ship

The early age of steamships

The steamboat

This cumbersome quality of early 19th-century steam engines led to their being used first on ships. In the beginning the discordant relationship of machine weight to power production was a problem, but the ability to enlarge ships to a much greater size meant that the engines did not have to suffer severe diminution. A real constraint was the pattern of natural waterways; early steamboats for the most part depended on paddles to move the vessel, and it was found that those paddles tended to cause surface turbulence that eroded the banks of a narrow waterway, as most of the inland navigation canals were. Thus, the best locale for the operation of steamboats was found to be on fairly broad rivers free of excessively shallow stretches or rapids. A further consideration was speed. Most of the early experimental steamboats were very slow, commonly in the range of three or four miles per hour. At such speeds there was a considerable advantage redounding to coaches operating on well-constructed roads, which were quite common in France and regionally available in England.

The ideal venue for steamboats seemed to be the rivers of the eastern United States. Colonial transportation had mainly taken place by water, either on the surfaces of coastal bays and sounds or on fairly broad rivers as far upstream as the lowest falls or rapids. Up to the beginning of the 19th century a system of coastal and inland navigation could care for most of the United States’ transportation needs. If a successful steamboat could be developed, the market for its use was to be found in the young, rapidly industrializing country.

Early examples

The question of the invention of the steamboat raises fierce chauvinistic claims, particularly among the British, French, and Americans, but there seems to be broad agreement that the first serious effort was carried out by a French nobleman, Claude-François-Dorothée, marquis de Jouffroy d’Abbans, on the Doubs River at Baum-des-Dames in the Franche-Comté in 1776. This trial was not a success, but in 1783 Jouffroy carried out a second trial with a much larger engine built three years earlier at Lyon. This larger boat, the Pyroscaphe, was propelled by two paddle wheels, substituted for the two “duck’s feet” used in the previous trial. The trial took place on the gentle river Saône at Lyon, where the overburdened boat of 327,000 pounds moved against the current for some 15 minutes before it disintegrated from the pounding of the engines. This was unquestionably the first steam-powered boat to operate. There were subsequent French experiments, but further development of the steamboat was impeded by the French Revolution.

In the eastern United States James Rumsey, the operator of an inn at the Bath Springs spa in Virginia (later West Virginia), sought to interest George Washington in a model steamboat he had designed. On the basis of Washington’s support, Virginia and Maryland awarded Rumsey a monopoly of steam navigation in their territories.

At the same time, another American, John Fitch, a former clockmaker from Connecticut, began experimenting with his vision of a steamboat. After much difficulty in securing financial backers and in finding a steam engine in America, Fitch built a boat that was given a successful trial in 1787. By the summer of 1788 Fitch and his partner, Henry Voight, had made repeated trips on the Delaware River as far as Burlington, 20 miles above Philadelphia, the longest passage then accomplished by a steamboat.

British inventors were active in this same period. Both Rumsey and Fitch ultimately sought to advance their steamboats by going to England, and Robert Fulton spent more than a decade in France and Britain promoting first his submarine and later his steamboat. In 1788 William Symington, son of a millwright in the north of England, began experimenting with a steamboat that was operated at five miles per hour, faster than any previous trials had accomplished. He later claimed speeds of six and a half and seven miles per hour, but his steam engine was thought too weak to serve, and for the time his efforts were not rewarded. In 1801 Symington was hired by Lord Dundas, a governor of the Forth and Clyde Canal, to build a steam tug; the Charlotte Dundas was tried out on that canal in 1802. It proved successful in pulling two 70-ton barges the 19 ¹/₂ miles to the head of the canal in six hours. The governors, however, fearing bank erosion, forbade its use on that route, and British experiments failed to lead further for some years.

Fulton’s steamboat

Instead, Robert Fulton, an American already well known in Europe, began to gain headway in developing a steamboat. British historians have tended to deny his contributions and assign them to his supposed piracy of British inventions. It has been shown that he could not have pirated the plans of the Charlotte Dundas, but the record remains largely uncorrected. Fulton’s “invention” of the steamboat depended fundamentally on his ability to make use of Watt’s patents for the steam engine, as Fitch could not. Having experimented on steamboats for many years, by the first decade of the 19th century Fulton had determined that paddle wheels were the most efficient means of propelling a boat, a decision appropriate to the broad estuarine rivers of the Middle Atlantic states. Fulton had built and tested on August 9, 1803, a steamboat that ran four times to the Quai de Chaillot on the Seine River in Paris. As it operated at no more than 2.9 miles per hour—slower than a brisk walk—he considered these results at best marginal.

Fulton returned to the United States in December 1806 to develop a successful steamboat with his partner Robert Livingston. A monopoly on steamboating in New York state had been previously granted to Livingston, a wealthy Hudson Valley landowner and American minister to France. On August 17, 1807, what was then called simply the “North River Steamboat” steamed northward on the Hudson from the state prison. After spending the night at Livingston’s estate of Clermont (whose name has ever since erroneously been applied to the boat itself) the “North River Steamboat” reached Albany eight hours later after a run at an average speed of five miles per hour (against the flow of the Hudson River). This was a journey of such length and relative mechanical success that there can be no reasonable question it was the first unqualifiedly successful steamboat trial. Commercial service began immediately, and the boat made one and a half round-trips between New York City and Albany each week. Many improvements were required in order to establish scheduled service, but from the time of this trial forward Fulton and Livingston provided uninterrupted service, added steamboats, spread routes to other rivers and sounds, and finally, in 1811, attempted to establish steamboat service on the Mississippi River.

The trial on the Mississippi was far from a success but not because of the steamboat itself. Fulton, Livingston, and their associate Nicholas Roosevelt had a copy of their Hudson River boats built in Pittsburgh as the New Orleans. In September 1811 it set sail down the Ohio River, making an easy voyage as far as Louisville, but, as a deep-draft estuarine boat, it had to wait there for the flow of water to rise somewhat. Finally, drawing no more than five inches less than the depth of the channel, the New Orleans headed downriver. In an improbable coincidence, the steamboat came to rest in a pool below the Falls of the Ohio just before the first shock was felt of the New Madrid earthquake, the most severe temblor ever recorded in the United States. The earthquake threw water out of the Ohio and then the Mississippi, filling the floodplain of those rivers, changing their channels significantly, and choking those channels with uprooted trees and debris. When the New Orleans finally reached its destination, it was not sent northward again on the service for which it had been built. Steamboats used on the deeper and wider sounds and estuaries of the northeastern United States were found to be unsuited to inland streams, however wide. Eventually boats drawing no more than 9–12 inches of water proved to be successful in navigating the Missouri River westward into Montana and the Red River into the South; this pattern of steamboating spread throughout much of interior America, as well as the interior of Australia, Africa, and Asia.

Commercial steam navigation

From the onset of successful inland steam navigation in 1807, progress was quite rapid. Fulton’s steamboats firmly established Livingston’s monopoly on the Hudson and adjacent rivers and sounds. Another experimenter, John Stevens, decided to move his steamboat Phoenix from the Hudson to the Delaware River. In June 1809 a 150-mile run in the ocean between Perth Amboy, New Jersey, and Delaware Bay was the first ocean voyage carried out by a steamboat. Subsequently other coasting voyages were used to reach by sea the south Atlantic coast of the United States to Charleston, South Carolina, and Savannah, Georgia. Slowly and tentatively voyages along narrow seas were undertaken, and more countries became involved with steam navigation.

The first commercial steam navigation outside the United States began in 1812 when Henry Bell, the proprietor of the Helensburg Baths located on the Clyde below Glasgow, added a steamboat, the Comet, to carry his customers from the city. It was followed soon after by others steaming to the western Highlands and to other sea lochs. One of these, the Margery, though built on the Clyde in 1814, was sent to operate on the Thames the next year, but so much difficulty was encountered from established watermen’s rights on that stream that the boat was transferred in 1816 to French ownership and renamed the Elise. It competed with Jouffroy’s Charles-Philippe in service on the Seine. Because of the generally stormier nature of Europe’s narrow seas, these steaming packets were generally small and cramped but capable of crossing waters difficult for the American river steamboats to navigate.

The early 19th-century steamboat experiments were aimed primarily at building and operating passenger ships. Endowed with the Mississippi-Ohio-Missouri river system, the St. Lawrence–Great Lakes system, the Columbia and its tributaries, and the Colorado system, North America had virtually ideal conditions for the creation of an extensive, integrated network of inland navigation by shallow-draft steamboats. There was a strong geographic expansion under way in Canada and the United States that would be more quickly advanced by steamboats than by land transportation. North American transportation before the late 1850s was by river in most regions. This was not a unique situation: most areas subject to 19th-century colonization by Europeans—such as Siberia, South America, Africa, India, and Australia—had a heavy dependence on river transport.

There were some mechanical improvements that encouraged this use of steamboats. Higher-pressure steam made craft more efficient, as did double- and triple-expansion engines. Improved hulls were designed. It was, however, the general level of settlement and economic productivity that tended to bring steamboat use to an end in inland transport. A demand for shipments of coal finally made the railroad the most economical form of transport and removed steamboats from many streams.