dualism

Good and evil

More pertinent (even if not always dualistic) is the opposition between good and evil, in the various meanings of these words. Whenever the problem of the origin of evil is solved by conceiving the real existence of another principle separate from the prime principle of the world, or by affirming an inner ambivalence, limited sovereignty, or inadequacy of the prime principle or of divine beings, a dualism then emerges. Through this good-evil opposition, the problems of theodicy (i.e., of the doctrine of the justification of divine action in a world in which evil is present) are posed. If evil either is, or comes from, a self-existent principle antithetical to the principle of good, then this provides the divinity with a “justification.” Such views are completely different from the justification of God in nondualistic religions, especially the monotheistic ones. In monotheistic religions evil does not originate within the divinity or in general within a divine world (plērōma) as it does in gnosticism; it arises instead from the improper use of freedom by created beings. In monistic religions—all of which are based on the opposition between the One and the many, seen either as an illusion or as the decay or fragmentation of the One—there is, along with a strong ascetic emphasis, a notion of evil as being for humanity a painful and fatal essence that issues from a metaphysical cause or an ontologically negative principle. For the same reason, it is necessary to distinguish between the nondualistic concept of “original sin” in Christian theology and the concept of “previous sin” in monistic religions with a dualist aspect: whereas original sin arises and spreads within the human sphere, previous sin is consummated in some sort of a “prologue in heaven” and generates the very existence of the world and of humanity itself.

Creation and destruction: life and death

Another important dualistic theme is that which opposes life to death on the basis of two opposing metaphysical principles. A typical example of this dualistic opposition is found in Zoroastrianism. Zoroastrian doctrine is strongly vitalistic: Ahriman’s chief acolytes are Aēshma (the fury), Druj Nasu (the deadly agent of putrefaction), Jēh (the infertile whore), and Apaoša (the demon of sterility)—death-bearing forces. There is also a strong vitalistic formulation of these principles in gnostic doctrines, especially in the Ophite and Barbelo-gnostic (worshipping Barbelo as the Great Mother of life) varieties, which identify the pneuma and the light with the vital substance. At other times the opposition of life and death is formulated in a dialectical manner as a recurring alternation of the two principles. The complex Egyptian opposition between Osiris, the “dead god,” who is nonetheless the principle of fecundity and life, and his counterpart Seth has already been mentioned (see above Egypt and Mesopotamia).

The same dialectic is typical of the “fecundity cults,” in which a god-genius of vegetation, a “dying god,” who undergoes a seasonal disappearance and return (not to be interpreted as a “resurrection”) is featured. To such vegetation gods, death- or decay-producing figures are sometimes opposed—as Mot (the Death) is opposed to Baal in Canaanite religion, an infernal and lethal wild boar is opposed to Adonis in Greek mythology, and the trickster Loki is opposed to Baldr in Germanic religion and mythology. These figures, the agents for disastrous occurrences, were already implicit in the figure of the dying god himself and in his relation to the seasonal cycle of vegetation. To be sure, the growing season is limited, and the new arrival of vegetation each spring (and the wedding of the fertility god) is terminated in the fall by the god’s departure to the netherworld (with appropriate lamentation). But the rise of vegetation, though ephemeral, is nonetheless basically benevolent. This complexity is also manifest in those agricultural religions that present themselves as mystery cults (e.g., the Eleusinian Mysteries), bestowing upon the initiate a hope for life after death.

But the dualistic theme is far more evident in “mysteriosophy”—i.e., in the “sophic,” or “wise,” reinterpretation of mysteries (e.g., Orphism). In this context the divine soul replaces the dying god in the soul’s descent from a superior world into the corporeal world—a concept that was later bequeathed to gnosticism and is especially apparent in its transposed basic vitalism.

A dialectical formulation of the opposition of life and death is also found in the basic theology of Hinduism, with Vishnu cast as the principle of creation (called Narayana) and the sustenance of life and Shiva as the principle of destruction and death. The ambivalence of life-death is also found in a series of Hindu divinities (e.g., Shiva and Kali) and cults whose death-inflicting characteristics are justified in a paradoxical celebration of the recurring triumph of life.

Polytheistic themes

Among the instances of dualistic structure in polytheistic religions are those that oppose celestial and terrestrial, male and female, actual and mythical primordial-chaotic, and diurnal and nocturnal, especially when they do so within the context of mythologies and cosmogonies belonging to the ancient world’s polytheistic “high cultures.” (See above Egypt and Mesopotamia; Greece and the Hellenistic world.) Such pairs of opposites often provide a framework for polytheistic pantheons that would otherwise appear anarchic or less than comprehensive.

Functions of religious dualism