, the miraculous element is not necessarily of the essence but occurs as merely an accompanying circumstance designed to arrest the attention and to impress on everyone the unique character and significance of the occasion. Thus, theoretically at least, the theophany at Mt. Sinai could have taken place without thunder and lightning; Jesus need not have been born of a virgin; Muḥammad need not have made his miraculous journey to heaven. In actual fact, however, the very nature and quality of a religious event attracts miraculous elements, elaborations, and embellishments; and thus, for example, the founders of almost all religions are at the centre of great miracle cycles, and miracles occur as a rule in connection with persons and objects of religious significance, such as saints, sacraments, relics, holy images, and the like.