diplomatics, the study of documents. The term is derived from the Greek word diploma, meaning “doubled” or “folded.” Besides the documents of legal and administrative import withwhich it is properly concerned, diplomatics also includes the study of other records such as bills, reports, cartularies, registers, and rolls. Diplomatics is therefore a basic and not simply an auxiliary historical science.
This article deals with the development and practice of diplomatics in the Roman Empire and in Europe. During Roman antiquity certain documents containing different sorts of authorizations were engraved on a bronze diptych and then folded and sealed, in order to keep the contents secret—hence the term diploma. Rarely found during the Middle Ages, the word was used by the Renaissance Humanists to denote formal documents of ancient rulers. The interest in and description of such documents came to be called res diplomatica after the famous 17th-century work De Re Diplomatica Libri VI, by Jean Mabillon, a member of the scholarly Benedictine congregation of Saint-Maur. Mabillon’s work first made the study of old documents a reputable science.
The major task of diplomatics is to distinguish between genuine and false documents, and this involves detailed examination of their external and internal features. Diplomatic studies have been applied mainly to Western documents, usually medieval ones, because it requires less specialist training to analyze more recent documents.
History of the study of documents
Medieval and Renaissance work
The forging of documents took place on a vast scale during the earlier Middle Ages, partly because wars and disturbances so frequently upset possession and also because the increasing use of written records made it necessary for those whose title was, in fact, perfectly good in old unwritten “customary” law to give it written substantiation. Thus forgeries, partly intentionally honest, partly dishonest, occurred frequently, despite the fact that the Germanic tribes that settled in western Europe inherited, with other aspects of Roman law, the concept of forgery as a felony, which was soon also reinforced by the church’s canon law. This legal concept of forgery was, however, mainly applied to cases concerning property or inheritance; and literary forgeries, such as the famous Donation of Constantine, which purported to be the gift by the Roman emperor Constantine I the Great (died 337) to Pope Sylvester I of spiritual primacy throughout the church and of temporal power in Italy, were not concerned. Serious critical efforts to detect forgery did not begin in the Middle Ages, although obvious forgeries might be challenged in the course of a dispute. As early as the 6th century, the Merovingian king Childebert II declared a charter recording the gift of land from himself to the Bishop of Reims a forgery on the simple ground that the royal official denied the signature on it to be his. Pope Innocent III (1198–1216) tried to establish infallible criteria for the detection of fraudulent papal documents, but knowledge of earlier documentary forms was totally inadequate. In the Renaissance the Humanists began to use philological and technical criteria; on these grounds Lorenzo Valla authoritatively pronounced the Donation of Constantine to be a forgery, though authenticity had already been questioned.
Post-Renaissance scholarship
Three events in the 17th century forced the development of more sophisticated standards of evaluation. The Thirty Years’ War in Germany led to endless legal conflicts, and in France the nobility engaged in a concerted action known as the bella diplomatica (“diplomatic wars”) to assert their ancient privileges against royal absolutism. The decisive impetus, however, came from a much more particularist dispute. Daniel van Papenbroeck, a member of the Jesuit commission known as the Bollandists (from another member, Jean Bolland), which was charged with the publication of the Acta Sanctorum (“Acts of the Saints,”), finding that some monastic documents he inspected were forgeries, assumed (1675) that this was true of almost all early-medieval documents. Since most of the monasteries with which the documents had been concerned were of the Benedictine Order, the Benedictines resented the suggestion, and Mabillon undertook to refute it. In his De Re Diplomatica (1681), Mabillon set out the fundamental principles of the science of verifying documents; Papenbroeck soon afterward acknowledged the correctness of his tenets. Nearly a century later, René-Prosper Tassin and Charles-François Toustain published their six-volume Nouveau traité de diplomatique (1750–65; “New Treatise on Diplomatic”), a work that surpassed Mabillon’s only in its greater wealth of material. Another important event in the history of the science of diplomatics was the founding of the École des Chartes (an institute for the training of French archivists) in Paris in 1821. During the next decades important collections of early-medieval French documents were printed in the Recueil des actes by a variety of eminent editors. But the greatest advances were made by German and Austrian scholars, among whom Julius von Ficker investigated the differentiation between actum and datum (that is, between verbal legal procedure and its formal documentation), and Theodor von Sickel defined a basic technique of studying and comparing the script of charters and thus of identifying the individual notaries or scribes. The diplomas of the Carolingian and the German kings and emperors were edited in the series of the Monumenta Germaniae Historica, by members of the Institut für österreichische Geschichtsforschung (Institute of Austrian History Research), established by Sickel in 1854. Meanwhile, the Regesta, comprising short, synoptical condensations of the contents of papal documents down to 1198, published by Philipp Jaffé in 1851, gave a decisive momentum to the study of the papal chancery, while August Potthast covered the period from 1198 to 1304. Prominent scholars in the research of papal records in Germany at the beginning of the 20th century were Michael Tangl, Rudolf von Heckel, and, particularly, Paul Fridolin Kehr. In comparison with the amount of work done in France and Germany, historical scholarship in England long paid relatively little attention to legal, as opposed to literary, records. Although John Mitchell Kemble published his collection of Anglo-Saxon documents, the Codex Diplomaticus Aevi Saxonici (1839–48), an extensive study of Anglo-Saxon and Norman legal and administrative documents was delayed until the 20th century. Since then notable contributions have been made by scholars such as Helen Cam, H.W.C. Davis, Vivian Hunter Galbraith, Frank M. Stenton, Dorothy Whitelock, David Charles Douglas, and many others. Christopher Robert Cheney has made important contributions to the research of papal documents. In Italy Luigi Schiaparelli made vital contributions to the study of Lombard documents. From the 19th century, some study of documents has formed part of the medieval-history curriculum in most European universities.
Diplomatic method
Types of documents
Documents that have been preserved are either originals, drafts, or copies. Originals, of which many survive, are formal documents drawn up on the order of the sender or donor, and they were designated to serve the recipient or beneficiary as evidence of the transaction recorded. Handwritten copies of documents, made either before or after the deed was actually executed (sealed), are not classified as originals. If made before an “original,” they were in fact rough drafts of it; if made afterward, they were copies. The particularly Anglo-Saxon method of chirography, however, gave the possibility of producing several “originals.” By this process two or more specimens of a document were written on the same page of the vellum sheet, and the free space between the texts was filled in with the word chyrographum (“handwriting”) or other words and symbols. Then the sheet was cut irregularly right through these words or symbols; the originals thus separated could later be reassembled, an exact fit being complete proof of authenticity. But to provide documents having the force of “originals,” copies of the original were usually made and formally certified as such, by public notaries, or by high ecclesiastical or secular dignitaries. Copies certified in this way were accorded the same legal value as the originals. In practice, lack of critical judgment on the part of the certifiers often led to the certification of forged records. In documents known as transumpts, which recited earlier documents or charters as part of their text, it often happened that the earlier document was forged, but, being included in the new, it received validation. The original documents and copies considered above were issued at the request of the recipient or beneficiary or of his legal heir. It also happened quite often that the sender or donor wished for various reasons to retain a record of the documents issued by him. The chanceries (record offices) of secular rulers or great ecclesiastics therefore kept copies of outgoing documents in registers, and often of incoming documents, too. The popes were among the first to adopt the old Roman practice of keeping registers; although nearly all the earlier ones have been lost, an almost uninterrupted series of papal registers is extant from the pontificate of Innocent III onward. An important group of registers are the rolls kept by the medieval kings of England; the earliest extant rolls date from the 12th century. The keeping of registers in the chanceries of the French kings began about the year 1200, in Aragon about 1215, in Sicily under the Hohenstaufen emperor Frederick II (died 1250), and in the German imperial chancery from the early 14th century. Another manner of studying documents is in the formula books of the various chanceries. Notaries drawing up the various forms of medieval documents did not usually compose each new text afresh but, rather, copied from books in which such text formulas had been collected, a practice that can be traced back to Roman procedure. These model texts frequently contained only the legally relevant passages, while the individually applicable parts, such as names, figures, and dates, were either abridged or totally omitted. During the time of the Frankish kings, important collections were made, such as the Formulae Marculfi (early 8th century) and the Formulae imperiales (828–832). Significant collections of formulas serving as models for papal documents have been preserved from the 13th century.
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