Buddhism
Founded by Siddharta Gautama, Buddhism developed into three major forms in the course of its more than 2,500-year history: Theravada (“Way of the Elders”), also called in derogation Hinayana (“Lesser Vehicle”); Mahayana (“Greater Vehicle”); and, stemming from it, Vajrayana (“Thunderbolt Vehicle”; also “Diamond Vehicle”). A belief in saints prevails in all three groups.
Theravada Buddhism, claiming strict adherence to the teachings of the Buddha, recognizes as saints (arhats) those who have attained nirvana (the state of bliss) and hence salvation from samsara (the compulsory circle of rebirth) by their own efforts. The Buddha himself—having obtained nirvana (“the destruction of greed,…hate,…and illusion”)—is viewed as the first Buddhist saint. Disciples of the Buddha who reached nirvana after him also are considered holy men. Furthermore, in early Buddhism there were also women regarded as holy, including Prajapati, the Buddha’s aunt and stepmother—whose repeated requests finally caused the Buddha to permit women to enter his order—and his wife Yashodhara.
Mahayana Buddhism, originating about the beginning of the Christian era, rejected the Theravada belief that only monks may attain salvation. In Mahayana belief there is a path to redemption for all people, irrespective of their social standing. Salvation and the way to redemption are conceived in terms more liberal than those of Theravada. Mahayana Buddhists believe in an otherworldly paradise that allows for personal existence and in which dwell heavenly buddhas (those who have attained nirvana in previous worlds) and bodhisattvas (“Buddhas-to-be”). The heavenly buddhas and bodhisattvas are believed to grant grace to sentient beings, so that salvation is no longer acquired by fleeing from the world and giving up worldly attachments but rather by faith (in the sense of trust) in the promise of a saviour deity. Thus, in Mahayana Buddhism the Buddhas and bodhisattvas are viewed as the holy ones, the saints, who in compassion attempt to aid others struggling for salvation. This concept is in striking contrast to the arhats of Theravada Buddhism, who follow the dying Buddha’s last words, “Seek your own salvation with diligence.” The basic altruistic concept of Mahayana then is that of the helping bodhisattva. Everyone should strive for this ideal in order to save as many fellow men as possible as a bodhisattva and to bring them into the “Greater Vehicle” (Mahayana). Hence, the idea of faith in benevolent saints gains prominence in Mahayana Buddhism as a theistic religion of salvation. In Japanese Mahayana there are patron saints, such as Shōtoku Taishi, the regent who supported the development of Buddhism in his country about 600 ce, after it had been introduced in 552.
Vajrayana Buddhism, embodying, among other views, Tantrism (a system of magical and esoteric practices), is mainly represented by Tibetan Buddhism. In addition to the innumerable saints of Mahayana Buddhism, Tibetan Buddhism also accepts as living saints those who are regarded as incarnations (tulkus) of saints, scholars of the past, deities, or demons. The Dalai Lamas, heads of the Tibetan hierarchy, are viewed as reincarnations of Chen-re-zi (the bodhisattva of mercy, Avalokiteshvara).
Jainism
According to Jain teaching, there were 23 Tirthankaras (saintly prophets or proclaimers of salvation) before Mahavira Vardhamana, the 6th-century-bce Indian religious leader after whom Jainism was named. Today they are venerated as saints in temples containing their images. Veneration of the Holy Tirthankaras is viewed in terms of purifying the devotee morally, as these saints are but examples for the Jainas and not actually objects of a cult.
Hinduism
Hinduism encompasses the religious and cultural worlds of India, including not only the ancient Vedic religion but also various regional traditions. Hindu ascetics have always been revered by the masses as sadhus (saints, or “good ones”) and yogis (ascetic practitioners), and the concept of the avatara (the idea of the incarnation of a divine being in human form) has served to interpret the existence of holy ones. By means of this concept it was, and still is, possible to consider living and dead saints as incarnations of a deity and also to incorporate saints of other religions into the Hindu world of belief. Thus, the Buddha, for instance, is regarded by some as an avatara of the god Vishnu, and the Hindu saint Ramakrishna is considered to be an avatara of the god Shiva.
Saints in Western religions
Ancient Greek religion
The ancient heroes of Greek religion may be regarded as saints. One basis for belief in heroes and the hero cult was the idea that the mighty dead continued to live and to be active as spiritual powers from the sites of their graves. Another source of the cult of heroes was the conception that gods were often lowered to the status of heroes. One of the best-known heroes is Heracles, who became famous through his mighty deeds. In Greek religion the numinous (spiritual) qualities of a person lay in such heroic deeds.
Zoroastrianism and Parsiism
Zoroastrianism includes the veneration of Fravashis—i.e., preexistent souls that are good by nature, gods and goddesses of individual families and clans, and physical elements. According to Zoroastrian belief, humans are caught up in a great cosmic struggle between the forces of good, led by Ahura Mazdā (“Wise Lord”), and the forces of evil, led by Angra Mainyu, or Ahriman, the Evil Spirit. In the battle between Asha (“Truth”) and Druj (“Lie”) the Fravashis may correspond to the saints of Roman Catholicism, who can be called upon for aid in times of trouble.