biblical literature

The Pharisees

The Pharisees (possibly spiritual descendants of the Ḥasidim [Pious Ones], who were the exponents of Maccabean revolt) were strict adherents to the Law. Their name may come from parush—i.e., “separated” from what is unclean, or what is unholy. They were deeply concerned with the Mosaic Law and how to keep it, and they were innovators in adapting the Law to new situations. They believed that the Law was for all the people and democratized it—even the priestly laws were to be observed by all, not only by the priestly class—so that they actually had a belief in a priesthood of all believers. They included Oral as well as Written Law in their interpretations. Though they did not accept the Roman occupation, they kept to themselves, and by pious acts, such as giving alms and burying the dead, they upheld the Law. Their interpretations of Law were sometimes considered casuistic because they believed they must find interpretations that would help all people to keep the Law. Their underlying hope was eschatological: in the day when Israel obeyed the Torah, the Kingdom would come. The Pharisees were called “smooth interpreters” by their opponents, but their hope was to find a way to make the living of the Law possible for all people. In their meal fellowship (ḥavura) they observed the laws strictly and formed a nucleus of obedient Israel. The Pharisees believed in the resurrection of the dead and had a developed angelology.

The Sadducees

The Sadducees, more conservative and static, consisted mainly of the old priesthood and landed aristocracy and, perhaps, some Herodians. They were collaborators with Rome. They did not believe in resurrection because they found no Old Testament enunciation of such a doctrine. In a way, they seemed to respect the Pharisees in legal matters; but both the Pharisees—because they were a bourgeois rather than a popular movement—and the Sadducees—because they were aristocrats—rejected the ʿam ha-aretz (People of the Land), who were no party but simply the poor, common people whom they considered ignorant of the Law.

The Zealots

The Zealots were revolutionaries who plotted actively against the Roman oppression. That the Pharisees did not react in this way was perhaps because of their belief in Providence: what happens is the will of God, and their free will is expressed in the context of trust and piety in conjunction with an eschatological hope of winning God’s Kingdom through obedience to Law.

The Essenes

Though the Essenes of the Dead Sea Scrolls are not mentioned in the New Testament, they are described by Philo, Josephus, and Eusebius, a 4th-century Christian historian. With publication of the Essenes’ own sectarian writings since the 1950s, however, they have become well known. They did not have any really new ideas, but their founder, the Teacher of Righteousness, believed that he knew the interpretation of the prophets for his time in a way that was not even known to the prophets of their own day. Their withdrawal into desert seclusion was in opposition to the ruling powers in the city and the Temple of Jerusalem. They lived apart from society in constant study of the Scriptures and with a firm belief that they were the elect of Israel living in the end of days and to whom would come messianic figures—a messiah of David (royal) and a messiah of Aaron (priestly). Membership in their group and acceptance or rejection of its founder determined their place in the age to come. After a long period of probation and initiation, a man became a member of this elect community that had strict rules of community discipline that would seal or destroy his membership in their New Covenant. Ritual lustrations preceded most liturgical rites, the most important one of which was participation in a sacred meal—an anticipation of the messianic banquet, to which only the fully initiated members in good standing were admitted and which was presided over by representatives of the Davidic and Aaronic messiahs. From what is known of them, their communities were celibate, living “in the presence of the angels” and thus required to be in a state of ritual purity. Their laws were strict, their discipline severe, and—unlike Pharisees, Sadducees, and Zealots—they were not simply different parties within Judaism but a separate eschatological sect. The Pharisees did have lodges and a common meal, but membership in the Pharisaic party did not, as it did with the Essenes, guarantee a place in the age to come; and the attitude of the Pharisees to a leader or founder was not, as it was to the Essenes, one of the bases on which such place could be attained. Thus, the Essenes—as the early Jewish Christians—were an eschatological Jewish sect. They believed that they alone, among those living in the end time, would be saved. The apocalypticism of the Essenes and the early Christians had many similarities, but the Christians had a higher eschatological intensity because they already knew who the Messiah would be when he came in the future at the Parousia (the “Second” Advent), and they also had a recollection of the earthly Jesus, knowledge of the risen Lord, and the gift of the Spirit upon the church. Both communities lived in an era wherein the cosmic battle of God versus Satan-Belial was taking place, but the Christian community already had the traditions of Jesus’ victory over Satan and the experience of his Resurrection. Both Essenes and Christians were sects with tightly knit organizations, but the church had a historically based messiah. The Essenes probably were killed or forced to flee from their wilderness community c. ad 68, yet some of their ideas can still be traced in the ministry of John the Baptist (who might have been an Essene) and in the thought world of the New Testament (see also Judaism).

The religious situation in the Greco-Roman world of the 1st century ad