Carolingian and post-Carolingian Italy, 774–962
The kingdom of Italy
The Carolingian kingdom of Italy occupied the northern and central peninsula down to Rome, with the sole exception of the nominally Byzantine duchy of Venice; the former exarchate and all the Lombard lands except Benevento (to be dealt with separately) were part of it. Charlemagne called himself “king of the Franks and the Lombards,” thus recognizing the separate identity of Italy inside the Carolingian empire. He left the Lombard dukes and gastalds in place unless they openly rebelled against him. Indeed, Italy was so much more tightly governed than Francia that to some extent it served as a model for Charlemagne’s governmental reforms. However, these reforms were intended for the entire empire, and, in general, the reign of Charlemagne in Italy (774–814) effected the slow integration of the latter into the political world of the Franks. Frankish names for institutions and offices replaced Italian ones; for example, dukes and gastalds became counts, gasindi (private military dependents) became vassi (“vassals”), and minor judicial officials were henceforth called scabini, as their counterparts were called north of the Alps. As in Francia, the church acquired greater political importance, for the Carolingians in Italy used bishops in their central and local administrations almost as much as they used counts. And, as long as the Carolingian empire remained united, its legislation, with some modifications, was as valid south of the Alps as it was to the north. The Frankish conquest began, then, a period of slow change rather than rupture; certainly, there was less rupture than with the Lombard conquest in 568. Few Franks, in fact, settled in Italy. These were mostly aristocrats, and indeed they made up almost the entire body of Italian counts appointed after about 800. The Lombard aristocracy, however, remained in the cities and supplied most of the bishops, and bishops were steadily gaining in political importance.
Carolingian government, which is better-documented than that of the Lombards, seems to have slowly increased in sophistication. Carolingian rule in northern and central Italy (774–887) brought a century of uninterrupted peace, and kings had time to perfect the already systematic ties between Pavia and the increasingly literate city-based administrations. The king’s messengers regularly brought royal commands to the cities, and appeals came back to a complex judicial network in Pavia. Locally, legal procedures became standardized and reliable, as surviving documents of court cases show. This does not mean that government or laws were equitable or just, and there is plenty of evidence to indicate they were not, but they were at least systematic. This administrative network remained, even after the crisis of royal power in the early 10th century.
For most of the 70 years after 774, the kings of Italy were either children or living in the north of Europe. Charlemagne rarely came to Italy; his son Louis the Pious (814–840) never did. Charlemagne was at least involved with Roman politics, and Pope Leo III crowned him emperor in 800; but this title held little practical significance until the German emperors reestablished it in 962, and Louis was anyway crowned emperor in Aachen (now in Germany), not in Rome, in 813. Louis’s brother Pippin was subking of Italy until his death in 810, and he was succeeded by his son Bernard (812–817). Louis, however, replaced Bernard with his own son Lothar I (817–855); Bernard revolted, but he was captured and blinded, and he died in 818. Lothar, like his father and grandfather, was more interested in Frankish politics, particularly during the Frankish civil wars of the 830s.
After the Treaty of Verdun in 843, the Carolingian empire began to be divided between the male heirs of the dynasty; West Francia (roughly, modern France), East Francia (roughly, modern Germany), and Italy were the major new kingdoms that emerged. Lothar’s son Louis II (844–875) was king-emperor only in Italy. Louis II, whose reign was in many ways the high point of the Carolingian kingdom in the peninsula, was an active interventionist king. He used both the Pavia administration and new legislation to restore royal authority, which had slipped a little during the civil wars in Francia. His laws of 850, in particular, directed against robbery and the abuse of power by the rich, attest to the seriousness of his intent. Louis, and an entourage of powerful bishops and lay aristocrats (notably the Supponids, relatives of his wife Engelberga), reestablished firm royal hegemony in northern Italy in the 850s.
The role of Rome
Rome was in practice part of Carolingian Italy, but the popes had a great deal of autonomy and also religious status. Nicholas I (858–867), for example, was particularly influential in Francia. The 9th-century popes controlled a complex local administrative apparatus and, like their predecessors, played an important role in military defense, particularly against Arab sea raids from North Africa and Sicily (which was conquered by the Arabs in the years 827–902). Leo IV (847–855) in particular refortified Rome; John VIII (872–882) tried hard to develop military alliances against the Arabs; John X (914–928) eventually succeeded in this, and a coalition of cities uprooted the Arabs from their stronghold on the sea near Gaeta in 915.
The Arabs were a threat to southern Italy too, particularly after they occupied Bari in 847 during the Beneventan civil war (839–849). Louis II helped to negotiate an end to that war and was interested in rebuilding Liutprand’s southern hegemony. In 866–867 he called up a large army, probably the largest seen in Italy in the entire century, and marched on Bari, which fell to a Frankish, Beneventan, and Byzantine coalition (largely owing to a Byzantine-Slavic naval blockade) in 871. Louis, however, did not leave the south; the Beneventans had to capture him and hold him prisoner for a few days to induce him to return home. This debacle ended Carolingian attempts at hegemony over the entire peninsula; their Ottonian successors were to have no better luck.
The reign of Berengar I
Louis II died in 875 without male heirs. He was succeeded by a series of short-lived uncles and cousins, who came from either France or Germany and stayed in Italy as short a time as possible. But after the fall of the last of these, Charles the Fat (king in Italy 879–887), most of the Carolingian kingdoms turned to non-Carolingian aristocratic families to rule them. In Italy, Berengar I, a female-line Carolingian and also marquess of the still-important border area of Friuli, was well placed to be elected as a king with genuine Italian commitments in 888. However, since Carolingians did not have a monopoly over the succession, anyone could claim the kingship; indeed, Berengar during his long reign (888–924) faced five such rivals, most of them militarily more successful than he was. Berengar was, in fact, not only long-lived but also unpopular; he spent much of the early part of his reign confined in his power base, Friuli. Even when he did not have internal rivals, as in 898–900, he was unlucky; in 899 the Hungarians invaded Italy, destroying Berengar’s army and initiating a series of raids that were to last, off and on, until the 950s.
Berengar I’s reign was a key period in Italian history. At its beginning the Italian kingdom was still a powerful and coherent institution, worth fighting civil wars to control. By his death the relevance of kingship itself was in doubt. This development resulted partly from Berengar’s personality, which was unadventurous and, militarily, unusually inept—but only partly. As the Carolingian political system had settled in, over four generations, local politics had become more stable and inward-looking. Hereditary families had taken over many counties, particularly the big marches of Friuli, Tuscany, and Spoleto. Sometimes local power was balanced between count and bishop, and the king’s capacity to intervene locally increasingly depended on their ability to maintain this balance of power. They usually accomplished this by supporting bishops, conceding more judicial and administrative power to them, particularly after 888. Sometimes, as at Bergamo or Cremona, counts were excluded from inside the city walls altogether. This was occasionally dangerous, for bishops, however loyal, were not royal officials and were more interested in the politics of the city than in those of the kingdom; it also represented a clear move toward both the institutionalization of local power autonomous from kings and the fragmentation of that power. In the face of the Hungarian danger, Berengar took this development one step further and localized military defense; after 900 he issued large numbers of grants to private persons, lay and ecclesiastical, of rights to build and fortify castles. His intention was carefully strategic, and his defense in depth was quite effective, but these castles in turn slowly became local centres of personalized military power, and they gained rights of private justice by the 11th century as well.
Carolingian government had always worked better when strengthened by private relationships of a political and military nature; for example, counts relied on their vassals more than on other subordinates to do their bidding, for vassals had sworn personal oaths of loyalty to them. In the castles of the 10th century, personal military bonds became the basis for effective local action. The office of count too was to become more and more the basis for private family power, particularly with the appearance in the counties during the early 10th century of newer ruling families with primarily local roots and fewer national pretensions. Cities remained important administrative centres, but they increasingly became points of reference for the family politics of the military aristocracy rather than bases for royal intervention. These processes had begun well before 888 and were not to be complete until the 11th century, but it is arguable that Berengar’s reign marked the turning point. They were crucial for the development of later urban autonomies, culminating in the city communes, but they were disastrous for kings.
Berengar gained 15 years of unopposed rule (905–921) by his cessions of rights and lands after 900. But power was slipping away. Tuscany and Spoleto were semiautonomous under their marquesses; so was the Rome of John X (pope 1914–18) and of the powerful senator Marozia and her son, the princeps (prince) Alberic, who were able and effective rulers between 924 and 954. Hugh of Arles (king 926–947) found the situation irreversible. He could no longer use Carolingian-style procedures, such as new legislation or local administrative intervention, to assert his power. His most typical solution was to overthrow all obvious rivals and replace them with his own relatives, who would in theory be more loyal to him. As a result, he seemed simply violent and high-handed. But the fact is that royal power by now seemed to consist of outside intervention; kings, though still influential and rich, were outsiders to most of Italy. When Hugh faced a coup in 945, his support melted away, and he fell. When Otto I of Germany conquered the Italian kingdom, almost bloodlessly, in 962, his entirely non-Italian power base may simply have seemed to the Italians the logical conclusion of the kingship’s increasing marginality. The Italian kingdom was to survive as a coherent administrative structure at least until the 1080s, and Frederick Barbarossa even in the 1150s could seek to revive it with some success, but it was by now external to the immediate interests of most of its subjects. After Hugh, no king could establish stable power in the peninsula without a foreign power base and a foreign army.
The south, 774–1000
When Charlemagne conquered central and northern Italy, Duke Arichis II of Benevento (758–787) responded by titling himself prince and claiming the legitimist tradition of the Lombards. Lombard princes then ruled in the south for 300 years, until the Norman conquest. Arichis and his son Grimoald III (787–806) were powerful rulers who held off the Franks, even if Grimoald temporarily had to pay tribute to Charlemagne after an invasion in 787. They controlled the entire southern mainland except for the Bay of Naples and the end of the “heel” and “toe” of the peninsula, using a governmental system similar to that in the north. But this area is largely barren mountain land and difficult to rule completely; many of the remoter gastalds were independent-minded and resentful of Beneventan power. Two of the early 9th-century princes were murdered in aristocratic plots—Grimoald IV in 817 and Sicard in 839. The second of these plots sparked a 10-year civil war that resulted, in 849, in the creation of two rival principalities, based at Benevento and Salerno. The gastald of Capua, Landulf I (815–843), also was interested in independence, and by the end of the century Capua was in effect a third state in the old Beneventan principality.
Even Naples, though much smaller, was affected by this move toward local autonomy, for the mid-9th century saw the effective secession of nearby Amalfi from Neapolitan control, and the consuls of Gaeta, on the coast toward Rome, were autonomous from the 860s onward. These three cities, like Venice in the Adriatic, were becoming important maritime powers in this century; Salerno was to join them later. The disintegration of the political system of the 8th century was pushed further by the Arabs, who conquered Sicily from the Byzantines after 827 and established bases such as Bari on the coasts of the Italian mainland from the 840s. Gaeta and Amalfi probably owed much of their naval activity and early commercial development to alliances with the Arabs; but others found the Arabs a rather serious danger, notably Bari’s neighbours in Puglia and the great monasteries inland from Capua—Montecassino and San Vincenzo al Volturno, which were sacked in 883 and 881, respectively.
It was this confused world that Louis II wished to dominate in his great expedition of 867–871, but he failed. More successful was the Byzantine emperor Basil I (867–886), who followed up his blockade of Bari with a set of campaigns that aimed at taking the whole southern mainland from the Lombard princes. Shortly after his death, the latter were pushed out of the plains of Puglia, and by 900 only parts of the Capua-Salerno plain and of the south-central Apennines remained Lombard. In that year the count of Capua, Atenulf I, conquered Benevento, and the Lombard-Byzantine border stabilized. Capua-Benevento maintained a certain cohesion under a single dynasty until the 980s, its most notable prince being Pandulf I (Ironhead; 961–981).
After the departure of the Arabs (except from Sicily) and the straightening out of the political boundaries, the south was much more peaceful in the 10th century than it had been in the 9th. The Byzantines dominated the south through a local ruler, or catepan, who headed an administrative and fiscal system that was apparently more complex and stable than that of the exarchs had been. Culturally, the Byzantines were by now entirely Greek, and southern Calabria was, as already noted, Greek-speaking; in Puglia, however, the Italian-speaking Lombards dominated, and the Byzantines had to rule through them. They managed this effectively until a series of urban uprisings in 1009–18 brought more autonomy for the Puglian cities—as well as the first Norman mercenaries.
The Lombard states and the independent coastal cities were much weaker. They recognized some sort of Byzantine hegemony, except for the brief periods when the Ottonian emperors sent armies from the north. Their internal structures were less coherent than those of the territories under direct Byzantine rule. During the 10th century castles were built everywhere in southern Italy, just as in the Po plain; in the south (including the papal territories and the march of Spoleto), however, their social effect was in many areas more considerable than in the north, because the scattered population living in the territory of a castle tended to move, or be moved, inside its walls. This process, called in Italian incastellamento, created a network of fortified hilltop settlements, some of which still survive. The state could direct and control this process, as in the Byzantine lands, but in Lombard areas private landowners undertook it, which greatly extended their local control. The Lombard princes could not control this steady political localization, particularly in the mountains. They instead concentrated on the richer plains between Gaeta and Salerno. Unfortunately, in this small area there were by now six independent states—Gaeta, Capua, Benevento (when it regained independence in the 980s), Naples, Amalfi, and Salerno. They spent a great deal of time fighting each other after Pandulf I’s death in 981, and the Normans in the next century had little difficulty conquering them. The only local success story was international trade, which benefited all the coastal cities (Amalfi being the best known); their fleets had good relationships with Arabs, Byzantines, and Latin Christians and conveyed goods among all three. They dominated long-distance commerce in the western Mediterranean until the rise of the more militarily aggressive cities in the north—Genoa and Pisa—in the 11th century.