Old Testament literature
The Torah (Law, Pentateuch, or Five Books of Moses)
Composition and authorship
The Torah, or Pentateuch (Five Scrolls), traditionally the most revered portion of the Hebrew canon, comprises a series of narratives, interspersed with law codes, providing an account of events from the beginning of the world to the death of Moses. Modern critical scholarship tends to hold that there were originally four books (Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, and Numbers) resulting from the division into manageable scrolls—a so-called Tetrateuch—to which later was added a fifth scroll, or book, Deuteronomy. A theory, once widely held, that the Book of Joshua was originally integral with the first five books to form a Hexateuch (Six Scrolls) is now generally regarded as dubious.
The traditional Jewish and Christian view has been that Moses was the author of the five books, that “of Moses” means “by Moses,” citing in support passages in the Pentateuch itself that claim Mosaic authorship. Since these claims, however, are written in the third person, the question still arises as to the authorship of the passages; e.g., in Deuteronomy, chapter 31, verse 9: “And Moses wrote this law, and gave it to the priests . . . and to all the elders of Israel.” The last eight verses of Deuteronomy (and of the Pentateuch), describing Moses’ death, were a problem even to the rabbis of the 2nd century ce, who held that “this law” in the verse quoted refers to the whole Torah preceding it. There are also other passages that seem to be written from the viewpoint of a much later period than the events they narrate.
The documentary hypothesis
Beyond these obvious discrepancies, modern literary analysis and criticism of the texts has pointed up significant differences in style, vocabulary, and content, apparently indicating a variety of original sources for the first four books, as well as an independent origin for Deuteronomy. According to this view, the Tetrateuch is a redaction primarily of three documents: the Yahwist, or J (after the German spelling of Yahweh); the Elohist, or E; and the Priestly code, or P. They refer, respectively, to passages in which the Hebrew personal name for God, YHWH (commonly transcribed “Yahweh”), is predominantly used, those in which the Hebrew generic term for God, Elohim, is predominantly used, and those (also Elohist) in which the priestly style or interest is predominant. According to this hypothesis, these documents—along with Deuteronomy (labelled D)—constituted the original sources of the Pentateuch. On the basis of internal evidence, it has been inferred that J and E are the oldest sources (perhaps going as far back as the 10th century bce), probably in that order, and D and P the more recent ones (to about the 5th century bce). Genesis, Exodus, and Numbers are considered compilations of J, E, and P, with Leviticus assigned to P and Deuteronomy to D.
The Yahwist, or J, is the master of narrative in biblical literature, who sketches people by means of stories. He takes his materials wherever he finds them, and if some are crude he does not care, as long as they make a good story. The book of Genesis, for example, contains the story of Abraham’s passing off his wife as his sister, so if the king took her as a concubine he would honour her supposed brother instead of having her husband killed, a story told by J without any moralistic homily. Not given to subtle theological speculations, J nearly always refers to the Deity as YHWH, by his specifically Israelite personal name (usually rendered “the Lord” in English translations), though he is not hidebound and also employs the term Elohim (“God”), especially when non-Hebrews are speaking or being addressed. He presents God as one who acts and speaks like human persons, a being with whom they have direct intercourse. The Yahwist, however, has one very definite theological (or theo-political) preoccupation: to establish Israel’s divinely bestowed right to the land of Canaan.
More reflective and theological in the apologetic sense is the Elohist, or E. No fragment of E on the primeval history (presented in the first 11 chapters of Genesis) has been preserved, and it is probable that none ever existed but that the Elohist began his account with the patriarchs (presented in the remainder of Genesis, in which the J and E strands are combined). The first passage that can be assigned to E with reasonable certainty is chapter 20 of Genesis, which parallels the two J variants of the “She is my sister” story noted above. Unlike these, it tries to mitigate the offensiveness of the subterfuge: though the patriarch did endanger the honour of his wife to save his life, his statement was not untrue but merely (deliberately) misleading. The Elohist is also distinct from the Yahwist in generally avoiding the presentation of God as being like a human person and treating him instead as a more remote, less directly accessible being. Significantly, E avoids using the term YHWH throughout Genesis (with one apparent exception), and it is only after telling how God revealed his proper name to Moses, in chapter 3 of Exodus, that he refers to God as YHWH regularly, though not exclusively. This account (paralleled in the P strand in chapter 6 of Exodus) is apparently based on a historical recollection of Moses’ paramount role in establishing the religion of YHWH among the Israelites (the former Hebrew slaves). Also noteworthy is E’s choice of the term prophet for Abraham and his characterization of a prophet as one who is an effective intercessor with God on behalf of others. This is in line with his speculations on the unique character of Moses as the great intercessor as compared with other prophets (and also with Joshua as Moses’ attendant).
It is inferred from certain internal evidence that E was produced in the northern kingdom (Israel) in the 8th century bce and was later combined with J. Because it is not always possible or important to separate J from E, the two together are commonly referred to as JE.
The third major document of the Tetrateuch, the Priestly code, or P, is very different from the other two. Its narrative is frequently interrupted by detailed ritual instructions, by bodies of standing laws of a ritual character, and by dry and exhaustive genealogical lists of the generations. According to one theory, the main author of P seems to have worked in the 7th century and to have been the editor who combined the J and E narratives; for his own part, he is content to add some brief, drab records—with frequent dates—of births, marriages, and migrations. The P material is to be found not merely in Leviticus but throughout the Tetrateuch, including the early chapters of Genesis and one of the creation accounts and ranging from the primeval history (Adam to Noah) to the Mosaic era. Like the Elohist, P uses the term Elohim for God until the self-naming of God to Moses (Exodus, chapter 3, in the P strand) and shows a non-anthropomorphic transcendent stress.
The Deuteronomist, or D, has a distinctive hortatory style and vocabulary, calling for Israel’s conformity with YHWH’s covenant laws and stressing his election of Israel as his special people (for a detailed consideration of D, see below Deuteronomy: Introductory discourse). To the Deuteronomist or the Deuteronomic school is also attributed the authorship of the Former Prophets (Joshua, Judges, Samuel, and Kings), which scholars call the “Deuteronomic history.”
Other Pentateuchal theories
This documentary theory of the composition of the Pentateuch has been challenged by eminent 20th-century scholars who have offered alternative or additional methods of analysis and interpretation. Form criticism, for example, has stressed particular literary forms and the historical setting out of which they arose: the sagas, laws, legends, and other forms and the particular tribal or cultic context that gives them meaning. Tradition criticism centres on the pre-literary sources; i.e., on the oral traditions and the circles out of which they originated as accounting for the variety of the materials in the Pentateuch. Archaeological criticism has tended to substantiate the reliability of the typical historical details of even the oldest periods and to discount the theory that the Pentateuchal accounts are merely the reflection of a much later period. The new methods of criticism have served to direct attention to the life, experience, and religion out of which the Pentateuchal writings arose and to take a less static and literal view of the constituent documentary sources; yet most scholars still accept the documentary theory, in its basic lines, as the most adequate and comprehensive ordering of the variegated Pentateuchal materials. The following presentation rests mainly on an analysis and interpretation of the literary sources. (See below The critical study of biblical literature: exegesis and hermeneutics.)
In any case, the five books that have come down in various texts and versions have been seen as a unit in the religious communities that preserved them. Their basic content may be divided thus: (1) beginnings of the world and man—the primeval history; (2) patriarchal narratives—from Abraham to Joseph; (3) Egyptian slavery and the Exodus; (4) the revelation and Covenant at Sinai; (5) wanderings and guidance in the wilderness (divisible into two separate sub-blocks, before and after Sinai); (6) various legal materials—the Decalogue, Covenant Code, and passages of cultic and Deuteronomic laws—interspersed in the narrative, which take up the greater portion of the Pentateuch.